Faculty of Transport

School of Aeronautical Engineering

Module 2 Physics
 School of Aeronautical Engineering

Amendment and Annual Review Record

Annual Completed by Date
Amendment No Incorporated by Date Review
01 J Henn 01/08/12 2011 C Gibson 01 July 2011
2012 C Gibson 31/08/12
2013 C Gibson 13/05/13
2014 S Fowler 14 July 2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
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Forward Section 2.2 Mechanics

Introduction to Physics 7
The International System of Units 8 2.2.1 Statics 31
SI Base Units 8 Forces 31
Factors of Multiples & Sub – Multiples 9 Vectors and Scalars 33
Derived Units 9 Adding Forces 34
Moments and Couples and
Section 2.1 Matter Centre of Gravity 46
Moments 46
2.1.1 The Nature of Matter 12 Moments and Equilibrium 47
Introduction 12 Couple 51
The Hydrogen Atom 12 Centre of Gravity 51
The Structure of an Atom 13
Valency and the Periodic Table 14 Stress and Strain 59
Bonding 21 Stress 59
States of Matter 25 Strain 63
Changes between States 26 Mechanical Properties of Materials 66
Torsion 68
Further Properties of Matter 69

Pressure and Buoyancy in Liquids 74

Pressure 74
Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle 77

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2.2.2 Kinetics 81 2.2.3 Dynamics 115

Velocity Vectors 81 Mass, Force, Work, Power and Energy 115
Mass, Force and Inertia 115
Linear Movement 83 Work and Power 116
Kinematics 83 Energy 117
Equations of Linear Motion 85 Conservation of Energy 119

Rotational and Periodic Motion 94 Momentum and Impulse 125

Circular Motion 94 Momentum and Impulse 125
Centripetal Force 95 Newton’s Laws of Motion 126
Centrifugal Force 97 Conservation of Momentum 127
Periodic Motion 97
Gyroscopic Principles 131
Machines 104 Moment of Inertia 131
Velocity Ratio, Mechanical Advantage and Gyroscopes 132
Efficiency 104
Levers 105 Friction 139
Simple Machines 108 Frictional Forces 139
Forces on a Body on an Inclined Plane 142

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2.2.4 Fluid Dynamics 146 Section 2.3 Thermodynamics

Specific Gravity and Density 146
Relative Density 147 2.3.1 Temperature 164
Viscosity 149 Heat 165
Fluid Resistance 150 Heat Capacity 166
The Effects of Streamlining 152 Heat Transfer 167
The Compressibility of Fluids 154 Expansion and Contraction 169
Equation of Continuity 154
Pressure Head and Dynamic Pressure 156 2.3.2 The Laws of Thermodynamics 175
Bernoulli’s Formula 157 Introduction 175
Bernoulli’s Equation 158 0th Law of Thermodynamics 175
Thermodynamic Systems 175
First Law of Thermodynamics 177
Second Law of Thermodynamics 178
Third Law of Thermodynamics 180
Gases 180
Work Done by or on a Gas 183
Heat Engines 185
Engine Cycles 187
Heat Flow to Hotter Region 189
Definitions of Various Forms of Heat 192

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Section 2.4 Optics (Light) Section 2.5 Wave Motion and Sound

2.4.1 Nature of Light 198 2.5.1 Wave Motion 216

Introduction 216
2.4.2 Laws of Reflection and Refraction 201
Categories of Waves 217
Reflection 201 Transverse Wave 217
Plain Mirrors 201 Longitudinal Wave 218
Curved Mirrors 202 Sound Waves 219
Ray Diagram for Mirrors 202 Electromagnetic Waves 220
Concave and Convex Mirrors 203 Mechanical Waves 220
Parabolic Reflectors 205 The Anatomy of a Wave 221
Refraction 205 Frequency and Period of a Wave 223
Refractive Index 206 Interference Phenomena 225
Convex and Concave Lenses 207 Standing Waves 227
Ray Diagram for Lenses 207 Sound 229
Speed of Sound 230
Chapter 2.4.3: Fibre Optics 213 Intensity 231
Total Internal Reflection 213 Pitch 233
Fibre Optics 213 Doppler Effect 234
Some Consideration for Modern Fibre Optic
Communication Systems 214 References 240
Fibre Optic Imaging 215

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Forward Matter is the word used to describe what things or

Introduction to Physics objects are made of. Normally, matter can be in 3
states; solid, liquid or gaseous. Matter has dimensions
The study of physics is important because so much of
and is positioned in space and time.
life today consists of applying physical principles to
our needs. Most machines we use today require
Energy is that which causes things to happen.
knowledge of physics to understand their operation.
As an example, electrical energy causes an electric
Complete understanding of many of these principles
motor to turn, which can cause a weight to be moved,
requires a much deeper knowledge than required by
or lifted. Energy is the ability to do work.
the EASA and the PART66 syllabus for the licences.

The subject of physics has grown, and physical laws

A number of applications of physics are mentioned in
have become established, usually being expressed in
this chapter and, whenever you have learned one of
these, you will need to be aware of the many different terms of mathematical formula, and graphs. Physical
laws are based on the basic quantities - length, mass
places in aeronautics where the application is used.
and time, together with temperature and electrical
Thus you will find that the laws, formulae and
current. Physical laws also involve other quantities
calculations of physics are not just subjects for
which are derived from the basic quantities.
examination but the main principle on which aircraft
are flown and operated.
What units are these quantities measured in?
Physics is the study of what happens in the world
involving matter and energy.

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The International System of Units Which can be represented by:

Over the years, different nations have derived their m
m/s, m/s, , ms-1.
own units (e.g. inches, pounds, minutes or s
centimetres, grams and seconds). Acceleration is change of speed divided by time, so
the derived unit is:
Together with major metric countries Britain has m m
adapted the International System of Units known ( ) ÷ s = 2 metres per second per second m/s2
s s
worldwide as the S I Units. (Système International d' or ms-2.
Unit). The effect of this system is to introduce
standard units for many of the quantities for which a S I base units
multitude of units exist at present. Quantity Unit Symbol
The SI system is based on the metre (m), kilogram Length metre m
(kg) and second (s) system. Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
To understand what is meant by the term derived Electric Current Ampere A
quantities or units consider these examples: Thermodynamic Kelvin K
Temperature
Area is calculated by multiplying a length by another Plain Angles Radians Rad
length, so the derived unit of area is metre2 (m2). Luminous Intensity candela cd.
(i.e. brilliance)
Speed is calculated by dividing distance (length) by
time, so the derived unit is metre/second.

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Factors of Multiples & Sub - Multiples Notice that the letters (symbols) sometimes mean
different things “A” ampere, “a” acceleration.
Multiple Prefix Symbol
Some physical quantities have derived units which
109 Giga G become rather complicated, and so are replaced with
106 Mega M simple units created specifically to represent the
103 kilo k physical quantity.
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ For example, force is mass multiplied by acceleration,
10-9 nano n which is logically kg.m/s2 (kilogram metre per second
10-12 pico p per second). But this is replaced by the Newton (N).
There are others extending beyond this range both More Examples of Derived Units
greater and smaller.
Quantity Unit Symbol
Derived Units Force Newton (N) F (kg m/s2)
Quantity Unit Symbol Pressure Pascal (Pa) P (N/m2)
Energy Joule (J) E (Nm)
Area square metre A (m2) Work Joule (J) W (Nm)
Volume cubic metre V (m3 ) Power Watt (w) P (J/s)
Velocity metre per second v (m/s) Frequency Hertz (Hz) f (1/s)
Acceleration metre per second a (m/s2)
squared
Angular Velocity radian per second  (rad/s)
Angular radian per second  (rad/s2)
Acceleration squared

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Exercise 1
1. Physics is the study of: energy.
2. Normally how many states of matter are there?
3. What are these states?
4. Define Energy.
5. Write out some of the different types of energy
6. From the following list, what are the (a) base
units and what are (b) the derived units?
Also state the SI unit for each quantity.
mass, density, length, work, force, time,
frequency, momentum, electric current,
power, velocity, acceleration.

7. How many amperes are there in 256 mA?

8. How many watts are there in 25 kW?
9. How many Newtons are there in the following?
(a) 68 N, (b) 330 MN and (c) 49 GN
10. What is the SI Unit for density?

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Answers 6. (b) Derived Units

Exercise 1 density (kg/m3): work (Nm or joule)
1. Physics is the study of: matter and energy force (newton),
frequency (cycle/second or Hertz)
2. Number of states: Three power (joule/second or watt),
3. These are: solid, liquid and gas velocity (metre/second),
acceleration (metre/second2)
4. Energy Definition: momentum (kilogram metre/second)
Energy is that which causes things to
happen. 7. 256 mA = 256 x 10-3 amps = 0.256 amps
or
8. 25 kW = 25 x 103 watts = 25000 watts
is the ability to do work.
9. (a) 68 N = 68 x 10-6 N = 0.000068 N
5. Types of Energy:
potential energy, kinetic energy, (b) 330 MN = 330 x 106 N = 330000000 N
gravitational energy, light energy,
sound energy, electrical energy (c) 49 GN= 49 x 109 N = 49000000000 N
heat energy, chemical energy, 10. SI Unit for density = kg/m3
elastic energy, nuclear energy

6. (a) Base Units:

mass (kilogram); length (metre)
time (second); electric current (ampere)

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Section 2.1: Matter substance. All molecules of a particular substance are

exactly alike and unique to that substance.
Chapter 2.1.1: The Nature of Matter
Introduction The Hydrogen Atom
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space. All A hydrogen atom is very small indeed (about 10–10
matter is made up from extremely small, elementary m in diameter), but if it could be magnified sufficiently
building blocks known as atoms and molecules. it would be ‘seen’ to consist of a core or nucleus with
a particle called an electron travelling around it in an
Atoms are extremely small particles of matter but elliptical orbit.
they are themselves constructed of even smaller
sub-atomic particles – protons, neutrons and The hydrogen nucleus has a positive charge of
electrons. Physicists have discovered many more sub- electricity and the electron an equal negative charge;
atomic particles, which are beyond the scope of this thus the whole atom is electrically neutral and the
course. electrical attraction keeps the electron circling the
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that can nucleus.
take part in a chemical reaction.
The nucleus of an atom is something like 10000 times
Molecules consist of a collection of two or more smaller than the size of an atom. Therefore the
atoms, joined together chemically to give the hydrogen nucleus is about 10-15 m in diameter. If the
macroscopic properties of the material. nucleus is made the size of a golf ball then the
electron would be orbiting at a distance of 1
The molecule is the smallest unit of a substance that
kilometre.
exhibits the physical and chemical properties of the

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Sometimes the term nucleon, proton and neutron, is

The Structure of an Atom (Simplified Model)
used to describe the particles in a nucleus.
The Nucleus
At the centre of an atom is a very dense region called Electrons
the nucleus which is made up of protons and Electrons have an electric charge equal in magnitude
neutrons. to the charge of a proton but it is negative in value.
The mass of an electron is very much smaller than
The particles in the nucleus carrying a single 1
positive charge are called protons. that of a proton or neutron, being only of the
1836
mass of a proton. The electron orbits define the size or
Neutrons have the same mass as protons, however, volume occupied by the atom. The electrons travel in
they have NO charge. The neutron simply adds to orbits that are many times the diameter of the
the weight of the nucleus and hence the atom. There nucleus and hence the space occupied by an atom is
is no simple rule for determining the number of virtually empty! The electrical properties of the atom
neutrons in any atom. In fact atoms of the same kind are determined by how tightly the electrons are bound
can contain different numbers of neutrons. For by electrical attraction to the nucleus.
example chlorine may contain 18 – 20 neutrons in its
nucleus.
Atomic Number, Atomic Mass and Electron
The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are Shells
called isotopes. The weight of an atom is due to the
The number of protons in an atom defines the
protons and neutrons (the electrons are negligible in element or atom. The number of protons is called the
weight), thus the atomic weight is virtually equal to atomic number of an atom. The atomic mass of an
the sum of the protons and the neutrons. atom is the sum of the masses of the protons and
neutrons in the atom.

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A proton has a single positive charge whilst an It is important to note that the atoms are most stable
Electron has a single negative charge. Normally, when the shells are full. Hence Helium with an atomic
atoms are electrically neutral so that the number number of 2, and Neon with an atomic number of 10
of electrons is equal to the number of protons. both have their outer shell full. Conversely, Fluorine
with an atomic number of 9 needs one more electron
In more complex atoms, the electrons are "orbiting” to complete the shell and Sodium with an atomic
the nucleus in a series of discrete energy bands. number of 11, needs to lose 1 electron in its outer
Electrons in the energy bands or shells closest to the shell, so that its outermost shell is complete.
nucleus are tightly held by electrostatic attraction. In
Valency and the Periodic Table
the outermost shells they are held less tightly.
Valency can be simply defined as the number of
Hydrogen atoms that an element can combine with.
The electron shells are given Maximum
In the following tables, Helium, Neon and Argon have
letters. The table below has the Shell Number of
a valency of 0. They do not normally form
details we will use in this Electrons
compounds. Lithium, Sodium and Potassium have a
discussion.
K 2 valency of 1 because they combine with one
Note that the M and N shells Hydrogen atom. Now to Oxygen has six outer
can actually hold more L 8 electrons. Six is two short of a full shell. It’s normal
electrons in the larger atoms. valency is 2 and it combines with two atoms of
M 8 Hydrogen. Water is H2O!
The normal valency of an atom is equal to the number
N 8 of outer electrons if that number is four or less.
Otherwise, the valency is equal to 8 minus the
number of outer electrons.

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The tables below show the atomic masses, numbers and the electron shell configuration for the first 20 elements.
Atom Symbol Atomic mass Atomic Number K Shell L Shell M Shell N Shell Valence

Hydrogen H 1 1 1 1

Helium He 4 2 2 0

Lithium Li 6.9 3 2 1 1

Beryllium Be 9 4 2 2 2

Boron B 10.8 5 2 3 3

Carbon C 12 6 2 4 4

Nitrogen N 14 7 2 5 3

Oxygen O 16 8 2 6 2

Fluorine F 18 9 2 7 1

Neon Ne 20.2 10 2 8 0

It will be noted that the electron shells fill in a specific order. Note the value of the valence (Helium and Neon = 0)

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Atom Symbol Atomic mass Atomic Number K Shell L Shell M Shell N Shell Valence

Sodium Na 23 11 2 8 1 1

Magnesium Mg 24.3 12 2 8 2 2

Aluminium Al 27 13 2 8 3 3

Silicon Si 28.1 14 2 8 4 4

Phosphorus P 31 15 2 8 5 3

Sulphur S 32.1 16 2 8 6 2

Chlorine Cl 35.5 17 2 8 7 1

Argon Ar 39.9 18 2 8 8 0

Potassium K 39.1 19 2 8 8 1 1

Calcium Ca 40.1 20 2 8 8 2 2

It will be noted that the electron shells fill in a specific order. Note Argon has a valence of 0.

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Diagrammatically the electron shells can be represented

by the simplified model shown. Note the shells are three
dimensional.
In the information presented above it is assumed that
the M and N shells can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
in fact they can hold up to 18 electrons. In addition,
elements 21 to 30 have two incomplete shells.
(This table contains supplementary information)

Atomic Number K Shell L Shell M Shell N Shell

21 2 8 9 2
22 2 8 10 2
23 2 8 11 2
24 2 8 13 1
25 2 8 13 2
26 2 8 14 2
27 2 8 15 2
28 2 8 16 2
29 2 8 18 1
30 2 8 18 2

The details of all the elements are presented in the

Periodic Table.

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At present there are 112 elements reported and confirmed. Elements 113-115 have been reported, but have not
been confirmed. Each element has its own number of protons, neutrons and electrons, i.e. its own atomic number
and atomic mass.
The extract from the Periodic table below shows the first 36 elements:

1 Extract from the Periodic Table 2

H He
1.00 4
3 4 Atomic Number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Symbol B C N O F Ne
6.94 9 Atomic Mass 10.8 12 14 16 18 20.2
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.9 24.3 27 28.1 31 32.1 35.5 39.9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.1 40.1 45 47.9 50.9 52 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79 79.9 83.8

The beauty of the periodic table is that it presents the properties of the elements in a simplified and visual manner.

The rows of the table are called periods and they correspond to the shells, thus the first row corresponds to the
K shell. The second row to the L shell, the third to the M shell and the fourth to the N shell.

The columns correspond to elements that have the same number of outer or valence elements. Because of this
these groups or families have similar properties. The exceptions to this are the transition metals.

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Non Metals The Alkali Metals shown in the extract of the periodic
table are: Lithium, Sodium and Potassium.
Non-metals are not able to conduct electricity or heat
very well. As opposed to metals, non-metallic
Alkali Earths
elements are very brittle, and cannot be rolled into
wires or pounded into sheets. The non-metals exist in The alkaline earth elements are metallic elements
two of the three states of matter at room found in the second group of the periodic table.
temperature: gases (such as oxygen) and solids (such Alkaline earth elements are very reactive. Because of
as carbon). The non-metals have no metallic lustre, their reactivity, the alkaline metals are not found free
and do not reflect light. in nature.
The Non-Metal elements are: Hydrogen, Carbon, The Alkaline Earths shown in the extract of the
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulphur and Selenium. periodic table are: Beryllium, Magnesium and
Calcium.
Alkali Metals
The alkali metals are very reactive metals that do not Transition Metals
occur freely in nature. These metals have only one As with all metals, the transition elements are both
electron in their outer shell. Therefore, they are ready ductile and malleable, and conduct electricity and
to lose that one electron in ionic bonding with other heat. The interesting thing about transition metals is
elements. As with all metals, the alkali metals are that their valence electrons, or the electrons they use
malleable, ductile, and are good conductors of heat to combine with other elements, are present in more
and electricity. The alkali metals are softer than most than one shell. This is the reason why they often
other metals. Alkali metals can explode if they are exhibit several common oxidation states. There are
exposed to water. three noteworthy elements in the transition metals
family. These elements are iron, cobalt, and nickel,

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and they are the only elements known to produce a conditions. This property makes metalloids useful in
magnetic field. computers and calculators.
The Transition Metals shown in the extract of the The Metalloids shown in the extract of the periodic
periodic table are: Scandium, Titanium, Vanadium, table are: Boron, Silicon, Germanium and Arsenic.
Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, Copper
and Zinc. Halogens
The term "halogen" means "salt-former" and
Other Metals compounds containing halogens are called "salts". All
While these metals are ductile and malleable, they are halogens have 7 electrons in their outer shells, and
not the same as the transition metals. These metals, are hence very reactive.
unlike the transition metals, do not exhibit variable The Halogens shown in the extract of the periodic
oxidation states, and their valence electrons are only table are: Fluorine, Chlorine and Bromine.
present in their outer shell. All of these elements are
solid, have a relatively high density, and are opaque. Noble Gases
The "Other Metals" shown in the extract of the The noble gases were considered to be inert gases
periodic table are: Aluminium and Gallium. until the 1960's, because their valence number of 0
prevents the noble gases from forming compounds
Metalloids readily. All noble gases have the maximum number of
Metalloids have properties of both metals and non- electrons possible in their outer shell (2 for Helium, 8
metals. Some of the metalloids, such as silicon and for all others), making them stable.
germanium, are semi-conductors. This means that The noble gases shown in the extract of the periodic
they can carry an electrical charge under special table are: Helium, Neon and Argon.

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Bonding electrons. Atoms that are one electron short of a

full shell are more reactive than those that are two
All atoms within the elements try to return to their short.
lowest energy state, this is achieved if they can obtain
the noble gas configuration where the outermost shell Electrovalent or Ionic Bond
is either full or empty. When atoms bond together
they try and achieve the noble gas configuration. Let us look at the combination of the Lithium atom
(Li) with Fluorine (F) to form the compound Lithium
There essentially three types of primary bond: Fluoride (LiF). The drawing below shows the two
electrovalent or ionic, covalent and metallic. atoms before they react together.
Revision: Valency can be simply defined as the
number of Hydrogen atoms that an element can
combine with.
The normal valency of an atom is equal to the number
of outer electrons if that number is four or less.
Otherwise, the valency is equal to 8 minus the
number of outer electrons.

The atoms with a single outer electron or a single

missing electron are all highly reactive. Sodium (Na)
is more reactive than Magnesium (Mg). Chlorine (Cl)
is more reactive that Oxygen (O). Generally speaking,
the closer an atom is to having a full electron shell,
the more reactive it is. Atoms with one outer
electron are more reactive than those with two outer

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The Lithium has its single outer electron and the However, the Lithium atom has one too few
Fluorine has seven outer electrons, or a single negatively charged electrons to balance its positively
electron missing in its outer shell. charged protons in its nucleus. The Lithium atom now
has a net positive charge.
When these two atoms come together, it provides an
easy way for each to get a complete outer shell of The Fluorine atom now has one too many electrons. It
electrons. The single electron in the outer shell of the has a net negative charge.
Lithium atom jumps across and joins the seven
electrons in the outer shell of the Fluorine atom. Atoms that have charges are called ions. We have a
Lithium and Fluorine then have a complete outer shell positively charged Lithium ion and a negatively
of electrons. This is a more stable arrangement for charged Fluorine ion. These attract each other
each atom. because opposite charges attract. The resulting
compound is called Lithium Fluoride (LiF)

Similar compounds are Sodium Chloride (NaCl,

common salt) and Potassium Fluoride (KF). These
all involve the transfer of a single electron from one
atom to another.

Two electrons can also be transferred as in the

compounds Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) and
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2). In these compounds,
the outer two electrons of the Calcium or Magnesium
are transferred to two Fluorine or Chlorine atoms. In
compounds like Sodium Sulphide (Na2S) or
Potassium Oxide (K2O), two atoms of Sodium or

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Potassium each transfer their single outer electrons to

the one atom of Sulphur or Oxygen.

Compounds like these are held together by

Electrovalent or Ionic bonds. They tend to be
crystalline solids with high melting points. They are
usually soluble in water and the solution conducts
electricity because the ions can move easily in
solution.

Covalent Bond
In covalent bonded materials electrons are shared
among two or more atoms. This sharing is arranged in
such away that each atom has its outer shell filled.
Water (H2O) is made up of two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen.

In the example of H2O the oxygen atom has six

electrons in the outer or valence shell (L shell). As
there is room for eight electrons, one oxygen atom
can combine with two hydrogen atoms by sharing the
single electron from each hydrogen atom (K shell).

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Molecules are discrete entities which have strong

bonds between the atoms. The molecules themselves
only stick together loosely.
These types of compounds tend to have low melting
points. H2O (water) is a liquid at room temperature.
They tend not to conduct electricity.

Other examples of Covalent compounds are Carbon

Dioxide (CO2 - each Oxygen atom shares two
electrons with the Carbon atom) and Ammonia (NH3
- each Hydrogen atom shares its electron with the
Nitrogen atom). Both of these are gases at room
temperature.

Metallic Bond
In this case, the metallic elements give up their Molecules
valence electrons in a “sea of electrons” which When atoms bond together they form molecules.
surrounds the nuclei of the atoms. In giving up their Generally there are two types of molecules. Those
electrons, the metallic elements become positive ions molecules that consist of a single type of atom, for
held together by the mutual attraction of the example the hydrogen normally exists as a molecule
surrounding electrons. of two atoms of hydrogen joined together and has the
chemical symbol H2. A molecule that consists of a
single element is called a monatomic molecule. All
other molecules are made up of two or more types of
atoms and are known as chemical compounds.

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States of Matter
All atoms and molecules in matter are constantly in
motion. This motion is caused by the heat energy in
the material. This heat energy is often referred to as
the internal energy of the atom or molecule.

The existence of the three states of matter is due to

the struggle between the inter-atomic or inter-
molecular binding forces and the motion that these
atoms or molecules have because of their own
internal or heat energy.

Solid: A solid has definite mass, volume and shape.

The kinetic theory states that in solids the molecules
are close together and the attractive and repulsive
forces between neighbouring molecules balance: the
molecules vibrate about a fixed position.

We have discussed the forces of attraction that keep

molecules together. However, there are also forces of
repulsion. It has been shown that for distances
greater than 1 atomic diameter the forces of
attraction dominate, whilst for very small separation
distances the reverse is true.

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From the diagram, it can be seen that there is one Changes between States
value of separation, d0, where the resultant inter- In general it is possible for matter that exists in one
atomic force is zero. This is the situation that exists in state to be changed into either of the other two
solids. The atoms and molecules vibrate about this states, but how can this be done?
distance.
Well, ice, water and water vapour are different forms
Liquid: A liquid has definite mass and volume of one type of matter, i.e. H2O molecules. The
but takes the shape of its container. obvious difference in each of these states is the
temperature and it is this that determines which of
The molecules in a liquid are slightly farther apart the three states matter will take.
than in a solid but close enough together to have a
definite volume. As well as vibrating they are free to Any increase in the temperature of a solid substance
move over short distances in all directions. will increase the energy of its molecules. The
increased energy enables the molecules to overcome
Gas: A gas has definite mass but takes each other's attractive forces, until eventually they
the volume and shape of its container. are able to move freely as in a liquid.
The molecules in a gas are much farther apart in a Further increases in temperature give the molecules
gas than in solids or liquids. They dash around at even more energy; eventually they are able to leave
very high speeds in the space available to them and it the surface of the liquid in the form of a gas.
is only when they impact on the walls of their The opposite is true if we take a gas and reduce its
container that the molecular forces are seen to act. temperature. In this case the reduced temperature
robs the molecules of some of their energy causing
Note: A physical state refers to the condition of a them to first slow down and form a liquid and finally
compound and has no affect on a compound's to become trapped by the attractive forces of
chemical structure. neighbouring molecules and forming a solid.

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Exercise 2 8. Mass of a neutron = … x proton mass

1. The smallest particle of matter that can take part 9. Mass of an electron = … x proton mass.
in chemical reaction is: …

2. The smallest unit of a substance that exhibits the 10. The atomic number if an atom is calculated by
physical and chemical properties of the substance is: the number of: …
…
11. The atomic weight (or mass) of an atom is
3. The nucleus of an atom usually consists of: calculated by total number of: …
Positively charged particles called: …
and electrically neutral particles called: … 12. Atoms can contain different numbers of neutrons.
4. Negatively charged particles that “orbit” the The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are
nucleus are: … called …
5. The magnitude of the electric charge of the 13. A molecule that consists of atoms from a single
protons and electrons are: … element is called a …
6. Atoms are electrically neutral and therefore they 14. A molecule that is made up of atoms from
have the same number of: … different elements is known as a: …
7. The electron orbit defines the … 15. Atoms are most stable when outer or valence
of the atom. shells are: …

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16. What is the valency of the following elements? 17. Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K)
belong to the family: … and have a
Symbol K Shell L Shell M Shell N Shell Valence
valency of: ….
He 2 …
Properties:
Li 2 1 … They are …
O 2 6 … They are … than other metals.
Explode if …
F 2 7 …
18. Helium (He), Neon (N) and Argon (Ar) belong to
Al 2 8 3 …
the family: … and have a valency
Si 2 8 4 … of: ….
Properties:
P 2 8 5 …
They are …
S 2 8 6 …
19. When atoms bond together they try and achieve:
…
Cl 2 8 7 …
20. There are essentially three types of primary bond:
Ca 2 8 8 2 …
…

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Answers 16.
Exercise 2 Valence

1. the atom. 0
2. the molecule.
1
3. protons and neutrons.
4. electrons 2

5. the same. 1
6. electrons and protons.
3
7. size or volume of the atom.
8. 1 x proton mass 4
1
9. x proton mass. 3
1836
10. number of protons . 2
11. number of: nucleons (protons and neutrons).
1
12. isotopes.
13. A monatomic molecule. 2
14. A chemical compound.
15. full or empty.

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17. Family: alkali metals and have a valency of: 1.

Properties:
They are very reactive.
They are softer than other metals.
Explode if exposed to water.

18. Family: noble gases and have a valency of: 0.

Properties:
They are inert.

19. The noble gas configuration.

20. Electrovalent or ionic, covalent and metallic.

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Section 2.2: Mechanics W and pushed back upwards by a force R due to the
table supporting it. Since the object is stationary the
Chapter 2.2.1: Statics forces must be in balance, i.e. R = W.
Forces
If a Force is applied to a body it will cause that body
to move in the direction of the applied force, a force
has both magnitude (size) and direction.

Friction and air resistances are the forces that cause

an object to come to rest when the force causing the
movement stops being applied, as shown above.

Normally more than one force acts on an object. An

object resting on a table is pulled down by its weight

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change of motion, i.e. the body accelerates or

decelerates. This is known as Newton’s Second
Law of motion:
Force = mass times acceleration
In symbols:
F=mxa
Where:
F = Force applied to the object (N)
m = Mass of the object (kg)
a = acceleration of the object (m/s2)

If frictional forces were absent, then an object, once The Newton

set in motion would continue to move with constant The unit of Force is the Newton. One Newton is
speed in a straight line as shown above. This is defined as the force which gives a mass of 1 kg an
summarised by Newton’s First Law of Motion: acceleration (or deceleration) of 1 m/s2,
A body stays at rest, or if moving it continues to i.e. 1 N = 1 kg m/s2.
move with constant speed in a straight line,
unless an (unbalanced) external forces acts Note. If the forces applied to an object are in balance
upon it. and so there is no change in motion there may be a
change in shape. In that case internal forces in the
If the forces acting on an object are not in balance, object (i.e. forces between neighbouring atoms)
i.e. there is a net (resultant) force, they cause a balance the external forces. This is important when
analysing the behaviour of materials.

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Example 1 Vectors and Scalars

If an object of mass 12 kg accelerates at 5 m/s2 then Scalars
the force is given by: Quantities are thought of as being either scalar or
F=mxa vector. The term scalar means that the quantity
F = 12 x 5 = 60 N possesses magnitude ONLY and examples include:
mass, time, temperature, length etc.
If the force is 8 N and the mass of an object is 500 g.
What is the acceleration? These quantities may only be represented graphically
to some form of scale:
Rearranging F = m x a, to make the acceleration, a,
the subject gives:
F
a=
m Temperature Scale, 10 mm = 2oC.
When using F = m x a, the Force, F, is in Newtons, the
mass, m, is in kilograms and the acceleration, a, is in Vectors
metres per second per second. Thus we must change Vector quantities possess both magnitude AND
500 gm into 0.5 kg. direction, and if either change the vector quantity
F 8 changes. Vector quantities include force, velocity and
Hence a = = = 16 m/s2 any quantity formed from these.
m 0.5

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A force is a vector quantity, and as such possesses

magnitude and direction. The most convenient method
is to represent the force by means of a vector diagram
as shown below.

Resultant of Forces in a Straight Line

Vector Diagram Representing a Force
If the forces do not act in a straight line then they can
be added together using the ‘parallelogram law’.
Adding Forces
Two or more forces may act upon the same point so If two forces acting at a point are represented in the
producing a resultant force. size and direction by the sides of a parallelogram
drawn from the point, their resultant is represented in
If the forces act in the same straight line the resultant size and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
is found by simple subtraction or addition, as shown in drawn from the point.
the graphic at the top of the next column.

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Note: The directions (angles) of the vectors are

obtained from the real world (Space Diagram). The
lengths of the vectors in the vector diagram are
obtained from the magnitude of the vectors.

Example 2
Find the resultant of two forces of 4.0 N and 5.0 N
acting at an angle of 45o to each other.

Two spring balances, P and Q, are use to exert an Using a scale of 1.0 cm = 1.0 N, draw parallelogram
angular pull on a point O. The actual force exerted on ABCD with AB = 5.0 cm, AC = 4.0 N and
O, the resultant, is equal in size and direction to the angle CAB = 45o, as shown below:
diagonal of the parallelogram formed from P and Q,
where the length of P and Q represent the strength of
the force applied.
The magnitude of the resultant
force, R, can be derived either
graphically or mathematically.

To use the graphical method will

By the parallelogram law, the diagonal AD represents
require a scale drawing of forces the resultant in magnitude and direction; it measures
in question. 8.3 cm and angle BAD = 20o. Therefore the resultant
is a force of 8.3 N acting at an angle of 20o to the
force of 5.0 N. Angle CAD is 25o.

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Triangle of Forces
Considering the diagram on the previous page it can
be seen that CD = AB. It is therefore possible to find
the resultant to our two forces by drawing a triangle
of forces, using the known forces as two sides and the
resultant as the third.

Example 3

Triangle of Forces

Equilibrium
Equilibrant The resultant shown above makes an angle of 20o
If a third force, equal in length but opposite in from the positive x-axis. The Equilibrant shown in the
direction to the resultant is added to the resultant, it above diagram has a magnitude of 8.3 N at an angle
will cancel the effect of the two forces. This third of 20o + 180o = 200o from the positive x-axis.
force would be termed the Equilibrant.

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Polygon of Forces

Mathematical Solution
If three or more forces are acting on a point then the
overall resultant may be determined by firstly
applying the parallelogram law to two of the forces, F1
and F2 below produce R1. The next force, F3, is then
combined with the first resultant, R1, to produce a
“new” resultant R2, thus producing a polygon of
forces. This procedure can be repeated any number
of times in any order. A single force can be seen to consist of a horizontal
component and a vertical component, which are at
However a simpler graphical way: Draw the first right angles to each other.
vector (it doesn’t matter which one) and then draw If the angle between the vector of the force and the
the second starting on the tip of the first, the third horizontal component is  then, trigonometry tells us
vector is drawn from the tip of the second vector. The that:
resultant is from the start of the first vector to the end
The vertical component = Force x sin 
of the last (in this case third) vector.
The horizontal component = Force x cos 

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Use the acronym SOHCAHTOA to work out the Take any point P on the boundary line OB. From P
correct relationships between the force, F the angle  draw line PM perpendicular to OA to meet it at the
and the vertical and horizontal components of the point M. Then:
force.
MP
The ratio is called the sine of AOB
Opposite OP
Sin = SOH
Hypotenuse
OM
Adjacent The ratio is called the cosine of AOB
Cos = CAH OP
Hypotenuse
MP
Opposite The ratio is called the tangent of AOB .
Tan = TOA OM
Adjacent
Consider any angle  which is bounded by the lines OA Example 4
and OB as shown.

The each of the vectors F1, F2 and F3 can be resolved

into two components:
F1 in direction 1, gives F1 sin 1, and F1 cos 1
F2 in direction 2, gives F2 sin 2, and F2 cos 2
F3 in direction 3, gives F3 sin 3, and F3 cos 3

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In this case the sine components are vertical and the Note:
cosine components are horizontal. For a complicated series of vectors it is possible that
an ambiguity may arise in the direction of the
Once all the forces have been resolved their resultant, this can be resolved by inspection of the
components can then be added together to give the sign of the sine and cosine of R.
sine and cosine components of the resultant.

Where:
FR sin R = F1 sin 1 + F2 sin 2 + F3 sin 3

FR cos R = F1 cos 1 + F2 cos 2 + F3 cos 3

FR =  (FR sin R)2 + (FR cos R)2

-1
R = tan (sin R/cos R)

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Components of resultant FR :
Example 5
Vertical component =0+4+3=7N
Three forces acting on a mass:
Horizontal component = 4 + 3 + 0 = 7 N
FR =  72 + 72 =  49 + 49 =  98 = 9.9 N
-1
R = tan 7/7 = 45o

First resolve each force into its vertical and horizontal

components.
Components of force F1:
Vertical component =0
Horizontal component = 4 N
Components of force F2:
Vertical component = 5 x sin 53o = 4 N
Horizontal component = 5 x cos 53o = 3 N
Components of force F3:
Vertical component =3N
Horizontal component = 0

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Exercise 3 3. Write out in Newton’s second law of motion

1. Write Newton’s first law of motion. 3a. In words
3b. In symbols
2. Consider the following diagram More than one
force is acting on the object. 4. What are the units used:
4a. For mass, m?
4b. For force, F?
4c. For acceleration, a?

5. Write the definition for a Newton.

6. What is a scalar?
7. Give some examples of scalars.
8. What is a vector?
9. Is force a vector quantity? Give reasons for your
answer.

2a. The forces are in …………….

2b. What is the relationship between
W and R?

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10. Determine the 12. Calculate the resultant force required to give a
magnitudes of the body of mass 6 kg an acceleration of 1.8 m/s2.
unknown forces X 13. Calculate the acceleration produced on a body of
and Y if the body mass 3.5 kg by a resultant force of 14 N
shown is at rest. The
force values are in 14. Which law can be used to add two forces that do
Newtons. not act in a straight line?

15. If two forces P and

Q act at a point as
shown in the diagram.
Show the resultant.
11. Determine the
magnitudes of the
unknown forces X
and Y if the body
shown is moving 16. What is the relationship between the resultant and
with a constant the equilibrant?
velocity v in the
direction shown. The
force values are in
Newtons.

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17. If two forces AC and CD act as shown, draw the 20. A mass having a weight of 500 N is suspended by
equilibrant. two ropes as shown in the diagram below. What is the
tension in each rope?

21. Calculate the force required to give a mass of 6

18. Explain/define SOHCAHTOA
kg an acceleration of 2 m/s2.
19. In the diagram below, F = 10 N and  = 40o. What
22. Calculate the acceleration produced on a body of
are the values of the vertical and horizontal
mass 1.5 kg by a resultant force of 15 N.
components?
23. Calculate the mass if the force = 10N and
acceleration = 5 m/s2.

24. Calculate the acceleration if a force of 0.5 N acts

on a mass of 10g

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Answers 9. Yes, as it has a magnitude and acts in a

direction.
Exercise 3
1. A body stays at rest, or if moving it continues 10. X = 63N, Y = 54 N
to move with constant speed in a straight line,
unless an external forces acts upon it 11. X = 58 N, Y = 32 N

2a. Balance 12. 10.8N

2b. W = R
13. 4 m/s2
3a. Force = mass x acceleration
3b. F = m x a 14. Parallelogram Law
4a. kilogram or (kg)
4b. F Newton (N) 15. The resultant
4c. metre/second/second (m/s2 or ms-2)
5. One Newton is defined as the force which
gives a mass of 1 kg an acceleration (or
deceleration) of 1 m/s2, i.e. 1 N = 1 kg m/s2.

6. A quantity that possesses magnitude only.

7. temperature, speed, length, mass 16. The equilibrant is equal in magnitude to the
8. Vector quantities possess both magnitude resultant but acts in the opposite direction.
and direction.

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17 24. 50 m/s2

18. SOH sine = opposite / hypotenuse

CAH cosine = adjacent / hypotenuse
TOA tan = opposite / adjacent

19. Vertical component = 6.43 N

Horizontal Component = 7.66 N

20. 500 N

21. 12 N

22. 10 m/s2

23. 2 kg

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Moments, Couples and Centre of Gravity Moment = force x perpendicular distance

Moments
It has already been stated that if a force were applied
to a body, it would cause the body to move
(accelerate) in the direction of the applied force.
What if the body cannot move in a straight line,
suppose that it is free to rotate about some point?
The applied force will then cause a rotation. An
example is a door. A force applied to the door cause
it to open or close, rotating about the hinge.

What is important to realise, is that the force required

to move the door is dependent on how far from the
hinge the force is applied. Similarly it is easier to
loosen a nut with a long spanner than a short one.
So the turning effect of a force is a combination of
Moment = F x d
the magnitude of the force and its distance from the
point of rotation (pivot or fulcrum).
SI unit of moment
It is measured by multiplying the force by its Moment = force x distance = Newton x metres
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the Newton metres = N m
force from the fulcrum. The turning effect is termed
the Moment of a Force.

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In the example shown:

Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
CWM = ACWM
5x3=5x3

Example 6
In the following diagram:
In the diagram above a force of 5 N is applied at a ds = 5 m, Fs= ?, d1 = 2 m, F1 = 5 N,
distance of 3 m from the fulcrum, therefore: d2 = 10 m and F2 = 8 N
Moment =5Nx3m
= 15 N m

Moments and Equilibrium

Equilibrium concerns not just the forces, but moments
as well. If equilibrium exists, then clockwise (positive)
The beam is in equilibrium. Find the value of Fs.
moments are balanced by anticlockwise (negative)
moments. Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
F1 x d1 + F2 x d2 = Fs x ds
F1 x d1 + F2 x d2 5 x 2 + 8 x 10
Therefore Fs = =
ds 5
90
Fs = = 18 N
5

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Note that when considering an equilibrium system, the component along the beam, Fs cos , acts through the
rearrangement of equation results in a ratio. In the fulcrum, therefore it has zero turning moment. Thus
simple case of: we need only consider the component perpendicular
F1 x d1 = F2 x d2 to the beam, Fs sin .

F2 x d2 F2 x d2
F1 = and d1 =
d1 F1

Thus as long as the units or both sides of the equation

are consistent, they can be different from Newtons
and metres. For instance, the distances could be in
millimetres or centimetres. The forces could be in
kilonewtons (kN).
Find the value of F1.
In fact, this equation is used as a mass balance
equation. Mass is used instead of weight (Force). If ds = 5 m, Fs= 10 N,  = 60o, d1 = 10 m, F1 = ?
Example 7 Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
Suppose the force does not act at right angles to a F1 x d1 = Fs sin  x ds
beam. Fs sin  x ds 10 x sin  x 5 43.3
Thus, F1 = = = N
d1 10 10
Let us assume that the system is in equilibrium. The
first step in the solution would be to resolve the force F1 = 4.33 N
Fs into components perpendicular to the beam,
Fs sin  and along the beam, Fs cos . Now the

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Example 8 Resultant Moment Calculation

Where more than one force acts on a body, the total The force of 10 N tends to rotate the lever clockwise,
turning effect is the algebraic sum of the moments of whereas the other two forces tend to rotate the lever
the forces. For example, suppose it is necessary to anti-clockwise. Clearly, the 10 N force is in opposition
calculate the resultant moment of a pivot acting on a to the other two and must therefore and must
bell crank lever, refer to diagram below. therefore have the opposite sign.

AO = 100 mm Total moment about ‘O’

OC = 20 mm = - (AO x 3sin60) - 5 x OC + OB x 10sin60
BC = 20 mm
= -0.100 x 3sin60 - 5 x 0.02 + 0.04 x 10sin60

= -0.2598 - 0.100 + 0.3464 = -0.3598 + 0.3464

= -0.0134 N m in an anti-clockwise sense

Note that the direction as well as the magnitude of the

total moment is given, and that the unit of a moment
is the product of the unit of force, the Newton (N) and
the unit of length, the metre (m).

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Resultant Moment Calculation

Example 8 Alternative
The force of 10 N tends to rotate the lever clockwise,
Where more than one force acts on a body, the total
whereas the other two forces tend to rotate the lever
turning effect is the algebraic sum of the moments of
anti-clockwise. Clearly, the 10 N force is in opposition
the forces. For example, suppose it is necessary to
to the other two and must therefore have the opposite
calculate the resultant moment of a pivot acting on a
sign.
bell crank lever, refer to diagram below.
Total moment about ‘O’
AO = 100 mm
OC = 20 mm = -3 (AO cos 30) - 5 (OC) + 10 (OB sin 60)
BC = 20 mm
= -3 (0.100 cos 30) - 5 (0.02) + 10 (0.04 sin 60)

= -0.2598 - 0.100 + 0.3464 = -0.3598 + 0.3464

= -0.0134 N m in an anti-clockwise sense

Note that the direction as well as the magnitude of the

total moment is given, and that the unit of a moment
is the product of the unit of force, the Newton (N) and
the unit of length, the metre (m).

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Couple
When two equal but opposite forces are present,
whose lines of action are not coincident, then they
cause a rotation.

Together, they are termed a Couple, and the

moment of a couple is equal to the magnitude of a The diagram shows that the individual forces all act in
force F, multiplied by the distance between them. the same direction, but have different lines of action.

Centre of Gravity
Consider a body as an accumulation of many small
masses (molecules), all subject to gravitational
attraction. The total weight, which is a force, is equal
to the sum of the individual masses, multiplied by the
gravitational acceleration (g = 9.81 m/s2).
W = mg

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and no volume. The point G is then termed a

centroid. If a lamina is suspended from a point P1,
the centroid G will hang vertically below ‘P1’. If
suspended from P2, G will hang below P2. The weight
acts through two lines of action, W1 and W2 and these
intercept at point G, which is termed the Centre of
Gravity (c of g or CG). The centroid is the centre of
gravity of a 2 dimensional body.

The Centre of Gravity is the point through which the

total mass of the body may be considered to act.

Clockwise moments = anti clockwise moments

There must be datum position, such that the total
moment to one side, causing a clockwise rotation, is
balanced by a total moment, on the other side, which
causes an anticlockwise rotation. In other words, the
total weight can be considered to act through that
datum position.

Centroid
A 2-dimensional body (one of negligible thickness) is
termed a lamina. Therefore the body has area only

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A regular lamina, such as a rectangle, has its centre of the sum of these moments to the moment of the
gravity at the intersection of the diagonals. composite lamina.

A triangle has its centre of gravity at the intersection

of the medians, i.e. at the midpoint of each side, and
is 1/3 of the perpendicular height up from the base.

Expressed as an algebraic formula,

W1 X1 + W2 X2 + W3 X3 = (W1 + W2 + W3) x X
Where X is the distance from the datum to the
centroid.
If a lamina is irregular in shape but can be shown to
be composed of a several regular shapes, the centre W1 X1 + W2 X2 + W3 X3
 X=
of gravity of the lamina can be deduced by splitting it W1 + W2 + W3
into its regular sections, calculating the moments of This is the principle behind Weight and Balance
these areas about a given datum, and then equating calculations for aircraft.

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For a 3-dimensional body, the centre of gravity can be If an aircraft is correctly loaded, with fuel, crew and
determined practically by several methods, such as by passengers, baggage, etc. in the correct places, the
measuring and equating moments. This is done when aircraft will be in balance and easy to fly. If, for
calculating Weight and Balance of aircraft. example, the baggage has been loaded incorrectly,
making the aircraft much too nose or tail heavy, the
As already stated the centre of gravity of a solid aircraft could be difficult to fly or might even crash.
object is the point about which the total weight It is important that whenever changes are made to an
appears to act. Or, put another way, if the object is aircraft, calculations MUST be made each time to
balanced at that point, it will have no tendency to ensure that the centre of gravity is within acceptable
rotate. In the case of hollow or irregular shaped limits set by the manufacturer of the aircraft. These
objects, it is possible for the centre of gravity to be in changes could be as simple as a new coat of paint, or
free space and not within the objects at all. The most as complicated as the conversion from passenger to a
important application of centre of gravity for aircraft freight- carrying role.
mechanics is the weight and balance of an aircraft.

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Example 9 mc = 300 kg xc = 3 m, product = 900 kg m

me = 6000 kg xe = 10 m, product = 60000 kg m
Consider the following diagram of an aircraft showing
mw = 2000 kg xw = 12 m, product = 24000 kg m
the centre of gravities of various components.
mf = 10000 kg xf = 15 m, product = 150000 kg m
mt = 700 kg xt = 30 m, product = 21000 kg m

Sum of the moments of the masses

X=
Total mass
mc x xc + me x xe + mw x xw + mf x xf + mt x xt
X=
mc + me + mw + mf + mt
900 + 60000 + 24000 + 150000 + 21000
X=
300 + 6000+ 2000 + 10000 + 700

255900
X= = 13.47 m
19000

Thus the Centre of Gravity of the aircraft is 13.47 m

from the datum, between the CG for the wing and the
CG for the fuselage.

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Exercise 4 4. The moment of a couple is given by?

1. The moment of a force about a fulcrum or pivot is
measured by: 5. In the following diagram:
ds = ?, Fs= 12 N, d1 = 2 m, F1 = 6 N,
2. Label the diagram to d2 = 12 m and F2 = 6 N
define the “line of action
of the force”, the “90o
angle” and the
“perpendicular distance
d”.

The beam is in equilibrium. Find the value of ds.

6. The following list shows the masses and distances

from a datum, of various components of a light
3. What is the moment of aircraft. Calculate the position of the aircraft’s CG.
the force, F, about the Engine, me = 1500 kg, de = 2 m.
pivot “O”? Cockpit, mc = 700 kg, dc = 4 m.
Fuselage and wing, mf&w = 1800 kg, df&w = 7 m.
Tail assembly, mt = 1000 kg, dt = 11.6 m.

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7. A box of mass 1000 kg is placed 3 metres in front

of the CG of an aircraft, and another box of mass
2000 kg is placed 2 metres aft of the CG. Where
should a third box of mass 500 kg be placed so as not
to alter the position of the CG?

8. Find the resultant moment of the forces shown in

the diagram below:

Cos 53o 8’= 0.6; sin 53o 8’ = 0.8

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Answers
Exercise 4 4. The moment of a couple =
1. Multiplying the force by its perpendicular magnitude of a force, F, multiplied by the
distance of the line of action of the force from distance between them.
the fulcrum. 5. 7 m
2. 6. (m x d)
= 1500 x 2 + 700 x 4 + 1800 x 7 +1000 x 11.6
= 30000 kg m
m = 1500 + 700 + 1800 + 1000 = 5000 kg
dcg = (m x d) / m = 30000/5000 = 6 m
7. Box 1 and box 2 create a combined moment of:
-1000 x 3 + 2000 x 2 = + 1000 Nm (CWM)
The system is in equilibrium, thus box 3 will have to
produce an anticlockwise moment of 1000 Nm. Thus
500 x X = -1000 Nm. Thus X is 2 m in front of the
CG to give an anticlockwise moment.
8. CWM = 10 x 4 = 40 Nm
ACWM = 5 x 11 x sin53o8’ = 5 x 11 x 0.8 = 44 Nm

3. The moment about O = Fperp x d = F sin x d Thus the resultant is 4 Nm anticlockwise.

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Stress and Strain 1 Pa = 1 N m-2

Stress This is a very small unit often the stress is measured
in MPa (106 Pa) or GPa (109 Pa).
When an engineer designs a component or structure
he needs to know whether it is strong enough to If we are looking at wires and other small
prevent failure due to the loads encountered in components, then it is more appropriate to measure
service. He analyses the external forces and then the cross section in mm2 rather than m2.
deduces the forces or stresses that are induced
internally. Please note that 1 N mm-2 is equivalent to
1 x 106 N m-2 = 1 MPa (1 mega Pascal)
Notice the introduction of the word stress. Obviously
a component that is twice the size is stronger and less Example 10
likely to fail due an applied load. So an important For example if an area of 5 m2 is loaded with a force
factor to consider is not just force, but size as well. of 25000 N then the area will be subjected to a
Hence stress, symbol, sigma , is load (force) divided stress of,
by cross sectional area taking the load(size).
Force in newtons 25000 N
= = = 5000 N m-2.
Externalforce force in newtons areain metre 2
5m 2
Stress = or
Area of applied force in metre2
Force in newtons F Components fail due to being over-stressed, not over-
 = = loaded by the force applied.
areain metre2 A

(Units = Newton metre-2, N m-2 or N/m2).

The SI unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa).

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Tension
Tension describes the force that tends to pull an
object apart. Flexible steel cable used in aircraft
control systems is an example of a component that is
in designed to withstand tension loads. Steel cable is
easily bent and has little opposition to other types of
stress, but when subjected to a purely tensile load it
performs exceptionally well.
The forces involved in a table tennis ball that is sealed
from atmospheric pressure.

So long as the external forces acting on the ball, i.e.

atmospheric pressure, do not exceed the internal
forces then the ball will maintain its shape.
A member of a structure in tension is known as a tie.
There are five different types of stress in mechanical
Compression
bodies.

1. Tension
2. Compression
Compression is the resistance to an external force that
3. Torsion tries to push an object together.
4. Bending A member of a structure in compression is known as a
5. Shear strut.

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Aircraft rivets are driven with a compressive force. compression stresses act at right angles to the tensile
When compression stress is applied to a rivet, the stress.
rivet firstly expands until it fills the hole and then the
external part of the shank spreads to form a second
head, which holds the sheets of metal tightly together.

An engine crankshaft is a component whose primary

stress is torsion. The pistons pushing down on the
connecting rods rotate the crankshaft against the
opposition, or resistance of the propeller. The
resulting stresses attempt to twist the crankshaft.
Torsion
A torsional stress is applied to a material when it is
twisted. Torsion is actually a combination of both
tension and compression. For example, when an
object is subjected to a torsional stress, tensile
stresses operate diagonally across the object whilst

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Bending
In flight, the force of lift tries to bend an aircraft's
wing upward. When this happens the skin on the top
of the wing is subjected to a compressive force, whilst
the skin below the wing is pulled by a tension force.
When the aircraft is on the ground the force of gravity Rivet in Single Shear
reverses the stresses. In this case the top of the wing
is subjected to tension stress whilst the lower skin Shear stress exists in a clevis bolt when it is used to
experiences compression stress. connect a cable to a stationary part of a structure.

Tensions on an Aircraft Wing in Flight

Shear
A fork fitting, such as drawn above, is fastened onto
The third stress that combines tension and one end of the cable, and an eye is fastened to the
compression is the shear stress, which tries to slide an
object apart.

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structure. The fork and eye are held together by a The strain is a ratio and therefore has no units. The
clevis bolt. units for the change in length and original length must
be the same.
When the cable is pulled there is a shearing action
that tries to slide the bolt apart. This is a special form Note for metals the change in length is very small and
of tensile stress inside the bolt caused by the fork in fact is usually measured in micro strain (10-6) S or
pulling in one direction and the eye pulling in the 
other.
Tensile Strain
Note in this example, twice the cross-sectional area is
experiencing the applied force. The rivet is in double
shear.

Strain
Stress is a force inside an object caused by an
external force. If the outside force is great enough to
cause the object to change its shape or size, the
object is not only under stress, but is also strained.

change in dimension
Strain  =
original dimension
change in length x
Direct strain  =
original length
=
L

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Example 11 x 0.5 mm
= = = 2.0 x 10-4 = 200 x 10-6
If a cable of 10 m length is loaded with a 100 kg L 2500 mm
weight so that it is stretched by 1.1 mm, what is the
strain placed on the cable? If a length of elastic is pulled, it stretches. If the pull
is increases, it stretches more; if the pull is reduced, it
Change 10 m to 10 x 103 mm contracts.
x 1.1 mm
= = = 1.1 x 10-4 = 110 x 10-6 Hooke's Law states that, within the elastic limits
L 10 x 103 mm
of the material, the amount of stretch
 = 110  (elongation) is proportional to the applied force.
Compressive Strain
An increase in weight
causes an extension.

Example 12
A 2.5 m rod is subjected to a compressive load so that The stiffness, k of the spring, is the force required to
its length changes by 0.05 cm. How much strain is give a certain extension. Units of k are Newtons per
the rod under when loaded? metre (N/m).

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F change in length of the wire? The Modulus of Elasticity

k= The gradient of the line shown above is k.
x for steel is 205 GPa.
Compare the formula with a graphical formula y = mx Cross-sectional area of the wire is:
where m is the gradient of the line.
d2 102
= = 78.54 mm2
Modulus of Elasticity 4 4
From Hooke’s Law it can be Force 20000
Stress,  = = = 254.65 N/mm2
shown that stress is proportional Area 78.54
to strain and hence:  = 254.65 x 106 N/m2 or 254.65 MPa.
Stress
= a constant, E Stress, , and strain, , are related by the formula:
Strain
  
In symbols: E = E = , re-arranging to find strain, , gives  = .
  E
E is known as the modulus of Elasticity or Young’s
254.65 x 106
Modulus. The unit are the same as those of stress = = 1.242 x 10-3
205 x 109
(Pascal). The modulus tends to have high values
(GPa). = 1242 x 10-6 or 1242 
Young’s modulus of a material is a measure of the
change in length x
stiffness of the material. strain  =
original length
=
L
Example 12a
Therefore, change in length = original length x strain
A 10 metre long steel wire of diameter 10 mm is
subjected to a tensile load of 20 kN. What is the x = 10 x 1242 x 10-6 m = 0.01242 m or 12.42 mm.

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Modulus of Rigidity
The relationship between shear stress, , and shear
strain, , is known as the modulus of Rigidity, G.
Shear Stress 
G= = GPa
Shear Strain 

Bulk Modulus
This is concerned with the increase in volume of a
body when subjected to a pressure. The body changes
volume without a change in shape: From point 0 to B the deformation of the wire is
Bulk Stress elastic.
Bulk Modulus =
Bulk Strain A is the limit within the wire obeys Hooke’s Law.
B is the elastic limit. Beyond this point deformation
Solids have all three moduli; liquids and gases have
becomes plastic.
only the bulk modulus.
C is the yield point. Beyond it very little force is
Mechanical Properties of Materials needed to produce a large extension.

So far we have investigated the stress-strain D is the point where if the force were removed the
relationship in the elastic region. If we load the wire would be left permanently deformed.
material further we get the stress strain relationship E is the point were the wire breaks, it is say to have
as shown below. reached its ultimate tensile stress.

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When selecting a material for a job we need to know breaking are ductile. Metals owe much of their
how it will behave when a force acts upon it, i.e. what usefulness to this property.
are its mechanical properties.
Brittleness.
Strength. A material that is fragile and breaks easily is brittle,
A strong material requires a strong force to break it. e.g. glass and cast iron are brittle. They are unable to
The strength of some materials depends on how the withstand impacting forces.
force is applied. For example, concrete is strong when
compressed but weak when stretched, i.e. in tension. Toughness
This is the opposite to brittleness having the ability to
Stiffness. withstand impact loads.
A stiff material resists forces which try to change its
shape or size. It is not flexible. Hardness
The ability to scratch other materials or resist
Elasticity. scratching or indentation by other materials.
An elastic material is one that recovers is original
shape and size after the force deforming it has been Malleability
removed. A material that does not recover, but is The ability to be hammered or rolled into shapes.
permanently deformed is plastic.

Ductility.
Materials that can be rolled into sheets, drawn into
wires or worked into other useful shapes, without

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Torsion
As already mentioned torsional stress is a form of
shear stress resulting from a twisting action.

If a torque or twisting action is applied to the bar

shown, one end will twist, or deflect relative to the
other end.
The steeper the initial part of the curve the greater
Obviously, the twist will be proportional to the applied
the value of Young’s modulus and hence the stiffer the
torque. Torque has the same effect and therefore the
material. If the curve suddenly breaks without much
same unit as a Moment, i.e. Newton metres.
strain then the material is brittle, if there is significant
strain then the material is ductile.
If the bar is considered as a series of adjacent discs,
what has happened is that each disc has twisted, or

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moved relative to its neighbour, etc, etc. Hence, it is e.g. a smell, whether pleasant or not, travels quickly
a shearing action. from its source to your nostrils where it is detected.
Diffusion occurs in liquids and gases but not in solids.
In these two states the molecules are free to move, it
is this property that allows diffusion to occur.

Surface Tension
A needle, though made of steel and is denser than
water, will float on a clean water surface. This
suggests that the surface of a liquid behaves as if it is
covered with an elastic skin that is trying to shrink.
This effect is called surface tension and it explains
The shear strain is equal to the angular deflection 
why small liquid drops are always nearly spherical, i.e.
multiplied by radius r divided by the overall length L,
a sphere has the minimum surface area for a given
= r
L
 is in radians. volume. The surface tension can be reduced if the
liquid is ‘contaminated’; adding a detergent to the
water will cause our needle to sink.
Note: r and L must have the same units.
In a liquid, the molecules still partially bond together.
Further Properties of Matter This bonding force is known as surface tension and
prevents liquids from expanding and spreading out in
Diffusion
all directions. Surface tension is evident when a
The spreading of a substance of its own accord is container is slightly over filled.
called diffusion and is due to molecular action,

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greater than the adhesion of water to wax. This fact

is used in the waterproofing of waxed garments.

Capillarity
If a glass tube of small bore is dipped into water, the
water rises up the tube a few centimetres. The
narrower the tube, the greater is the rise. The
adhesion between the glass and the water exceeds
the cohesion of the water molecules, the meniscus
curves up, and the surface tension causes the water
to rise. The effect is called capillary action.

Adhesion and cohesion

The force of attraction between molecules of the
same substance is called cohesion, that between
molecules of different substances is called
adhesion. For example, the adhesions of water to
glass is greater than the cohesion of water to water.

Water spilt on glass ‘wets’ it by spreading out into a

thin film. By contrast, water on wax forms small
spherical drops, this time the cohesion of water is

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Exercise 5 8. Stress Strain

In the following diagram what are A, B and C?
1. What is the formula for direct stress,
1a. In words:
1b. In symbols:

2. What are the units of stress?

3. What is the formula for direct strain?

3a. In words
3b. In symbols
4. What are the units of strain?
5. A rectangular aluminium bar of cross section 10
9. What is the ultimate tensile stress?
mm by 50 mm and of length 150 cm is subject to a
compressive load of 25 kN. Take Young’s Modulus of 10a. What is a stiff material?
aluminium as 70 GPa. 10b. What is a ductile material?
10c. What is a brittle material?
5a. What is the stress in the bar?
5b. What is the strain in the bar in ?
11. What is the force of attraction between molecules
5c. What is the change in length of the bar?
of the same substance?

6. Name the five different types of stress in 12. What is the force of attraction between molecules
mechanical bodies of different substances?
7. Hooke’s Law States:

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Answers 5a. A = 10 x 50 = 500 mm2

Exercise 5 F 25000
 = = = 50 N/mm2 or 50 MPa.
1a. Stress in words: A 500
Force Applied Alternative when dimensions are in metres
stress =
Cross Sectional Area
F A = 10 x 10-3 x 50 x10-3 = 500 x 10-6 mm2
1b. Stress in symbols: =
A F 25000
 = = = 50 x106 N/m2 or 50 MPa.
A 500 x10-6
2. Pascal or N/m2 or Nm-2

3a. Strain in words   50 x 106

5b. E = , therefore strain,  = =
change in length  E 70 x 109
strain =
original length = 7.143 x 10-4 = 714 x 10-6 = 714 
x x
3b. Strain in symbols:  = 5c.  = , therefore change in length x = L
L L
4. Strain is length over length (or dimension
over dimension), therefore it does not have any x = 714 x 10-6 x 150 cm
units (None). = 0.107 cm or 1.07 mm or 1.071 x 10-3 m

6. Tension, Compression, Torsion, Bending,

Shear

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7. That the amount of stretch (elongation) is

proportional to the applied force. 10c. A material that is fragile and breaks easily is
brittle.
8. What are A, B and C?
11. Cohesion.

12. Adhesion.

9. The ultimate tensile stress is the point were

the wire breaks.

10a. A stiff material resists forces which try to

change its shape or size.

10b. Materials that can be rolled into sheets,

drawn into wires or worked into other useful
shapes, without breaking.

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Pressure and Buoyancy This can be very useful, because if a force applied at
one point creates pressure within a fluid, that
Pressure
pressure can be transmitted to some other point in
Previous topics have introduced forces or loads, and order to generate another force. This is the principle
then considered stress, which can be thought of as behind hydraulic (fluid) systems, where a mechanical
intensity of load. Stress is the term associated with input force drives a pump, creating pressure which
solids. The equivalent term associated with fluids is then acts within an actuator, so as to produce a
pressure, so mechanical output force.
force F
pressure = or p = . The Bramah Press
area A
Pressure can be generated in a fluid by applying a
force which tries to squeeze it, or reduce its volume.
Pressure is the internal reaction or resistance to that
external force.

It is important to realise that pressure acts

equally and in all directions throughout that
fluid.

In this diagram, a force F1 is input to the fluid,

F1
creating pressure, equal to throughout the fluid.
A1

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This pressure acts on area A2, and hence an output F1 x A2 100 x 0.1
F2 = = = 500 N
force F2 is generated. A1 0.02
F1 F2
If the pressure P is constant, then = and if A2 If the jack rises 10 cm, how far does the piston have
A1 A2
to move?
is greater than A1, the output force F2 is greater than
F1. F1 x d1 = F2 x d2

A mechanical advantage has been created, just like F2 x d2 500 x 10

Therefore d1 = = = 50 cm.
using levers or pulleys. This is the principle behind F1 100
the hydraulic jack.
Units of Pressure -The Pascal
But remember, you don't get something for nothing; Pressure is the measurement of a force exerted on a
energy in = energy out or work in = work out, and given area. In the SI system pressure is expressed in
work = force x distance. In other words, distance Pascal’s (Pa) being derived from force per unit area
moved by F1 has to be greater than distance moved (Nm -2).
by F2.
1 Pa = 1N/m2
Example 13 Atmospheric pressure is usually measured in milli-bars
A force of 100 N is applied to a piston with a cross- (mb) or pounds per square inch (psi).
section of 0.02 m2. If this is connected to a hydraulic 1 bar = 1.0 x 105 Pa
jack of cross-sectional area 0.1 m2, what is the load
that can be lifted? At sea level standard atmospheric pressure equals
1013.2 milli-bars or 14.69 psi at 15C.
F1 F2
=
A1 A2

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Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure Hydraulic Pressure

Most pressure gauges are designed to measure The pressure at a depth h
pressure above that of the surrounding atmosphere. is given by:
P=xg xh
Absolute pressure
= gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure. P Pressure difference (Pa)
 density of liquid (kg/m3)
Standard atmospheric pressure g gravity (m/s2)
= 1.013 bar or 1.013 x 105 Pa h height (m)
Density
The density of a substance is its mass per unit
Manometers and Barometers
volume. The density of solids and liquids varies with
temperature, and the density of a gas varies with both
temperature and pressure. The symbol for density is
the Greek symbol Rho (). To find the density of a
substance, divide its mass by its volume, which will
give you the mass per unit volume, or density.
mass
Density () =
volume
Where mass is in kg and the volume in m3. Thus the
units for density, , are kg/m3 or kgm-3.

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Manometer: Consider the manometer, the weight of Example 14

the gas is negligible so that the height, h represents The atmospheric pressure is 980 mb. If the density of
the difference in pressures P1 and P2, so thus: mercury is 13600 kg/m3, what will be the height of a
P1 – P2 = gh mercury barometer?
Barometer: In the case of the barometer the column
980 mb = 0.98 bar = 0.98 x 105 Pa
is closed at the top. A Torricellian vacuum will be
= 0.98 x 105 N/m2
formed between the surface of the liquid in the tube
Pa = gh
and the sealed end of the tube.
Pa 0.98 x 105
Therefore h = = = 0.7345 m
The pressure difference between atmospheric g 13600 x 9.81
pressure and the vacuum will support a column of = 73.45 cm
liquid.
Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle
This pressure difference may be related to the
Archimedes’ Principle states that when an object is
difference in height, h, between the surface of the
submerged in a liquid, the object displaces a volume
liquid inside the tube and the surface of the liquid in
of liquid equal to its volume and is supported by a
which the tube is standing.
force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. The
force that supports the object is known as the liquid's
P1 = Pa and P2 = 0 so that Pa = gh
up-thrust.

A floating object displaces a volume of the liquid that

has a mass equal to the mass of the floating object.

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Example 15 1 litre equals 1000 cm3 (cc) and there are a thousand
litres in 1 m3.
When a 100 cubic centimetre (cm3 or cc) block having
a mass of 1.5 kilograms (kg) is attached to a spring 1
Thus 1 litre =1000 cc = m3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
scale and lowered into a full container of water, 100 1000
cm 3 of water overflows out of the container. The mass
mass of 100 cm 3 of water is 100 grams (g), therefore Density () =
volume
the up-thrust acting on the block is 100 g and the
spring scale reads 1.4 kg. Therefore, mass = density x volume
The body displaces 9 litres of water when it floats.
If the object immersed has a relative density that is Therefore it’s mass = 1000 x 9 x 10-3 = 9 kg.
less than the liquid, the object displaces its own mass
of the liquid and it floats. The effect of up-thrust is When floating in liquid 1 the body displaces 12 litres.
not only present in liquids but also in gases. Hot air Because the body is floating we know that 12 litres of
balloons are able to rise because they are filled with liquid 1 have a mass of 9 kg.
heated air that is less dense than the air it displaced. 9
Thus the density of liquid 1 = = 750 kg/m3.
12 x 10-3
Example 16
In liquid 1, a body floats and displaces 12 litres of It will be shown in the chapter on Fluid Dynamics
liquid. When placed in water it floats and displaces that:
9 litres of water. The density of water = 1000 kg/m3. density of the body
Relative Density =
density of pure water at 4C
What is the mass of the body and the density of
density of the body
liquid 1? =
1000 kg/m3

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Exercise 6 7. What is the formula for pressure generated by a

1. What is the formula for pressure? column of liquid?
1a. In words: 1b. In symbols: 7a. In words: 7b. In symbols:
2. What are the units of pressure? 8. What are the Units?
3. What is one Pascal? 9a. What is the pressure at the bottom of a water tank
60 m high? The density of water=1000 kg/m3 and
4. How does pressure act? g = 10 m/s2.
5. For the Bramah Press, write out the formula, 9b. If the same tank is filled with a fluid of relative
relating F1, A1, F2 and A2. density 0.8, what would be the pressure at the bottom
of the tank?
10. What does Archimedes Principle state?
11. A boat at sea displaces 7000 m3 of water. If the
density of water is 1030 kg/m3, what is the mass of
the boat in kilograms and metric tonnes?
12 The bottom of a narrowboat can be approximated
to a rectangle 20 metres long by 2 metres wide.
Assume vertical sides. Density of water=1000 kg/m3.
12a. What is the mass of the narrowboat if, when it
floats, the draught of the boat is 50 cm?
6. If the applied force is A1 are 50 cm2. The input 12b. The boat is loaded with 16 metric tonnes of coal
force is 2 kN and this lifts a load of 16 kN. What is the what is the new draught?
output area?

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Answers 9a. p =  g h = 1000 x 10 x 60

Exercise 6 = 600000 Pa = 600 kPa
1. The formula for pressure, also write out the formula
9b. p =  g h = 800 x 10 x 60
in symbols.
= 480000 Pa = 480 kPa
Force
1a. Stress in words: stress =
Area 10. When an object is submerged in a liquid, the
F object displaces a volume of liquid equal to its
1b. Stress in symbols:  =
A volume and is supported by a force equal to the
2. Pascal or N/m2 (Nm-2) weight of the liquid displaced.

3. 1 Pa = 1N/m2 11. Mass =  x V = 1030 x 7000 = 7210000 kg

= 7210 metric tonnes
4. Pressure acts equally and in all directions
throughout that fluid. 12a. Draft = 50 cm = 0.5 m
Volume = Area bottom x draught = 20 x 2 x 0.5
F1 F2 =20 m3.
5. =
A1 A2 Mass = density x volume = 1000 x 20
F2 A1 16 x 103 x 50 = 20000 kg = 20 tonnes
6. A2 = = = 400 cm2
F1 2 x 103 12b. For the boat to float 16 metric tonnes of coal will
7a. Pressure = density x gravitational displace 16 metric tonnes of water = 16000 kg.
acceleration x height Volume of water displaced = mass / density
= 16000/1000 = 16 m3.
7b. In symbols: p =  g h Extra draught = volume/ area = 16/ (20 x 2) = 0.4 m.
Therefore new draft = 0. 5 + 0.4 = 0.9 m or 90 cm.
8. p (Pascal); (kg/m3); g (m/s2); h (m)

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Chapter 2.2.2: Kinetics

Velocity Vectors
In exactly the same way as force vectors were added,
(either graphically or mathematically), so velocity
vectors can be added. A good (aeronautical) example
is the vector triangle used by pilots and navigators
when allowing for the effects of wind.
Here the pilot intended to fly
from A to B (the vector AB Obviously, the answer is to fly (head) towards D, so
represents the speed of the that the wind blows the aircraft to B (see diagram).
aircraft through the air), but
while flying towards B the Note that this is a vector triangle, in which we know 4
effect of the wind vector BC of the components;
was to 'blow' the aircraft off-
course to C. i.e. the wind magnitude and direction
the air speed (magnitude)
So how is the pilot to fly to B instead of C? the track angle (direction)

The other two components may therefore be deduced,

i.e. the aircraft heading and the aircraft ground-speed.
Note that the difference between heading and track is
termed drift.

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The aircraft ground-speed, (i.e. the speed relative to

the ground) is used to compute the travelling time.

This is a particular aeronautical example. More

generally, if there are two vectors v1 and v2, then we
can find relative velocity.

Note the difference in terminology and direction of the

arrows. v2 relative to v1 means that to an observer
moving at velocity v1, the object moving at velocity v2
appears to be moving at that relative velocity. (v1
relative to v2 is the apparent movement of v1 relative
to v2).

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Linear Movement Speed = rate of change of displacement or position

Kinematics distance travelled
=
Introduction time taken
s
In a previous topic, we saw that a force causes a body v = where v represents speed.
t
to accelerate (assuming that it is free to move).
Words such as speed, velocity, acceleration have been A word of caution - this assumes that the speed is
introduced, which do not refer to the force, but to the unchanging (constant). If not, the speed is an
motion that ensues. Kinematics is the study of motion. average speed.

When considering motion, it is important to define If you run from your house to a friend’s house and
reference points or datum (as has been done with travel a distance of 1500 m in 500 seconds, then your
other topics). With kinematics, we usually consider 1500
average speed is: = 3 ms-1.
datum involving position and time. We then go on to 500
consider the distance or displacement of the body Similarly, if you travel 12 km to work and the journey
from that position, with respect to time elapsed. takes 30 minutes, your average speed is:
It is now necessary to define precisely some of the
words used to describe motion. 12
= 24 km h-1
0.5
Distance and time do not need defining as such, but
we have seen that they must relate to the datum.
Distance and time are usually represented by symbols
(s) and (t) respectively.

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Velocity Note that the arrows at A and C are in almost opposite

directions, so the velocities are equal in magnitude,
Velocity is similar to speed, but not identical. The
but almost opposite in direction.
difference is that velocity includes a directional
component; hence velocity is a vector (it has
Acceleration
magnitude and direction - the magnitude component
being speed). This may be defined a rate of change of velocity,
(magnitude or direction).

A vehicle that increases its velocity is said to

accelerate. The sports saloon car may accelerate from
rest to 96 km/h (kilometers per hour (kph)) in 10s,
the acceleration is calculated from:

Acceleration = rate of change of velocity

change of velocity
=
time
If a vehicle is moving around a circular track at a
constant speed, when it reaches point A, the vehicle is
v2 - v1
pointing in the direction of the arrow which is a a =
t
tangent to the circle. At point B its speed is the same,
but the velocity is in the direction of the arrow at B. Where “a” represents acceleration.
Similarly at C the velocity is shown by the arrow at C. (In the above, v1 represents the initial velocity, v2
represents the final velocity during time period t).

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In the case of the car accelerating from rest to 96 Equations of Linear Motion
km/h in 10s. 96 Kmh-1 = 26.7 m/s, Various equations for motion in a straight line exist
v1 = 0 m/s and v2 = 26.7 m/s, therefore the change and can be used to express the relationship between
of velocity = 26.7 m/s. Hence: quantities.
26.7 If an object is accelerating uniformly such that:
Acceleration = = 2.67 m/s2 or ms-2.
10
Note that as acceleration = rate of change of velocity, u = the initial velocity and
then it must also be a vector quantity. This fact is
important when we consider circular motion, where v = the final velocity after a time t
direction is changing.
change of velocity
a= or,
Remember: speed is a scalar, (magnitude only). time
Velocity is a vector (magnitude and direction).
v-u
a=
If the final velocity v2 is less than v1, then obviously t
the body has slowed. This implies that the
acceleration is negative. Other words such as This equation can be re-arranged to make v the
deceleration or retardation may be used. It must be subject:
emphasized that acceleration refers to a change in
velocity. If an aircraft is travelling at a constant v = u + at ……………………………… Equation 1
velocity of 600 km/h it will have no acceleration.
Now consider the distance travelled assuming uniform
acceleration.

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If an object is moving with uniform acceleration a, for vu v-u

we have distance, s = x
a specified time (t), and the initial velocity is (u). 2 a
v 2 - u2
Since the average velocity = ½(u + v) and v = u + at. s=
2a
We can substitute for v: By cross multiplying we obtain
Average velocity = ½(u + u + at) 2as = v2 - u2
= ½(2u + at) = u + ½at and finally:

The distance travelled: v2 = u2 + 2as .........………………… Equation 3

s = average velocity x time = (u + ½at) x t, so
These are the three most common equations of linear
s = ut +½at2 ..................…………… Equation 2 motion.

The distanced travelled can also be given by: How do you know which equation to use?
v+u
s = average velocity x time = ( )xt Write: s u v a t. Tick or mark the parameters you
2
know and put a mark or question mark on the
parameter you want to find. This will allow you to
Using the s = average velocity x time and substituting choose the correct equation.
v u
time = , and
a Suppose you know the distance travelled, the initial
vu and final velocities and you want to find acceleration.
average velocity =
2 s u v a t. These parameters are in Equation 3.

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Note sometimes you may need to use 2 steps. If we 50 - 0

a= = 2 m s-2
know the distance travelled, the initial and final 25
velocities and you want to find the time. s u v a t.
You would have to find acceleration first and then Thus the aircraft has accelerated at a rate of 2 m s-2.
time.
If an aircraft slows from 144 km/h to 36 km/h with a
Example 17 uniform retardation (deceleration) of -5 m s-2, how
An aircraft accelerates from rest to 180 km/h in 25 long will take?
seconds. What is it's acceleration in m s-2?
First km hr-1 to m sec-1
Firstly we must ensure that the units used are the
same. As the question wants the answer given in 144
= = 40 m sec-1
m/s2, we must convert 180 km into metres and hours 3.6
into seconds. 36
= = 10 m sec-1
3.6
180 km = 180000 m and 1 hour = 60 x 60 = 3600 s,
180000 using v = u + at, 10 = 40 - 5t
so 180 km/h = = 50 m s-1
3600
v-u 10 - 40 -30
To convert km/h to m/s divide by 3.6 t= = = = 6 seconds
a -5 -5
To convert m/s to km/hr multiply by 3.6
What distance will the aircraft travel during the
v-u retardation phase?
Using the equation a = we have,
t

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We can use either: The velocity time diagram is shown below:

2 2
v -u
s = ut + ½at2 or s=
2a
Using the former s = 40 x 6 – 0.5 x 5 x 62 = 150 m
Using the latter,

v2 - u2 102 - 402 100 - 1600

s= = =
2a 2 x (-5) 2 x (-5)
:
-1500
= = 150 m
-10 The distance travelled in the first five seconds is the
area of the first triangle:
Velocity time diagrams give good representations of = ½ base x height = ½ x 5 x 5 = 12.5 metres.
the problem. The area under a velocity time diagram
is the distance travelled. Consider the following In the next 12 seconds it is the area of the rectangle:
example.
= base x height = 12 x 5 = 60 metres.
Example 18
In the final 7 seconds it is the area of the second
An aircraft is being towed towards the terminal. The triangle:
tractor accelerates from rest to 5 m/s in 5 seconds it
= ½ base x height = ½ x 7 x 5 = 17.5 metres
then travels at this rate for 12 second before
decelerating to a stop in a further 7 seconds. How far The total distance travelled:
does it travel? = 12.5 + 60 + 17.5 = 90 metres.

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Projectiles Note in this example the

vertical and horizontal
We may be considering investigating the movement of
components of velocity
objects in two dimensions, vertically as well as
have the same
horizontally. In this case we must take into account
magnitude.
gravitational acceleration. To do this we assume that
motion up and to the right is positive and motion
down and to the left is negative.

Consider a projectile being

launch with a velocity v at We need to find the time of flight. To do this consider
an angle  from the the vertical component of velocity. If we can find the
horizontal. We must time taken to get to the highest point of the
resolve this velocity into a trajectory, we can double this to get the total time of
vertical component v sin  the flight. At the top of the trajectory the upward
and a horizontal velocity will be zero.
component v cos . The Use v = u + at, 0 = 71 – 9.81t
vertical component is
Note the gravitational acceleration is taken as
affected by gravity.
negative.

Example 18 v-u 0 - 71 -71

t= = = = 7.2375 seconds
a -9.81 -9.81
A projectile is launched at a velocity of 100 m/s at an
angle of 45o from the horizontal. How far will it travel? Hence total time = 2 x 7.2375 = 14.475 seconds
Neglect air resistance and take g as 9.81 m/s2. The distance travelled is horizontal velocity
component x time = 71 x 14.475 = 1028 metres.

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Exercise 7 7. If you know initial velocity, distance travelled and

time of the acceleration phase, which equation would
1 Using the Kinematic equations, what is the
you use to find the acceleration?
acceleration?
1a. Acceleration in words: 8. Draw velocity time diagram for the following:
1b. Acceleration in symbols:
8a. A train travels from 0 to 20 m/s in 10 seconds,
find distance travelled during the acceleration phase
2. What is the basic assumption when using the
and the acceleration.
Kinematic equations?
8b. Then the train travels at 20 m/s for 100 seconds.
3. What is the formula for average speed, also write Find the distance travelled.
out the formula in symbols?
8c. Finally, it decelerates from 20 m/s to 0 m/s in 20
3a. Average speed in words: seconds. Find distance travelled during the
3b. Average speed in symbols: deceleration phase and the acceleration (deceleration).
8d. What is the total distance travelled and the
4. Write out the three main Kinematic Equations: average speed?
5. If you know initial velocity, final velocity and
9. An object, initially at rest is dropped from a height
distance travelled during the acceleration phase, which
of 2.5 metres. It takes 0.71 seconds to hit the ground,
equation would you use to find the acceleration?
what is the acceleration and the velocity on impact?
6. If you know initial velocity, final velocity and time of 10. A vehicle travelling at 10 m/s accelerates at 12
the acceleration phase, which equation would you use ms-2 to 130 m/s. What is the distance travelled and
to find the acceleration? time taken?

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11. A projectile is launched at 53.1o from the 2. Constant acceleration

horizontal. Its speed is 125 m/s.
Sin 53.1o = 0.8 and cos 53.1o = 0.6. Neglect air 3a. Average speed in words:
resistance and take g as 10 m/s2. distance travelled
Speed =
11a.Find the vertical and horizontal components of the time taken
initial velocity. s
3b. Average speed in symbols: v =
t
11b. Find the total time of flight and hence the
horizontal distance travelled.
11c. Find the highest point of the trajectory. 4. Write out the three main Kinematic Equations?

v = u + at
Answers
s = ut + ½at2
Exercise 7
v2 = u2 + 2as
1 Using the Kinematic equations, what is the
acceleration
5. Use equation 3: v2 = u2 + 2as
1a. Acceleration in words:
Acceleration = rate of change of velocity 6. Use equation 1: v = u + at
change of velocity
=
time 7. Use equation 2: s = ut + ½at2
v2 - v1
1b. Acceleration in symbols: “a” =
t

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8a. 100 m and 2 m/s2.

8b. 2000 metres.
8c. 200 m and -1 m/s2.
9
8d. 2300 m and 17.69 m/s or 17 m/s.
13

2s 5
9. a = 2 = = 9.919 ms-2.
t 0.712

v = u + at = 0 + 9.919 x 0.71 = 7.041 m/s.

v-u 130 - 10
10. t = = = 10 seconds
a 12

s = ½ (v+ u) x t = 70 x 10 = 700 metres.

11a. VV = 100 m/s and VH = 75 m/s

11b. ttotal = 20 seconds, SH = 1500 metres
11c. Maximum height of trajectory = 500 metres

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Workings for question 8:

v-u 20 - 0
When deciding what equations to use, you need to 1. Find a: a = = = 2 m/s2
t 10
decide what you are trying to find and what do you 1 1
know Find s: s = ut + at2 = 0 x 10 + 2 x 10 x 10
2 2
s = 0 + 100 = 100 m
v= Rearrange to find distance s = v t eqn. 1
t
v = u + at …………………………………………… eqn. 2 2. The train travels at 20 m/s for 100 second
2
s = ut + ½at .....................…………………… eqn. 3 s = v x t = 20 x 100 = 2000 m

Equation (2) is re-arranged to find the acceleration ‘a’. v-u 0 - 20

3. Find a: a = = = -1 m/s2
t 20
v-u 1 1
a= .....................………………………..... eqn. 4 Find s: s = ut + at2 = 20 x 20 + (-1) x 20 x 20
t 2 2
1
= 400 - 20 x 20 = 200 m
Equation 3 is used to find the distance travelled in 2
parts 1 and 3. Total distance travelled
4. Average velocity =
time taken
100 + 2000 + 200 2300
= = = 17.69 m/s
10 + 100 + 20 130
9
or 17 m/s
13

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Rotational and Periodic Motion Linear Rotational

Circular Motion v2 = v1 + at 2 = 1 + t
Rotational motion means motion involving curved (v = u + at)
paths. This corresponds to changes of direction. s = ½ (v1 + v2)t  = ½ (1 + 2)t
1
As with linear motion, rotational motion may be (s = /2 ( u + v)t)
analysed mathematically or graphically. Both types of s = v1t + ½ at2  = 1t + ½  t2
motion are very similar in this respect, but employ
(s = ut + ½ at2 )
different symbols. Again, only cases of constant
acceleration are considered here, and cases involving v2 2 = v12 + 2as 22 = 12 + 2
linear translation and rotation are definitely ignored! (v2 = u2 + 2as )

The table opposite compares the equations for Where:

rotational motion with the equivalent equations for
linear motion.  = distance (angular displacement) radians
1, 2 = initial and final angular velocity rads/sec
 = angular acceleration rads/sec/sec

Note: It is important to realise that the angular units

used must be radians.

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Conversion (a) Using: 2 = 1 + t

To convert from degrees per second to radians per 2 = 3 + 1.5 x 10 = 18 rads/sec
second multiply by  and divide by 180.
Thus 780 degrees per second (b)  = 1t + ½  t2
  = 3 x 10 + ½ x 1.5 x 10 x10 = 105 radians
= 780 x = 13.6 radians per second
180
Alternatively,
To convert revolutions per minute to radians per
second, divide by 60 and multiply by 2.  = ½ (1 + 2)t = ½ x (3 + 18) x 10 = 105 radians

Convert 3600 rpm to radians per second. Centripetal Force

3600 rpm = 3600/60 = 60 revolutions per second Consider a mass moving at a constant speed v, but
following a circular path. At one instant it is at
1 revolution per second = 2 radians /second position A and at a second instant at B.
60 revolutions per second = 60 x 2 radians /second
= 120 radians /second
= 377 radians /second
Example 19
A shaft is rotating at 3 rads/sec. It then accelerates at
1.5 rads/sec2 for 10 seconds.
(a) What is the final velocity, and Note that although the speed is unchanged, the
(b) what is the angle that the shaft rotated whilst the direction, and hence the velocity, has changed. If
shaft was accelerating. the velocity has changed then an acceleration must
be present.

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Consider a shaft of radius r

If the mass has accelerated, then a rotating at  radians per second.
force must be present to cause The relationship between the
that acceleration. This is linear velocity v (m/s) and the
fundamental to circular motion. shaft’s radius and angular
velocity is:
v
v = r or  =
v2 r
The acceleration present = or 2 r , where v
r
is the (constant) speed and r is the radius of the
circular path. Example 20
A mass of 500 g at the end of a piece of string of
The force causing that acceleration is known as the length 1.5 m is rotating at an angular velocity of 10
Centripetal Force. rads/sec. What is (a) the linear velocity, (b) the
Now force is equal to mass times acceleration, centripetal acceleration and (c) the centripetal force?
v2 mv 2 (a) Linear velocity, v = r = 1.5 x 10 = 15 m/s
therefore centripetal force = m  , or , and
r r (b) Acceleration = 2 r = 102 x 1.5 = 150 m/s2
acts along the radius of the circular path, towards the
centre. Units of force are Newtons. (c) Centripetal Force = m2 r = 0.5 x 150 = 75 N

Alternatively, centripetal force = m2 r Newtons Note: The mass must be in kilograms, 500 g = 0.5 kg.

The relationship between angular velocity and linear

velocity is as follows:

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Centrifugal Force Periodic Motion

Some masses move from one point to another, some
More students are more familiar with the term
move round and round. These motions have been
Centrifugal than the term Centripetal. What is the
described as translational or rotational.
difference? Put simply, and recalling Newton's 3rd
Law, Centrifugal is the equal but opposite reaction to
Some masses move from one point to another, then
the Centripetal force.
back to the original point, and continue to do this
repetitively. The time during which the mass
This can be shown by a diagram, with a person
moved away from, and then returned to its
holding a string tied to a mass which is rotating
original position is known as the time period and
around the person.
the motion is known as periodic.

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Simple Harmonic Motion is defined as the periodic
motion of a body where the acceleration is:
Tensile force in string acts inwards to provide a) Always directed to a fixed point in its path, and
centripetal force acting on mass. b) is proportional to the displacement from that point.

Tensile force at the other end of the string acts Note in the following sections, the angular frequency 
outwards exerting centrifugal reaction on person. is in radians/second.
 = 2f radians/second
(Note again - cases involving changing speeds as 
well as direction are beyond the scope of this course) f= cycles/second or Hz
2

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The instantaneous acceleration is given by the term: It then returns towards the stationary position, but
carries on swinging. Note that the time period can be
-2x.
measured from any position, through to the next time
that position is reached, with the motion in the
a = -2x (or in the case of rotation -2 r)
original direction.
This basically states that the acceleration is
For a simple pendulum, as shown in the diagram, the
proportional to the displacement from the neutral
mass is concentrated at one point. For small
(undisturbed) position, x, and in the opposite sense to
displacements it can be shown that the frequency of
the direction of the velocity.
oscillation, , is given by:
The constant  is the frequency of the oscillation.
2 = g/l radians/second.
The period of the oscillation = seconds.

Examples of Simple Harmonic motion are the Where g is the gravitational constant and l is the
pendulum and a spring mass system. length of the pendulum.

Pendulum The period T will be given by:

If a pendulum is displaced from its 2
stationary position and released, it T= = 2 l/g seconds.

will swing back towards that
1 
position. On reaching it however, it Note: T = and f =
f 2
will not stop, because its inertia
carries it on to an equal but opposite 2
displacement. Hence T =


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Spring-Mass System The resulting motion, up and down, can be plotted

against time and will result in a typical graph, which is
If the mass is displaced from
sinusoidal.
its original position and
released, the force in the
spring will act on the mass so
as to return it to that position.

It behaves like the pendulum,

in that it will continue to move
up and down.

The angular frequency of oscillation, , is given by:

= k/m radians/second.
Where k is the spring stiffness and m is the mass at
the end of the spring. Vibration Theory
All mechanical structures have mass and “elasticity”
The period T will be given by: and are hence capable of vibrating.
2
T= = 2 m/k seconds. Vibration Theory is based on the detailed analysis of

vibrations and is essentially mathematical, relying

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heavily on trigonometry and calculus, involving This large increase in amplitude usually occurs when
sinusoidal functions and differential equations. the frequency of the disturbing force coincides
with the natural frequency of the vibration of the
Vibrations are classified as “free” vibrations where a system (or some harmonic). This phenomenon is
system is having started to vibrate due to an initial known as Resonance. Designers carry out tests to
disturbance is allowed to continue unhindered. determine these frequencies, so that they can be
avoided or eliminated, as they can be very damaging.
Or, “forced” vibrations where a system is continually
excited by an external force applied at regular Exercise 8
intervals. 1. A shaft rotation at 6000 rpm comes to rest in 12 seconds.
The simple pendulum or spring-mass would according 1a. What is its rotational speed in radians/second?
to basic theory, continue to vibrate at constant 1b. What is the angular rotation before it stops (radians)?
frequency and amplitude, once the vibration had been 1c. What is the angular deceleration (radians/second2)?
started. In fact, the vibrations die away, due to other
forces associated with motion, such as friction, air 2. Centripetal acceleration:
resistance etc. This is termed a Damped Vibration. 2a. What is the centripetal acceleration in words?
2b. Centripetal acceleration in symbols:
If a disturbing force is re-applied periodically the
vibrations can be maintained indefinitely. The 3. What is the centripetal force causing this
frequency (and to a lesser extent, the magnitude) of acceleration?
this disturbing force now becomes critical.
3a. Centripetal force in words:
Depending on the frequency, the amplitude of
3b. Centripetal force in symbols:
vibration may decay rapidly (a damping effect) but
may grow significantly.

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4. Which direction does the centripetal force act? 10. The period of the oscillation (frequency in Hz) in
symbols? What are the units?
5. What is the centrifugal force and in which direction
does it act? 11. When the vibrations die away due to forces such
as friction and air resistance, what is this is termed?
6. An object has a centripetal acceleration of 12 m/s2
when the radius of the circle is 3 metres.
12. Resonance occurs when:
6a. What is its angular velocity?
6b. If the string is cut, what would be its linear 13. A hammer of mass 4 kg is rotated at an angular
velocity? velocity of 15 radians per seconds. The radius of the
6c. If the mass of the object is 3 kg, what is the throw is 2.0 metres. The hammer thrower then lets it
magnitude of the centrifugal force? go at an angle of 40o from the horizontal? Take g as
10 m/s2. Cos 40o = 0.77 and sin 40o = 0.64
7. In periodic motion, what is the time period in
words? a. What is the centrifugal force experienced by the
hammer thrower?
8. For a pendulum, b. What is the linear velocity when the hammer is
8a. What is the acceleration in words? released?
8b. What is the acceleration in symbols? c. What is the total time of the flight ignoring the
height of the hammer thrower?
9. What is the period of the oscillation (using natural
d. What is the horizontal distance travelled?
frequency ) in symbols? What are the units?

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Answers 3a. Centripetal force in words:

Exercise 8 velocity squared
= mass x
radius of the circular path
6000 x 2
1a. Shaft rotation = = 200 = 628.32 r/s
60 = mass x angular velocity squared x radius of
1b. Angular distance travelled:  = ½ (1 + 2)t the circular path

 = ½ (628.32 + 0) x 12 = 3770 radians 3b. Centripetal force in symbols:

1c. Angular acceleration: 2 = 1 + t v2 v2
F= mx = m = m x 2 x r = m2 r
r r
2 - 1 0 - 628.32
 = = = -52.4 r/s2
t 12
4. The Centripetal force: Acts along the radius of
the circular path, towards the centre of the
2a. Centripetal acceleration:
circle.
velocity squared
=
radius of the circular path
5. The centrifugal force: Acts along the radius of
the circular path, from the centre of the circle
= angular velocity squared x radius of the
outwards. It is equal in value but acting in the
circular path
opposite direction from the centripetal force.
2b. Centripetal acceleration in symbols:
v2
a = = 2 x r
r

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6a. Find angular velocity: 11. Damped vibration.

acceleration = 2 r
Therefore,  = a/r = 12/3 = 4 = 2 rads/sec. 12. Resonance occurs when: The frequency of the
disturbing force coincides with the natural
6b. The linear velocity: v = r= 3 x 2 = 6 m/s. frequency of the vibration of the system (or
some harmonic).
6c. The magnitude of the centrifugal force is the
same as the centripetal force = m2 r Newtons
Centripetal force = 3 x 22 x 3 = 36 Newtons. 13a. Fc = m2r = 4 x 152 x 2 = 1800 N.
13b. v = r = 15 x 2 = 30 m/s
7. The time period in words: The time during vvertical = 19.2 m/s vhorizontal = 23.1 m/s
which the mass moved away from, and then -30 sin40
13c. Time to max height t =
returned to its original position. -10
= 1.928 seconds
8a. The acceleration in words: Time of flight = 2 x 1.928 = 3.856 seconds
Acceleration = natural frequency squared x
displacement from the neutral position. 13d. s = v x t = 30 cos40 x 3.856 = 88.6 metres
8b. The acceleration in symbols: a = - 2 x
2
9. The period of the oscillation = seconds.

1
10. The period of the oscillation = seconds.
f

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effort x 2 m = load x 1m = 100 N x 1 m

Machines
Velocity Ratio, Mechanical Advantage and ∴ effort = 100 N m/2 m = 50 N
Efficiency
A machine is any device which enables a force (the The lever has enabled an effort, E, to raise a load, L,
effort) acting at one point to overcome another force twice as large, i.e. it is a force multiplier, but E has
(the load) acting at some other point. A lever is a had to move twice as far as L. The lever has a
simple machine, as are pulleys, gears, screws, etc. mechanical advantage, MA, of 2 and a velocity
ratio, VR, of 2 where
In the diagram below a lever lifts a load of 100 N
through 0.50 m when an effort is applied at the other Load Distance moved by the effort
MA = and VR =
end. The effort can be taken from the principle of Effort Distance moved by the load
moments about the pivot O as effort just begins to
raise the load. Machines make work easier and transfer energy from
one place to another. No machine is perfect and in
practice more work is done by the effort on the
machine than is done by the machine on the load.

Work measures the energy transfer and so we can

also say that the energy input into a machine is
greater than its energy output. Some energy is
always wasted to overcome friction and some parts of
the machine itself.
clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

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energy output work done on load balance point or fulcrum.

Efficiency = =
energyinput work done by effort
Moments
Load x distance moved by load MA
= = X 100% Force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from
Effort x distance moved by Effort VR
the line of action of the force to the point about which
the force rotates.
This is expressed as a percentage and is always less
than 100%.
A lever is in balance when the algebraic sum of
the moments is zero.
Note: In calculations, efficiency is used as a fraction
and not as a percentage.

Levers
A lever is a device used to change mechanical
advantage. Usually a lever is used to gain a
mechanical advantage. In its most basic form, the Load x dload = Effort x deffort
lever is a seesaw that has a weight at each end. The
weight on one end of the seesaw tends to rotate it For instance, a 10 kilogram weight located 2 metres to
anti-clockwise, whilst the weight on the other end the left of the fulcrum has a negative moment (anti-
tends to rotate it clockwise. clockwise), 20 kilogram metres. A 10 kilogram weight
located 2 metres to the right of the fulcrum has a
Each weight produces a moment or turning force. The positive moment (clockwise), of 20 kilogram metres.
moment of an object is calculated by multiplying the Since the sum of the moments is zero, the lever is
object's weight by the distance the object is from the balanced.

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First Class Lever

Second Class Lever
This lever has the fulcrum between the load and the
effort. An example might be using a long armed lever Unlike the first-class lever, the second-class lever has
to lift a heavy crate with the fulcrum very close to the the fulcrum at one end of the lever and effort is
crate, the effort ‘E’ is applied a distance ‘deffort’ from applied to the opposite end. The resistance or weight,
the fulcrum. is typically placed near the fulcrum between the two
ends.
The load (resistance) ‘R’, acts at a distance ‘dload’ from
the fulcrum. The calculation is carried out using the A typical example of this lever arrangement is the
formula, E x deffort = dload x R wheel-barrow, refer to diagram below. Calculations
are carried out using the same formula as for the first
class-class lever although, in this case, the load and
the effort move in the same direction.

Although less effort is required to lift the load, the

lever does not reduce the amount of work done.
Work is the result of force and distance, and if the two
items from both sides are multiplied together, they
are always equal.

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wheel/brake assembly) is at the opposite end of the

lever.

Third Class Lever

In aviation, the third-class lever is primarily used to
move the load a greater distance than the effort Example 21
applied. This is accomplished by applying the effort 1. If a lever moves the load 50 cm and the effort
between the fulcrum and the resistance. The moves 1.5 metres. If the efficiency is 80% and the
disadvantage of doing this is that a much greater effort is 5 kN then what is the load?
effort is required to produce movement. An example
of a third-class lever is a landing gear retraction Distance moved by the effort 150 cm
VR = = =3
mechanism (refer to diagram below) where the effort Distance moved by the load 50 cm
is applied close to the fulcrum, whilst the load, (the Note: Both distances are in centimetres.

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MA
Efficiency = ,
VR
Therefore MA = Efficiency x VR = 0.8 x 3 = 2.4
Note the efficiency has been changed from a
percentage to a decimal fraction (80% to 0.8).
load
MA =
effort
Load = MA x effort = 2.4 x 5 kN = 12 kN

Simple Machines
Simple Pulley System
The method of calculating MA; VR; and efficiency uses
the same formula as described.

However:-
If the efficiency is less than 50% then the machine
There is a quick way of determining the velocity ratio,
will not back run (the effort move the load).
VR. for a simple pulley system.
In the example shown, pulley system (a) the velocity
Either:
ratio is 1, and the tension, T in the rope = load so the
i) Count the number of pulleys mechanical advantage is also 1.
ii) Count the number of ropes between the pulleys
In (b) VR = 2, T = load/2 and hence MA = 2
(not including the one that the effort is attached to). In (c) VR = 3, T = load/3 and hence MA = 3

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Complex Pulley System

In a more complex pulley system as shown below the
tension T in the rope supporting the bottom pulley is
half the load. The tension T/2 in the rope supporting
the second pulley is thus equal to load/4.

The “ideal” effort is the same as the tension

supporting pulley 3, T/4, which is equal to load/8.

In an ideal machine (100% efficiency), the distance

moved by the effort must be 8 times that of the load.
The ideal machine does not have any friction.
Load
Thus in this example MA = =8
Effort
The velocity ratio cannot be found by the simple
counting method. Ideally if the MA = 8 then the
distance moved by the effort is 8 times that of the
load, VR = 8.

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Example 22 Gears
In a pulley system an effort of 200 N is used to raise a
load of 4 kN. If the effort moves 2.5 metres to raise
the load by 10 cm, find:
a) The mechanical advantage
b) The velocity ratio and
c) The efficiency of the pulley system
Number of teeth on driver gear
Load 4000 N VR =
Number of teeth on driven gear
a) MA = = = 20
Effort 200 N Load
MA =
distance effort moves 250 cm Effort
b) VR = = = 25
distance load moves 10 cm

MA 20 Screw Jack.
c) Efficiency = X 100% = x 100 = 80%
VR 25 To calculate the velocity ratio, consider one complete
rotation of the screw jack thread and determine how
far the effort must move to achieve this thread
rotation.

For a single start thread the load will move the pitch
of the thread, and the VR may now be calculated in
the usual manner.

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The “lead” is the distance raised by the load for one Example 23
complete revolution of the screw thread. For a single An effort of 120 N is required to lift a load of 4.8 kN.
start thread this is equivalent to the pitch of the The effort is applied at a radius of 1.5 metres and the
thread. If the effort is applied horizontally by handle lead is 40 mm, what are?
as shown in the diagram, then one complete
revolution of the screw thread means that the effort a) The mechanical advantage
moves around the circumference of a circle or radius b) The velocity ratio and
r, i.e. a distance 2r. c) The efficiency of the screw jack
Distance moved by the effort 2r
Therefore, VR = = Load 4800 N
Distance moved by the load lead
a) MA = = = 40
Effort 120 N
distance effort moves
b) VR =
distance load moves
2x  x 1500 mm 9425 mm
= = = 235.6
40 mm 40 mm
MA 40
c) Efficiency = X 100% = x 100 = 17%
VR 235.6
Remember for multi-start threads:
The lead = pitch x number of starts.

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Exercise 9 7. First Class Lever

1. Mechanical Advantage: 7a. Position of fulcrum:
7b. Value of the mechanical advantage
1a. Formula for Mechanical Advantage in words:
7c. Value of the velocity ratio:.
1b. Formula for Mechanical Advantage in symbols:
7d. Relative movement of the load and effort:
2. What is the Formula for Velocity Ratio in words? 8. Second Class Lever
3. Efficiency 8a. Position of fulcrum
8b. Value of the mechanical advantage:
3a. Formula for Efficiency in words: 8c. Value of the velocity ratio:.
3b. Formula for Efficiency in symbols: 8d. Relative movement of the load and effort:

4. The units of 9. Third Class Lever

4a. mechanical advantage are: 9a. Position of fulcrum:
4b. velocity ratio are: 9b. Value of the mechanical advantage:
4c. efficiency are: 9c. Value of the velocity ratio:
9d. Relative movement of the load and effort:
5. A man using a lever lifts a load of 800 N with an
effort of 200 N. The effort moves a distance of 100 cm 10. What type of lever is:
and the load moves a distance of 20 cm. What are the
Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio and efficiency? 10a. Nutcracker:
10b. Aircraft landing gear:
6. What are Levers? 10c. Garden Shears:

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Answers
4a. Units of mechanical advantage are: none
Exercise 9
4b. Units of velocity ratio are: none
1a. Formula for Mechanical Advantage in words: 4c. Units of efficiency are: none
Load
Mechanical Advantage =
Effort 5.
800 N
1b. Formula for Mechanical Advantage in symbols: Mechanical Advantage = =4
200 N
L
MA =
E 100 cm
Velocity Ratio = =5
20 cm
2.
Distance moved by the effort 4
Velocity Ratio = Efficiency = x 100 % = 80%
Distance moved by Load 5

3a. Formula for Efficiency in words: 6. Levers are devices used to change the
Energy output mechanical advantage.
Efficiency = x 100 %
Energy Input
7. First Class Lever
Workdone on Load 7a. Position of fulcrum: The fulcrum between the
= x 100 %
workdone on Effort load and the effort.
7b. Mechanical advantage: greater or less than 1.
3b. Formula for Efficiency in symbols: 7c. Velocity ratio: greater or less than 1.
MA 7d. Relative movement of the load and effort:
= x 100 %
VR in the opposite direction.

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8. Second Class Lever

8a. Position of fulcrum: The fulcrum at one end
of the lever and effort is applied to the
opposite end.
8b. Mechanical advantage: greater than 1.
8c. Velocity ratio: greater than 1.
8d. Relative movement of the load and effort:
in the same direction.

9. Third Class Lever

9a. Position of fulcrum: The effort lies between
the load and fulcrum.
9b. Mechanical advantage: less than 1.
9c. Velocity ratio: less than 1.
9d. Relative movement of the load and effort:
in the same direction.

10. What type of lever is:

10a. Nutcracker: Type 2
10b. Aircraft landing gear: Type 3
10c. Garden Shears: Type 1

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Chapter 2.2.3: Dynamics dividing the weight of an object by the acceleration of

gravity, which is 9.81 m/s2.
Mass, Force, Work, Power and Energy
Weight = mass x gravitational acceleration
Mass, Force and Inertia W = mg
Mass W = Newtons
Contrary to popular belief, the weight and mass of a m = kg
body are not the same. Weight is the force with a = m/s2
which gravity attracts a body. However, it is more Mass is usually measured in kilograms (kg) or,
important to note that the force of gravity varies with possibly, grams (g or gm) for small quantities and
the distance between a body and the centre of the tonnes for larger, The Imperial system of pounds
earth. So, the further away an object is from the (lbs.) can still be found in use in aviation, for
centre of the earth, the less it weighs. The mass of an calculation of, for example, fuel contents.
object is described as the amount of matter in an
object and is constant regardless of its location. The Example 24
extreme case of this is an object in deep space, which Gravitational acceleration on Mars = 3.71 m/s2 on the
still has mass but no weight. moon = 1.6 m/s2
An experimental instrument has a mass of 10 kg,
Another definition sometimes used to describe mass is
What is the weight of this instrument, on earth, on the
the measurement of an object's resistance to change
moon, on Mars and in deep space?
its state of rest, or motion. This is illustrated by
comparing the force required to move a large aircraft Weight on earth = 10 x 9.81 = 98.1 Newtons
as compared with a light aircraft. The large aircraft Weight on the moon = 10 x 1.6 = 16 Newtons
has a greater resistance to change because it has Weight on Mars = 10 x 3.71 = 37.1 Newtons
greater mass. The mass of an object may be found by
Weight in deep space = 10 x 0 = 0 Newtons

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Force Work done = force x distance moved in the

Force has been described earlier, force is the vector direction of the force
quantity representing one or more other forces, which
act on a body. In this section we will see the effect of If the man continues to push the car a farther
forces when they produce, or tend to produce, distance then the distance moved will increase and so
movement or a change in direction. he will have done more work.
Inertia
The unit of work is the Newton metre (Nm) or the
Inertia is the resistance to change of movement, as
joule, where:
mentioned earlier when discussing the mass of
objects. This means that if an object is stationary it 1 Joule = the work done when a force of
remains so, and if it is moving in one direction, it will 1 Newton is applied through a distance of
not deviate from that course. A force will be needed to 1 metre.
change either of these states; the size of the force
required is a measure of the inertia and the mass of Power
the object. Recalling the man pushing the car, it was stated that
the greater the distance the car was pushed, the
Work and Power greater the work done (or the greater the energy
Work expended).
Work is done when a force moves. Consider the case
where a man applied a force to move a small car. The But yet again, another factor arises for our
initial force that he applies overcomes the car’s inertia consideration. The man will only be capable of
and it moves. pushing it through a certain distance within a certain
time. A more powerful man will achieve the same
The work that the man has done is equal to: distance in less time.

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So, the word power is introduced, which includes time Brake Horse Power
in relation to doing work. Engines are often rated as being of a certain brake
horsepower. This refers to the method by which their
work done (Joules)
Power = horsepower is measured. The engine is made to do
time taken (seconds)
work against a device known as a dynamometer or
The S.I. unit of power is the Watt (W), and it is the 'brake'. This loads the engine output, whilst a reading
rate of work done when 1 joule is achieved in one of the work being done can be observed from the
second. machine's instrumentation. (Often does not account
for losses in gear boxes).
Note: One horsepower is the equivalent of 746 Watts.
Shaft Horse Power
This is a similar measurement to brake horsepower,
Example 25
except that the measurement is usually taken at the
A force of 5 kN moves through a distance of 300 cm, output shaft of a turbo-propeller engine. The power
therefore the work done: being produced at the shaft is what will be delivered
WD = Force x distance = 5000 x 3 = 15000 J = 15 kJ. to the propeller, when it is installed to the engine.

Note the distance is in metres and the force in Energy

Newtons.
Now clearly the man pushing the car will become
If the force takes one minute to move 300 cm, what is progressively more tired the further he pushes the
the power? car, the more work he does the more energy he
work done 15000 expends.
Power = = = 250 Watts.
time taken 60
Energy can be thought of as “stored” work.
Note the time is in seconds. Alternatively, work is done when Energy is expended.

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The unit of Energy is the same as for Work, i.e. A rock of mass 3000 kg is 100 metres above the
the Joule (1 Nm). valley floor, what is its potential energy, PE?
PE = mgh = 3000 x 9.81 x 100 = 2943000 J = 2.943 MJ
Energy can exist or be stored in a number of different Note, the mass is in kilograms and height is in metres.
forms, and it is the change of form that is normally
found in many engineering devices. Kinetic Energy
Another form of energy is that due to the movement
Energy can be considered in the following forms; of particles of some kind. This can be the water
electrical, chemical, heat, pressure, potential, kinetic, flowing in a river, driving a mill or turbine. The moving
and there are others. air drives a wind turbine which is producing electricity;
or hot gasses in a jet engine, driving the turbine.
The unit for all forms of energy is the Joule.
Kinetic energy is energy of motion. The kinetic energy
Potential Energy of an object is the energy it possesses because of its
Energy due to the mechanical condition or the position motion. The kinetic energy of a mass m is given by:
of a body KE = ½ mv2 (Joules) Note: m is in kg and v is in m/s

The potential energy of a raised body is easily A boat of mass 20 tonnes is travelling at 7.2 Kph,
calculated. If it falls, the force acting will be its weight what is its kinetic energy, KE?
and the distance acted through its previous height. The mass must be in kilograms and the velocity in
metres/second.
Hence, the work done equals the weight times the 20 tonnes = 20 x 1000 = 20000 kg.
height. This is also the potential energy.
7.2 kph = 7.2 x 1000 /3600 = 2 m/s
PE = W x h = mg x h = mgh (Joules) KE = ½ mv2 = ½ x 20000 x 22 = 40000 J = 40 kJ

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The kinetic energy of an object arises from the work Conservation of Energy
done on it. This can been seen from the example of One important principle underlies the conversion of
using a constant net force to accelerate a mass from one form to another. It is known as the
rest to a final velocity. Conservation of Energy, which is:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can
be changed from one form to another
This allows scientific equations to be derived, after
investigation and analysis involving physical
d = average velocity x time experiments.
vinitial + vfinal vf
= x time = x t
This also suggests something most of us suspect –
2 2
Since Vinitial = 0. “there is no such thing as a free lunch”. Put another
way, you don’t get anything for nothing, and very
Work done on mass = F x d often, you get less out than you put in. (So
somewhere “losses” have occurred, this is to be
F = mass x acceleration
expected). So a comparison between work out and
WD = mass x acceleration x distance work in is obviously a measure of the systems
vf vf efficiency.
= mx x x t Work output
t 2 Efficiency =
Work input
= ½ mv2 = kinetic energy (KE)
It is usually expressed as a percentage, and so will
clearly always be less than 100%.

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The energy lost from mechanical systems is often At the instant of impact the spaceman only has kinetic
turned into heat by frictional forces. energy. The conservation of energy states: that
energy cannot be lost or destroyed, and in this case
Heat causes molecular movement, which is a form of there is no friction, thus the potential energy before
kinetic energy and, the higher the temperature, the the spaceman leaps off the rock equals the kinetic
greater the kinetic energy of its molecules. When two energy when the spaceman hits the crater.
bodies come into contact, the kinetic energy of the PE = KE,
molecules of the hotter body tends to decrease and
that of the molecules of the cooler body, to increase mgh = ½ mv2
until both are at the same temperature.
Rearranging the equation to find v2
Example 26 v2 = 2gh thus v = 2gh
A spaceman, of mass 70 kg, on the moon, jumps off a Notice the mass cancels.
rock 5 metres high onto the crater floor. What is the
potential energy of the spaceman and what is the
Hence v = 2 x 1.6 x 5 = 4 m/s.
velocity of the spaceman when he lands on the crater
floor? The gravitational constant for the moon is 1.6
m/s2.

On the moon there is no air resistance. At the top of

the rock the spaceman is stationary; therefore he only
has potential energy.

PE = mgh = 70 x 1.6 x 5 = 560 J

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Example 27 Exercise 10
Consider a roller coaster carriage of mass 1000 kg. At Take g as 9.81 m/s2 unless otherwise stated.
the bottom of the ride its velocity is 32 m/s. What is
1. What is the relationship between the weight and
the kinetic energy of the carriage and what is the mass of an object?
maximum height that the carriage can climb? Neglect
the effect of friction and air resistance. 1a. Formula in words:
1b. Formula in symbols:
KE = ½ mv2 = ½ x 1000 x 322 = 512 kJ
2. What are the SI units of:
At the bottom of the ride the carriage has only kinetic 2a. weight:
energy. At the top of the ride the carriage has only 2b. mass:
potential energy. If there are no frictional losses: 2c. gravitational acceleration:
KE = PE
½ mv2 = mgh 3. The work done by a force.
3a. Work done by a force in words:
Rearranging to find the height, h: 3b Work done by a force in symbols:
v2 322
h= = = 52.2 m 4. What is the SI unit of work?
2g 2 x 9.81
Notice the mass cancels. 5. What is the definition of a Joule?

6. Write out in words the formula for power.

7. What is the SI unit of power?

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8. The engines of an aircraft travelling at 345.6 kph 15. Neglecting air resistance, if a lead weight of mass
produce 4375 Newtons of thrust. What is the power 50 g is dropped from a height of 30 m. What is its
used? velocity when it hits the ground?
9. What is the SI unit of energy?
16. Write out in words the formula for efficiency.
10. Potential energy.
17. A man of mass 50 kg is standing on the earth.
10a. Formula for potential energy in words: What is his weight?
10b. Formula for potential energy in symbols:
18. Same man standing on the moon what is his
11. What are the SI units of? weight. The gravitational acceleration on the moon is
11a. mass: 1.6 m/s2.
11b. gravitational acceleration:
11c. height: 19. A mass of 100 gm is lifted from the floor to a
height of 2 metres, what is its potential energy? Take
12. Kinetic energy. g as 10 m/s2.
12a. Formula for kinetic energy in words:
12b. Formula for kinetic energy in symbols: 20. A mass of 6 kg is travelling at 10 m/s. What is its
kinetic energy?
13. What are the SI units of?
13a. mass 21. A bolder of mass 75 kg, 120 metres above the
13b. velocity: valley floor is pushed over the edge. Neglecting air
14. What is the Conservation of Energy Principle? resistance, what is its velocity 30 metres above the
valley floor?

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Answers 6.
Exercise 10 work done
Power =
time taken
1a.  distance 
Weight = mass x gravitational acceleration = Force x = Force x velocity
 time 
1b. W = mg
7. Joule/second or watt
2a. weight: Newton (N)
2b. mass: kilogram (kg) 8. v = 345.6 /3.6 = 96 m/s
2c. gravitational acceleration: metre/second2 Power = force x velocity = 4375 x 96 = 420 kW
(m/s2)
9. The unit of Energy is the same as for Work,
3a. Work done by a force in words: i.e. the Joule. (1 Nm ).
Work done = force x distance moved in the
direction of the force 10a. Potential energy
= mass x gravitational acceleration x height
3b Work done by a force in symbols: W = F x d
10b. PE = mgh
4. Nm or Joule
11a. mass: kilogram (kg)
5. Joule = the work done when a force of 1 11b. gravitational acceleration:
Newton is applied through a distance of 1
metre. metre/second2 (m/s2)
11c. height: metre (m)

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12a. 20. 300 Joules

Kinetic energy = half x mass x velocity squared
12b. KE = ½ mv2 21. v = 2gh = = 2 x 9.81 x 90
= 1765.8 = 42 m/s.
13a. mass: kilogram (kg)
13b. velocity: metre/second (m/s)

14. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but

can be changed from one form to another.

15. v = 2gh = = 2 x 9.81 x 30

= 588.6 = 24.26 m/s.

Work output
16. Efficiency = x 100 %
Work input

17. 490.5 N

18. 80 N

19. 2 Joules

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Momentum and Impulse measuring a force, but such a measurement becomes

difficult if the time taken for the change is very small.
Momentum and Impulse
This would be the case if a body was subjected to a
Momentum is a word in everyday use, but its precise sudden blow, shock load or impact. In such cases, it
meaning is less well-known. We say that a large may well be possible to measure the change in
rugby forward, crashing through several tackles to momentum with reasonable accuracy.
score a try, used his momentum. This seems to
suggest a combination of size (mass) and speed were The time duration of the impact force may be in doubt
the contributing factors. and, in the absence of special equipment, may have to
be estimated. Forces of this type, having a short time
In fact, momentum = mass x velocity. duration, are called impulsive forces and their effect
on the body to which they are applied, that is the
A bullet of mass 50 g is travels at 200 m/s. What is its change of momentum produced, is called the
momentum? impulse.

Momentum = mass x velocity Impulse = Force x Time (Newton seconds)

= 0.05 x 200 = 10 kg m/s
If the impact duration is very small, the impulsive
Note the mass is in kilograms and the velocity in force is very large for any given impulse or change in
metres per second. momentum. This can be shown by substitution into
equations.
Impulse of a Force
Newton's Second Law shows that the effect of a force If a force of 4 kN is applied for 0.05 seconds then the
on a body is to bring about a change in momentum in impulse = 4000 x 0.05 = 200 Ns
a given time. This provides a useful method of

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Newton’s Laws of Motion mv = mv – mu = m(v-u)

Study of force and change in momentum lead to
We have F t = mv
Newton defining his Laws of Motion, which are
fundamental to mechanical science. Thus F x t = m (v-u)

The First law states a mass remains at rest, or m(v-u)

Hence F = = ma
continues to move at constant velocity, unless acted t
on by an external force. m(v-u)
Rate of change of momentum =
t
The Second law states that the rate of change of
momentum is proportional to the applied force. Hence a force causes a change in momentum

The Third law states if mass A exerts a force on mass The rate of change of momentum is proportional
B, then B exerts an equal but opposite force on A. to the magnitude of the force causing it.

Derivation of Newton’s second Law: Example 28

The most fundamental way of stating the second law If the velocity of a body of mass 12 kg changes from 5
is: m/s to 15 m/s in a time of 0.02 seconds. What is the
The impulse given to a body change in momentum and force causing this change?
The change of momentum, mv
= change in momentum
= mv – mu = m(v-u)
F t = mv = 12 x (15 – 5) = 120 kg m/s
If the initial and final velocities of a mass are u and v, m(v-u) 120
then change of momentum: F= = = 6000 N = 6 kN
t 0.02

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By calculation, it can be proven that the momentum

Suppose a mass A before the impact equals the momentum after the
overtakes a mass B, as impact.
shown in illustration (a).
Conservation of Momentum
The principle of the Conservation of Momentum
states:

On impact, (b), the mass B will be The total moment in a closed system is conserved.
accelerated by an impulsive force Or The total momentum in a system before the
delivered by A, whilst the mass A changes is equal to the total momentum after the
will be decelerated by an impulsive changes.
force delivered by B.
When considering masses:
When two or more masses act on each other, the
In accordance with Newton's Third Law, these total momentum of the masses remains
impulsive forces, F, will be equal and opposite and constant, provided no external forces, such as
must, of course, act for the same small period of time. friction, act.

Example 29
After the impact, A and B
will have some new Suppose a rifle has a mass of 3 kg is fired. The
velocities vA, and vB. explosion produces a mean force of 1.2 kN that acts
for 0.02 seconds. The bullet has a mass of 80 g.
Calculate the final velocity of the bullet and the gun
and show that the total momentum is zero.

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Impulse = F x t = 1200 x 0.02 = 24 Ns Example 30

A car of mass 1000 kg travelling at 5 m/s hits a
The change in momentum of the bullet: stationary car of mass 1500 kg. If the two cars keep
together after the collision, what is the velocity after
= mb(v-u) = 0.08 x (vb – 0)
impact? Assume that there are no frictional losses.
Impulse = change in momentum
24 Ns = 0.08 x vb Momentum before impact = momentum after impact

Thus the velocity of the bullet, vb, is: m1v1 + m2v2 = (m1 + m2) v3

24 1000 x 5 + 1500 x 0 = (1000 + 1500) x v3

Vb = = 300 m/s
0.08 5000
V3 = = 2 m/s
Change in momentum of the rifle: 2500

= mr (v-u) = 3 x (-vr – 0)
Impulse = change in momentum:
24 Ns = -3 x vr
Thus the velocity of the rifle, vr, is:
24
Vr = = -8 m/s (note the velocity is negative).
-3
Total momentum after firing is
Mbvb + mrvr = 0.08 x 300 – 3 x 8 = 24 – 24 = 0.

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Exercise 11 7. An ice skater of mass 60 kg and travelling at a

velocity of 12 m/s collides with stationary ice skater of
1. Write out in words the formula for momentum.
mass 40 kg. After the collision they travel together.
What is velocity of the pair after the collision?
2. Write out in words the formula for an impulsive
force.
8. If an object with a mass of 20 kg is travelling at 8
m/s, what will its momentum be?
3. What is the relationship between an impulse force
and momentum
9. Mass of 500 g is subjected to an impulse force
4. The rate of change of momentum is: acting for 20 mSec. The change in velocity is 50 m/s.
What is the value of the impulse force?
5. Define the Conservation of Momentum for two or
more masses.

6. A mass m1 travelling at a velocity v1 collides with a

mass m2 travelling at a velocity v2. After the collision
m1 is travelling at a velocity v3 and m2 is travelling at
a velocity of v4. Assuming the principle of
Conservation of Momentum, what is the equation
relating the objects before and after impact (assuming
no external forces).

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Answers 9. 1250 N
Exercise 11

1. Momentum = mass x velocity

2. Impulse = force x time

3. The impulse = the change in momentum

(assumes the mass is constant)
Impulse = mass x change in velocity

4. The rate of change of momentum is: proportional

to the magnitude of the force causing it.

5. When two or more masses act on each other,

the total momentum of the masses remains
constant, provided no external forces, such as
friction, act.

6. m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v3 + m2 v4

7. 7.2 m/s

8. Momentum = 160 kg m/s

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Gyroscopic Principles So the moment of inertia () is a function of mass and

radius. Although more detailed study of the exact
Moment of Inertia relationship is beyond the scope of this course, it can
Moment of Inertia considers the effect of mass on be said that the moment of inertia (M of I) is
bodies whose movement and hence moment is proportional to the mass and the square of the radius.
rotational. This is important to engineers, because
although vehicles move from one place to another Consider a point mass at
(i.e. the moment of the vehicle is translational) many a distance k from the axis
of its components are rotating within it. of rotation. The moment
of inertia of this body
about the axis of
rotation:
MI = mk2

k is termed the radius of gyration. If all the mass of a

body could be placed at the radius of gyration, then
mk2 would equal the moment of inertia of the body.
Consider two cylinders, of equal mass, but different
A mass of 10 kg placed at a distance of 50 cm from
dimensions, capable of being rotated. It will be easier
the axis of rotation has a moment of inertia as
(require less torque) to cause the left hand cylinder to
follows:
rotate. This is because the right hand cylinder
appears to have greater inertia, even through the MI = mk2= 10 x 0.52 = 2.5 kg m2
masses are the same. Note the mass is in kilograms and the distance in
metres.

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Gyroscopes
This topic covers gyroscopes and the allied subject of
the balancing of rotating masses. Both of these topics
have direct application to aircraft operations.

Gyroscopes are used in several of an aircraft’s

instruments, which are vital to the safety of the
aircraft in bad weather. There are many different
components that will not operate correctly if they are
not perfectly balanced. For example wheels, engines,
propellers, electric motors and many other
components must run with perfect smoothness.
The gyroscope is a rotor having freedom of
motion in one or more planes at right angles to
the plane of rotation. Gyroscope Freedom of Movement
With the rotor spinning, the gyroscope will possess
two fundamental properties:
 Gyroscopic rigidity or inertia
 Gyroscopic precession
A gyroscope has freedom of movement about axes BB
and CC, which are at 90 to the axis of rotation AA.

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Gyroscopic Rigidity or Inertia Precession

This maintains the axis of rotation constant in This term describes the angular change of
space. So if a gyroscope is spinning in free space direction of the plane of rotation of a gyroscope,
and is not acted upon by any outside influence or as a result of an external force. The rate of this
force, it will remain fixed in one position. change can be used to give indications such as the
turning rate of an aircraft.
This facility is used in instruments such as the artificial
horizon, which shows the location of the actual The rate at which the gyro precesses is inversely
horizon outside, even when the aircraft is in poor proportional to the speed of the rotor and proportional
visibility. to the external force.

For a constant rotor spin rate, the rate of precession is

The mounting frame can be rotated about axes AA, BB proportional to the applied force
and CC. The gyroscope will remain fixed in space in
the position it was set, and this is known as ‘rigidity’. For a constant applied force the speed of precession is
1
proportional to .
This assumes that there is no friction in the bearings. rotor spin rate

Rigidity increases with an increase in any or all of

the following: mass, rotational speed and radius
of gyration.

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Consider the diagram on the opposite side of the

page. There is a torque around the BB axis. This gives
the resulting force shown. As a result of the
interaction between the spin and the force, the spin
axis will precess around the CC axis.

Note the torque is applied to the inner Gimbal (ring).

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To determine the direction a gyroscope will precess,

follow these guidelines:

1. Apply a force so that it acts on the rim of the rotor

at 90. A
2. Move this force around the rim of the rotor so that
it moves through 90 and in the same direction as
the rotor spins.
3. Precession will move the rotor in the direction that
will result in the axes of applied force and of
rotation coinciding.
4. For a constant gyroscopic speed, the rate of
precession is proportional to the applied force. The Determining Precession Direction
opposite also applies, so for a given force the rate
of precession is inversely proportional to rotor
speed.

Compare the direction of the applied force, the

direction of spin and the direction of precession of the
diagram shown on this page with the diagram shown
on the previous page.

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Gyroscopic Wander rotation, then the mass will exert a centrifugal force
on the shaft. This force is directly proportional to
Movement between the spin axis and the frame of
the square of the speed of rotation of the shaft, so
reference is termed wander.
that, even if the eccentricity is small, the force may be
Real wander: Actual misalignment of the spin axis considerable at high speeds. Such a force will tend to
due to mechanical defects such as friction in the make the shaft bend, producing large stresses in the
gimbal bearings and imperfect balancing of the rotor. shaft and causing damage to the bearings.
Apparent wander: is the discernible movement of
the spin axis due to the movement of the reference A further undesirable effect would be the inducement
frame in space. There are two main causes of of sustained vibrations in the system, its supports and
apparent wander, the rotation of the earth (earth the surroundings. This situation would be intolerable
rate) and the movement of the gyroscope over the in an aircraft, so that some attempt must be made to
earth’s surface (vehicle rate). eliminate the effect of the unwanted centrifugal force.

If the spin axis wanders in the azimuth plane (rotating The eccentricity of the rotating masses cannot be
about CC) then this is known as drift and if it wanders removed, as they are either a result of the design of
in the vertical plane (rotating about BB) this is known the mechanism, such as a crankshaft, or are due to
as topple. unavoidable manufacturing imperfections. The
problem is solved, or at least minimised, by the
Balancing of Rotating Masses addition of balance weights, whose out of balance
centrifugal force is exactly equal and opposite to the
Perhaps the most common of all the systems original out of balance force. A common example of
encountered in mechanical engineering practice is the this is the weights put on motor car wheels to balance
rotating shaft system. If the centroid of any mass them, which makes the car much easier to drive at
mounted on a rotating shaft, is offset from the axis of high speed.

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Exercise 12 10. The rigidity of a gyroscope is affected by:

1. What is the moment of inertia is proportional to? a) A force trying to move it
b) The radius of gyration
2. What is a gyroscope?
c) The number of gimbal rings
3. With the rotor spinning, the gyroscope will possess
two fundamental properties, what are these?

4. What is gyroscopic rigidity?

5. What increases gyroscopic rigidity?

6. What is gyroscopic precession?

7. What are the factors that influence the direction of

gyroscopic precession?

8. Assuming constant gyroscopic spin, what is the rate

of precession proportional to?

9. For a given force the rate of precession is?

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Answers 7. The direction that the gyroscope presses

depends upon the direction of the force applied
Exercise 12
to the inner gimbal (ring) and the direction of
1. Mass and the square of the radius. spin.

2. The gyroscope is a rotor having freedom of 8. For a constant gyroscopic speed, the rate of
motion in one or more planes at right angles to precession is proportional to the applied force.
the plane of rotation.
9. Inversely proportional to rotor speed.
3. Gyroscopic rigidity or inertia and
Gyroscopic precession
10. Radius of gyration
4. Gyroscopic rigidity maintains the axis of
rotation constant in space.

5. Rigidity increases with an increase in any or

all of the following: mass, rotational speed,
radius of gyration.

6. This term describes the angular change of

direction of the plane of rotation of a gyroscope,
as a result of an external force.

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Friction
Frictional Forces
Friction is that phenomenon in nature that always
seems to be present and acts so as to retard things
that move. How large that frictional force is depends
on the nature of the two surfaces of the object
concerned. Rough surfaces generally produce more
friction than smooth surfaces, and some materials are
naturally 'slippery'.

Friction can operate in any direction, but always acts

in the sense opposing motion. It is a variable force
up to a maximum value. Note in the example shown above Rn = W = mg
Therefore the force due to friction FF = mg
We require a greater force to start moving the
surfaces (static friction) then we do to keep them The sliding friction force is independent of the area of
moving (sliding or dynamic friction). surface in contact and also the relative speed of the
The value of the sliding friction force FF opposing surfaces (not true for very low speeds or in some
motion is proportional to the normal force, Rn, and is cases high speeds).
given by:
Limiting friction
FF =  Rn
This occurs at the point at which motion is just about
Where  is the coefficient of sliding or dynamic friction to occur. The coefficient of limiting friction is taken as
and in theory it has a maximum value of 1. the same as the coefficient of static friction.

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Example 31 FF = mg

Thus FR = FP - mg, hence:

FR = 60 – 0.3 x 12 x 10 = 60 – 36 = 24 N
FR 24
FR = ma and hence a = = = 2 m/s2.
m 12

A mass of 12 kg is being accelerated by a force Fp of

60 N as shown in the above diagram. If the coefficient
of friction  is 0.3, what is the acceleration? For
simplicity take g = 10 m/s2.

Newton’s second law of motion states that forces

acting on an object are not in balance, there is a net
(resultant) force then the body will accelerate or
decelerate. In the case above the resultant force FR is
given by:
FR = FP - FF, and

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Example 32 Therefore Rn = mg - Fpsin

The accelerating force is Fpcos.
A mass of 15 kg is being accelerated by a force Fp of
100 N at an angle of 30 degrees from the horizontal.
If the coefficient of friction m is 0.4, what is the
acceleration? For simplicity take g = 10 m/s2.

Newton’s second law of motion states that forces

acting on an object are not in balance, there is a net
(resultant) force then the body will accelerate or
decelerate. In the case above the resultant force FR is
given by:

Consider a force Fp applied at an angle of  degrees FR = Fpcos - FF, and

from the horizontal as shown above. This force is FF = mg - Fpsin)
resolved into its components Fpcos in the direction of
motion and Fpsin perpendicular to the direction of Thus FR = Fpcos - mg - Fpsin), hence:
motion. FR = 100 cos30 – (0.4 x (15 x 10 – 100 sin30)
FR = 86.6 – (0.4 x (150 – 50) = 86.6 – 0.4 x 100
Consider the forces perpendicular to the direction of
motion. The block is not moving in the vertical plane = 46.6 N
therefore:
FR 46.6
Rn + Fpsin = W = mg FR = ma and hence a = = = 3.1 m/s2.
m 15

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Forces on a Body on an Inclined Plane Therefore FF = s mg cos

Where s = Coefficient of static friction.

Note:This frictional force is considered to be

experienced if the mass is moved at a constant speed
(ignoring temperature rises) and considering Newton's
1st Law is equal but opposite in direction to the
applied force causing motion.

Friction calculation
For the example shown, where the mass is on an
inclined plane, and the mass is just about to move,
The diagram shows a body (mass m) on an inclined the frictional force may be calculated as follows
plane. As the angle of the plane () is increased, the At this maximum value, the force opposing motion
body remains stationary, until at some particular
value of , it begins to move down the plane. This is Fmax = mg sin
because the frictional force (F) opposing motion has
reached its maximum value. Because the block is balanced by the frictional force

Frictional force, FF = s x Clamping force (Rn) Fmax = s mg cos

Rn = mg cos Thus s mg cos = mg sin

mg sin 
Rn is the normal reaction between the body and the s = = tan 
mg cos 
plane

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s is termed the Coefficient of (Static) Friction. Therefore:

It is generally considered in mechanics to have a  mg cos = mg sin
value less than 1, but some materials have a
mg sin 
'stickiness' associated with them which exceeds this Hence:  = = tan  = tan 20 = 0.36.
mg cos 
value.
Rolling Friction
Note also that cases occur where static friction
(friction associated with stationary objects) is greater When we deal with a body that rolls over a surface,
than running friction (where objects are now in we have another coefficient of friction to consider, the
motion). coefficient of rolling friction.
The coefficients of rolling friction (roll) are very small.
A useful example is in flying-control systems, where Therefore rolling friction is much smaller than either
engineers have to perform both static and running static or dynamic friction.
friction checks.
Rubber tyres on concrete 0.02.

Example 33 Roller bearings 0.001 to 0.003.

If a 20 kg block is sliding down a 20 degree slope at a

constant velocity what is the coefficient of (dynamic)
friction.

In this case the force down the slope due to the

component of the weight of the body: mg sin is
balanced by the frictional force, acting up the slope:
 mg cos.

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Exercise 13 6. On a horizontal surface, the mass of an object is 5

kg, and the coefficient of friction is 0.2, what is the
1. What direction does the frictional force act?
friction force? Take g as 10 m/s2.
2. On a horizontal surface, what is the formula for the 7. An object with a weight of 900 N is held stationary
frictional force? on a frictionless slope 3m high and 10 m long. What
is the force acting along the slope that is required to
2a. In words:
balance the object?
2b. In symbols:
8. What is the clamping force holding an object of
3. Rn the normal force is given by (in symbols): weight 50 N onto a surface inclined at an angle 40
degrees to the horizontal? sin  = 0.64, cos  = 0.77.
4. Label the
9. An object of mass of 9 kg is moved at a constant
components of
speed over a horizontal surface with coefficient of
the object’s
friction of 0.3 between the mass and the surface.
weight that
If g = 10 m/s2, what is the force due to friction?
act parallel
and 10. A 10 metre long slope made of ice is raised 5
perpendicular metres at one end. A block of weight 300 N is placed
to the slope. on the top of the slope and then released. g=10 m/s2.
a) What is the accelerating force?
b) What is the acceleration?
c) How long does the object take to get to the bottom
5. The object is about to move, what is tan  equal of the slope?
to?
d) What is its velocity at the bottom of the slope?

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Answers 5. tan =  the Coefficient of Friction. It could be

Exercise 13 either the coefficient of static or dynamic
friction.
1. What direction does the frictional force act?
Friction can operate in any direction, but always 6. FF = mg = 0.2 x 5 x 10 = 10 N
acts in the sense opposing motion. 7. F = mg sin = 900 sin 
where sin  = 3/10 or 0.3
2a. In words: Frictional force = Thus, F = 900 x 0.3 = 270 N
coefficient of friction x Clamping force or
8. F = mg cos = 50 cos 40 N = 38.3 N
normal force
9. Ff = R = 0.3 x 9 x 10 = 27.
2b. In symbols: FF =  Rn
10a mgsin = 300 x 0.5 = 150 N.
3. Rn = W = mg
Force 150
4 10b. acceleration = = = 5 m/s2.
mass 30
10c. s = ut + ½at2, u = 0 rearrange to give:
2s 2 2 x 10
t2 = ,t = = 4, t = 2 seconds.
a 5
10d. With u = 0, using v2 = u2 + 2as, v2 = 2as
v2 = 2 x 5 x 10 = 100, v = 10 m/s.
Alternatively, PE = KE, thus mgh =1/2 mv2, v2 = 2gh
= 2 x 10 x 5 = 100, v = 10 m/s.

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Chapter 2.2.4: Fluid Dynamics find the liquids density.

Fluid is a term that includes both gases and liquids;
The volume of the container is:
they are both able to flow. We will generally
1.6 x 1.0 x 0.75 = 1.2 m3 and the density is:
consider gases to be compressible and liquids to be
incompressible.
756
 = = 630 kg/m3
1.2
Specific Gravity and Density
The density of a substance is its mass per unit Although temperature changes do not change the
volume. The density of solids and liquids varies with mass of a substance, they do change the volume
temperature, and the density of a gas varies with both through thermal expansion and contraction. This
temperature and pressure. The symbol for density is volume change means that there is a change in the
the Greek symbol Rho (). To find the density of a density of the substance.
substance, divide its mass by its volume, which will
give you the mass per unit volume, or density. As the density of solids and liquids vary with
mass temperature, a standard temperature of 4C is used
Density () = when measuring the density of each. The density of
volume
pure water at 4C is 1000 kg/m3.
Where mass is in kg and the volume in m3. Thus the
units for density, , are kg/m3 or kgm-3. When measuring the density of a gas, temperature
and pressure must be considered. Standard
Example 34 conditions for the measurement of gas density:
The liquid that fills a certain container has a mass of temperature 0C and a pressure of 1013.25 milli-bars
756 kilograms. The container is 1.6 metres long, 1.0 (Standard atmospheric pressure). This gives the
metre wide and 0.75 of a metre deep and we want to density of air, air = 1.292 kg/m3.

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Note that the standard conditions, for the imperial Alternatively,

system (NASA): temperature 15C , 59F and a density of the body
Relative Density =
pressure of 1013 mbars (14.7 p.s.i.) which gives the density of pure water at 4C
density of air, air = 1.229 kg/m3.
density of the body
=
1000 kg/m3
Relative Density (formerly Specific Gravity)
It is often necessary to compare the density of one The same formulas are used to find the relative
substance with that of another. For this reason, a density of gases by substituting air for water.
standard is needed from which all other materials can
be compared. mass of any volume of a gas *
Relative Density =
mass of equalvolume of air *
The standard when comparing the densities of all
liquids and solids is: water at 4C, * At the same temperature and pressure.
and the standard for gases is dry air at atmospheric Alternatively,
pressure and a temperature 0C. density of the gas at STP
Relative Density =
density of air at STP
Relative density is calculated by comparing the weight
of a definite volume of substance with an equal STP = standard temperature and pressure.
volume of water. The following formula can be used
to find the relative density, of liquids and solids. As relative density is a ratio it has no units. For
example, if a certain hydraulic fluid has a relative
mass of any volume of a substance density of 0.8, then 1 litre of the liquid weighs 0.8
Relative Density = times as much as 1 litre of water. Remember that
mass of equalvolume of water
the relative density of both water and air is 1.

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Solid Hydrometer
Ice 0.917
Aluminium 2.7
A device called a hydrometer is used to measure the
Titanium 4.4 relative density of liquids. This device has a glass
Iron 7.9 float contained within a cylindrical glass body. The
Copper 8.9 float has a weight in the bottom and a graduated scale
Lead 11.4 at the top. When liquid is drawn into the body, the
Gold 19.3 float displays the relative density on the graduated
Liquid scale.
Petrol 0.72
Jet Fuel (JP-4) 0.785 Immersion in pure water would give a reading of
Alcohol 0.789 1.000, so liquids with relative density of less or more
Kerosene 0.82 than water would float lower or higher than it would in
Synthetic Oil 0.928 water.
Water 1.000
Mercury 13.6 An area in aviation where this topic is of special
Gases interest is the electrolyte of batteries, where the
Hydrogen 0.0695 relative density is an indication of battery condition.
Helium 0.138 Another is aircraft fuel, as some aircraft are re-fuelled
Acetylene 0.898
by weight, whilst others are re-fuelled by volume.
Nitrogen 0.967
Knowledge of the relative density of the fuel is
Air 1.000
essential in this case.
Oxygen 1.105
Carbon Dioxide 1.528

Table of Typical Relative Densities

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Viscosity is the property of a fluid that resists the

relative motion of its molecules.

Just as there is friction opposing movement between

two solid surfaces when one slides over another, so
there is friction between two liquid surfaces even
when they consist of the same liquid. This internal
friction opposes the motion of one layer over another
and, therefore, when it is great, it makes the flow of
the liquid very slow.

Even mobile liquids possess a certain amount of

viscosity. This can be shown by stirring a container of
Principle of a Hydrometer liquid, with a piece of wire. If you continue to stir, the
contents of the container will eventually be spinning.
Viscosity This proves that the viscosity of the layers
Viscosity is a measure of the ability of the fluid to immediately next to the wire have dragged other
flow: a high viscosity fluid does not flow easily. layers around, until all the liquid rotates.

Liquids such as water flow very easily whilst others, The viscosity of a liquid rapidly decreases as its
such as treacle, flow much slower under the same temperature rises. Treacle will run off a warmed
conditions. Liquids of the type that flow readily are spoon much more readily than it will from a cold one.
said to be mobile, and those of the treacle type are Similarly when tar (which is very viscous) is to be
called viscous. Viscosity is due to friction in the used for roadway repairs, it is first heated so that it
interior of the liquid. will flow readily.

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Some liquids have such high viscosity that they different ways. If we allow a fixed quantity to run out
almost have the same properties as solids. Pitch, of a container through a known orifice, we can time it
which is also used in road building, is a solid black and then compare this against another liquid, we can
substance. If we leave a block of the material in one say which has the lower (or higher) viscosity. Another
position, it will, eventually begin to spread. This method measures the time for a sphere of set
shows it to be a liquid with a very high viscosity. diameter to descend through a fluid. Other more
complex apparatus is required to measure viscosity
more accurately.

The knowledge of the viscosity of a liquid, such as oil

is vital. Aircraft components such as engines and
gearboxes depend on lubrication to enable them to
operate efficiently.

Cold heavy oils, such as those used to lubricate large

High Viscosity of Pitch gearboxes, have high viscosity and flow very slowly,
whereas petroleum spirit is extremely light and
An even more extreme case is glass. A sheet of glass volatile and flows very easily and so has low viscosity.
stood up on end on a hard surface, will eventually be
found to be slightly thicker at the bottom of the sheet Fluid Resistance
than at the top. So although we could call glass a The resistance to fluid flows can be divided into two
liquid with an exceedingly high viscosity, we normally general groups.
consider it a solid.
Laminar Flow: Skin friction is the resistance present
The viscosity of different liquids can be compared in on a thin, flat plate, which is edgewise on to a fluid

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flow. The fluid is slowed up near the surface owing to The surface roughness has an effect on the
the roughness of the surface and it can be shown that streamlines that are away from the surface and if the
the fluid is actually stationary at the surface. A typical surface can be made smoother, the overall friction or
velocity distance profile is shown below: drag can be reduced.

Definition: A boundary layer lies between a

stationary and moving boundary across which the
velocity changes.

The stationary boundary could be stationary air and

the moving boundary could be the wing of an aircraft.
Alternatively, the moving boundary could be the fluid
in a pipe and the stationary boundary could be the
sides of the pipe.

Turbulent Flow: The second form of resistance is

known as eddies or turbulent airflow. This can be
demonstrated by placing the flat plate at right angles
to the flow. This causes a great deal turbulence
behind the plate and a very high resistance, which is
The length of each vector represents the velocity of
almost entirely due to the formation of these eddies.
the fluid at that point. The rate at which the velocity
changes across the boundary is proportional to the
viscosity of the fluid.

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Fluid flow, where the fluid particles move in an orderly

manner and maintain the same relative positions at
different points along the fluid path, is known as
streamline flow or laminar flow. This can occur
when a fluid stream, liquid or gas, is flowing steadily
over a smooth surface. If this stream meets large
irregularities, the streamlines are broken up and the
flow becomes irregular or turbulent, as may be seen
when a stream comes upon rocks on a river bed.
Turbulent Airflow or Eddies
The introduction of smoke into the airflow in a wind
tunnels or coloured jets into water tank experiments,
The Effects of Streamlining makes it is possible to see these streamlines and
eddies.

When a fluid flows slowly through a pipe, the flow is

said to be steady and lines, called streamlines, are
drawn to represent it as shown in the diagram below.

Representation of Laminar Flow over an Aerofoil

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If the flow is very fast and exceeds a certain critical becomes turbulent and the viscous drag on the sphere
speed, the flow becomes turbulent and the fluid is increases sharply.
churned up. The streamlines are no longer straight
and parallel, and eddies are formed as shown below.
The resistance to flow increases as a result.

The behaviour of a fluid when an object is moving in it

is similar to what occurs when a fluid flows through a
pipe.

If the object, e.g. a small sphere, moves slowly, then The critical speed can be raised by changing the shape
streamlines similar to those in part “a” of the diagram of the object, so reducing drag and causing steady
below, will show the apparent motion of the fluid flow to replace turbulent flow. This is called
around the object. It will be a steady flow. streamlining the object and part “c” shows how this
done for a sphere. Streamlining is especially
If the speed of the sphere increases, a critical speed is important in the designing of high speed aircraft and
reached when the flow breaks up and eddies are other fast moving vehicles.
formed behind the sphere as in part “b”, the flow

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The Compressibility of Fluids Equation of Continuity

All fluids are compressible, so that their density will The equation of continuity: The mass flow rate of a
change with pressure, but, under steady flow fluid is constant.
conditions and provided that the changes of density
are small it is often possible to simplify the analysis of The mass flow rate is the mass flowing past a point in
a problem by assuming the that fluid is incompressible a given time.
and of constant density.
m
Density,  = kg/m3.
Since liquids are relatively difficult to compress, it is V
usual to treat them as if they are incompressible for
all cases of steady flow. Therefore mass, m = V.
Now volume, V = Area x Length = A x L
Gases are easily compressed and, except when
changes of pressure and, therefore, density are very mass
The mass flow rate = kg/s
small, the effects of compressibility and changes of time
internal energy must be taken into account. V AxL L
=x =x =xAx =  x A x v = Av
t t t
The equations developed in the next few sections
assume incompressible flow. These equations are Make sure that you do not mix up the symbol for
accurate enough for low speed flight: Volume, capital V, and the symbol for velocity lower
case v.
Airflow of 100 m/s, the error is approximately 2% and
at 200 m/s it is approximately 10%.

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Consider the wind tunnel cross section shown below: Dividing throughout by the density  gives:
= = A1v1 = A2v2 m3/s


is the volumetric flow rate. The above equation is

the continuity equation for volume flow rate.

Example 35
The cross sectional area A1 = 0.5 m2, the area A2 is
0.05 m2. If the velocity v2 = 85 m/s, what is the
velocity v1?

We have A1v1 = A2v2

=  A1v1 = A2v2 kg/s
This equation is known as the continuity equation for Re-arranging to make v1 the subject gives:
mass flow rate.
A2v2 0.05 x 85
v1 = = = 8.5 m/s.
Consider incompressible flow, the density  is A1 0.5
constant, therefore  =  = 

The above equation mass flow equation becomes:

= A1v1 = A2v2 kg/s

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Pressure Head and Dynamic Pressure The pressure head is the pressure acting at depth h
within a stationary fluid of density . This is
straightforward enough to understand as the simple
diagram demonstrates, we can "see" the liquid.
But the same principle applies to gases also, and we
know that at altitude, the reduced density is
accompanied by reduced pressure (head). We are not
aware of the pressure within the atmosphere which
acts on our bodies; the density is low (almost 1000
In this diagram, the pressure acting on x x1 is due to times less than water). Divers, however, quickly
the weight of the fluid (in this case a liquid) acting become aware of increasing water pressure as they
downwards. descend.
But we do become aware of greater air pressures
This weight W = mg (g = gravitational constant) whenever moving air is involved, as on a windy day
But mass = volume  density for example. The pressure associated with moving air
= height  csa  density is termed dynamic pressure.
= h.A.
In aeronautics, moving air is essential to flight, and so
csa = cross-sectional area dynamic pressure is frequently referred to.
Therefore downward force = h..g. A. acting on A Dynamic pressure = ½ v2
Force hg.A/ (where:  = density, v = velocity.)
Therefore, the pressure = =
Area A
/
Note how the pressure is proportional to the square of
Pressure Head =  g h the air velocity.

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Bernoulli’s Formula
The Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel
Bernoulli developed a principle that explains the
relationship between potential and kinetic energy in a
fluid. All matter contains potential energy and/or
kinetic energy. In a fluid the potential energy is that
caused by the pressure of the fluid, while the kinetic
energy is that caused by the fluid’s movement.
Although you cannot create or destroy energy, it is
possible to exchange potential energy for kinetic
energy or vice versa.
Pressure and Velocity Changes in a Venturi
As a fluid enters a venturi tube, it is travelling at a
known velocity and pressure. When the fluid enters
Bernoulli’s principle can be found in a carburettor and
the restriction it must speed up, or increase its kinetic
paint spray gun. Air passing through a venturi creates
energy. However, when the kinetic energy increases,
a rapid drop in pressure, which enables the
the potential energy decreases. Therefore the
atmospheric pressure to force the fluid into the
pressure decreases. Then as the fluid continues
venturi, and out of the tube in the form of a fine
through the tube, both velocity and pressure return to
spray.
their original values.
The venturi gives us the key to the theory of flight.

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Bernoulli’s Equation Divide through out by volume:

In the section; Pressure Head and Dynamic Pressure,
we were introduced to the pressure associated with V1 m m V2 m m
p1 + ½ v12 + gh1 = p2 + ½ v22 + gh2
the height of fluid above the datum, gh and the V1 V1 V1 V2 V2 V2
dynamic pressure associated with the velocity of the mass
fluid, ½v2. These terms are related to the potential = density, .
volume
energy, mgh and kinetic energy, ½mv2.
Hence: p1 + ½1v12 + 1gh1 = p2 + ½2v22 + 2gh2
There is another pressure term associated with fluids The fluid is incompressible thus = 1= 2
in motion is known as the pressure energy term. The
pressure energy of a fluid in motion, p, is defined as: Thus: p1 + ½v12 + gh1 = p2 + ½v22 + gh2
Pressure of fluid x volume of the displaced fluid = pV This is known as Bernoulli’s equation and is based on
Thus pressure energy PsE = pV. incompressible flow.
If the difference in heights between the two points
Applying the principle of conservation of energy to and the density of air are small, the potential energy
fluids in motion gives: change is considered insignificant for these types of
PsE1 + KE1 + PE1 = PsE2 + KE2 + PE2 calculation.

PsE = pressure energy Thus the formula becomes:

KE = kinetic energy
PE = potential energy p1 + ½v12 = p2 + ½v22
p is defined as the static pressure.
2
p1V1 + ½mv1 + mgh1 = p2V2+½mv22 + mgh2 ½v2 is the dynamic pressure.

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Pitot-Static Tube Since the outside holes are perpendicular to the

direction of travel, these holes measure the static
These are used to find the speed of an aircraft.
pressure (p). The centre hole, however, is pointed
Several small holes are drilled around the outside of
in the direction of travel and measures the total
the tube and a centre hole is drilled down the axis of
pressure (pt) discussed in Bernoulli's equation. The
the tube. The outside holes are connected to one side
pressure transducer measures the difference in total
of a device called a pressure transducer. The centre
and static pressure which is the dynamic pressure.
hole in the tube is kept separate from the outside
holes and is connected to the other side of the p + ½v2 = pt
transducer. The transducer measures the difference in
2(pt - p)
pressure. Re-arranging gives: v2 =


There are, however, some practical limitations to this

equation:

If the velocity is low, the difference in pressures is

very small and hard to accurately measure with the
transducer. Errors in the instrument could be greater
than the measurement! So Pitot-static tubes do not
work very well for very low velocities.

If the velocity is very high (supersonic), we have

The Pitot-static tube is mounted on the aircraft so that violated the assumptions of Bernoulli's equation and
the centre hole is always pointed in the direction of the measurement is wrong again. There are
travel and the outside holes are perpendicular to the corrections that can be applied to allow us to use
centre tube. Pitot-static tubes for high speed aircraft.

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Exercise 14 10. Viscosity is due to:

1a. Write out in words the formula for density:
11. What is the effect of temperature on viscosity?
1b. Write out the formula for density in symbols:
12. When the fluid flows in smooth paths that are
2a. Write out in words the units for density. known as ... the flow is …
2b. Write out in symbols the units for density.
13. When the liquid flow is full of eddy currents, the
3. Write out in words the formula for relatively flow is …
density.
14. The critical speed when referred to a liquid is the
4. What are the units of relative density? speed where:

5. 0.1 cubic metres of a substance weighs 90 kg. 15. Write out in symbols, the formula for the
continuity equation for volume flow rate.
5a. What is the density and
5b. Relative density of the substance? 16. Up stream of the venturi the cross-sectional area,
A1=0.8 m2. The velocity of the fluid, v1=20 m/s.
6. What is a hydrometer? If the velocity of the fluid in the venturi,
v2 = 100 m/s. What is the cross-sectional area of
7. What is viscosity? the venturi?

8. High viscosity makes the liquid flow:

9. Low viscosity fluids are said to be:

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17. Write the formula for pressure head:

17a. In words and
17b. Symbols

18. The formula for dynamic pressure is:

18a. In words and
18b. In symbols

19. Bernoulli’s Theorem explains:

20. What is a venturi?

21. When a fluid speeds up the pressure of the fluid:

22. Bernoulli’s equation takes into account three

forms of energy:

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Answers 7. Viscosity is a measure of the ability of the

fluid to flow
Exercise 14
8. very slowly
mass
1a. Density =
volume 9. mobile
m
1b. = 10. friction in the interior of the liquid.
V
kilograms 11. viscosity decreases as temperature
2a. Units = increases or viscosity increases as the
metres cubed
kg temperature decreases.
2a. Units = or kgm-3
m3
12. streamlines and lamina flow
3. Relative Density = 13. turbulent
mass of any volume of a substance
mass of equal volume of water 14. lamina flow changes to turbulent flow

4. none 15. A1v1 = A2v2

90 A1v1 0.8 x 20
5a. Density = = 900 kgm-3 16. A2 = = = 0.16 m2
0.1 v2 100

900 17a. Pressure head =

5b. Relative Density = = 0.9 density x gravitational acceleration x height
1000
6. A hydrometer is used to measure the relative 17b. ph =  g h
density of liquids

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18a. dynamic pressure

= half density x square of the velocity

18b. pd = ½ v2

19. the relationship between potential and

kinetic energy in a fluid
20. a restriction in a pipe that causes the fluid to
speed up
21. decreases
22. Pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy

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Section 2.3: Thermodynamics decreased to 273 degrees below zero, the volume of
the gas would also decrease to zero, and there would
Chapter 2.3.1: Temperature be no more molecular activity. This point is referred
Heat is a form of energy that causes molecular to as absolute zero.
agitation within a material. The amount of agitation is
measured in terms of temperature, which is a On the Celsius scale absolute zero is -273C. On
measure of the kinetic energy of molecules. the Fahrenheit scale it is –460F. This point relates
to 0 Kelvin.
In establishing a temperature scale, two conditions
are chosen as a reference. These are the points at In the Fahrenheit system, water freezes at 32F and
which pure water freezes and boils. In the boils at 212F. The difference between these two
Centigrade system the scale is divided into 100 points is divided into 180 increments.
graduated increments known as degrees () with
the freezing point of water represented by 0C and the Conversion between temperature scales.
boiling point 100C. The Centigrade scale was named An engineering student should be able to convert from
the Celsius scale after the Swedish astronomer Anders one temperature to another:
Celsius who first described the centigrade scale in
1742. Convert ºF to ºC:
5 o 5
Subtract 32, then multiply by . C = (oF - 32) x
In 1802 the French chemist and physicist Joseph Louis 9 9
Gay Loussac found that when you increased the Convert ºC to ºF:
temperature of a gas by one degree Celsius, it 9 o 5
expands by 1/273 of its original volume. He reasoned Multiply by , then add 32 F = oC x +32
5 9
that if a gas was cooled, its volume would decrease by
the same amount. So if the temperature was Convert ºC to K: add 273º.

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Example 36 An approximation may be obtained by:-

0
Convert 20ºC to Fahrenheit. F = 0C x 2 then + 30
9 (or 0C = 0F - 30 then  2 ).
(20 x ) + 32 = 36 + 32 = 68 ºF
5
Heat
Example 37 Heat is the exchange of thermal energy from a hot
Convert 15ºC to Kelvin. body to a cold body. When a hot body and a cold body
have contact, heat will flow from the hot body to
15 + 273 = 288 K.
the cold body until they both reach thermal
Note also that when thermodynamic principles and equilibrium (they are at the same temperature).
calculations are considered, it is usually vital to
perform these calculations using temperatures Heat is one of the most useful forms of energy
expressed in Kelvin. because of its direct relationship with work. When an
aircraft’s brakes are applied, the kinetic energy of the
moving aircraft is changed into heat energy by the
rubbing action of the brake friction material against
the brake discs. This slows the wheels and produces
additional friction between the wheels and the ground,
which, finally slows the aircraft.

There are a number of different units used in the

relationship between heat and work. The SI system
uses the Joule (J), and the Imperial system, the
British thermal unit (Btu), whilst a third unit, the

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calorie (cal), is also still in use. Below are some Heat capacity is the amount of energy change
conversion factors between these units. for a given mass and temperature change.

Heat & Work Conversion Factors Different materials require differing amounts of heat
1 J 0.2388 cal energy to change their temperature. The heat energy
1 cal 4.1868 J required to change the temperature of 1 kg of
1 Btu 1055 J material by 1 K is known as the specific heat capacity
1 J 0.000 947 Btu (c) of the material.
1 Btu 0.252 x 103 cal
1 cal 3.968 x 10–3 Btu Examples of Specific Heat
-1 –1
Material Specific Heat J kg K
Heat Capacity Lead 127
Mercury 139
The specific heat (also called specific heat
Copper 385
capacity) is the amount of heat per unit mass
Iron 460
required to raise the temperature by one degree
Aluminium 908
Celsius. The relationship between heat and
Water 4200
temperature change is usually expressed in the form
shown below where c is the specific heat.
The larger the specific heat, the smaller the
Q = cmT temperature change when a given amount of energy
Where, is added or removed.
Q is the heat added (J)
C the specific heat (J kg-1 K-1) Due to the high specific heat of water, oceans and
M is the mass (kg) large lakes serve as temperature stabilisers. Land
T is Tfinal - Tinitial (K or oC) surfaces have a much lower specific heat, and the

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temperature can vary significantly throughout the Conduction

day. This difference between land and sea is the main Conduction requires physical contact between a
cause of ‘on’ and ‘off’ shore winds at the coast. body having a high level of heat energy and a
body having a lower level of heat energy.
The heat capacity relationship shown on the previous
page (Q = cmT) does not apply if a phase change is When a cold object touches a hot object, the violent
encountered, because the heat added or removed action of the molecules in the hot material speeds up
during a phase change does not change the the slow molecules in the cold object. This action
temperature. spreads until the heat is equalised throughout both
bodies.
The phase (state) changes mentioned above are the
transitions between solid, liquid, and gaseous matter. A good example of heat transfer by conduction is the
They typically involve large amounts of energy way excessive heat is removed from an aircraft’s
compared to the specific heat and are called the piston engine cylinder. The combustion process
latent heat of fusion and latent heat of releases a great deal of heat, which passes to the
vaporisation which will be discussed later. outside of the cylinder head and into the fins
surrounding the head by conduction. The heat is then
Heat Transfer conducted into the air as it flows through the fins.
There are three methods by which heat is transferred
from one location to another or from one substance to
another. These three methods are conduction,
convection and radiation.

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Insulators are materials that reduce or prevent heat

conduction. A wooden handle on a pot or soldering
iron serves as a heat insulator. Materials, such as
finely spun glass, are particularly poor heat
conductors and are commonly used in many types of
insulation.

Convection
Convection is the process by which heat is
transferred by the movement of a heated fluid.

Transfer of Heat by Conduction For example, when heat is absorbed by a free-moving

Various metals have different rates of conduction. In fluid, the fluid closest to the heat source expands and
some cases, the ability of a metal to conduct heat is a its density decreases. This less dense fluid rises and
major factor in choosing one metal over another. forces the more dense fluid downwards. A pan of
water on a stove is heated in this way. The water on
Liquids are poor conductors of heat in comparison the bottom of the pan heats by conduction and rises,
with metals. This can be observed by boiling water at and the cooler water then moves towards the bottom
one end of a test tube whilst ice remains at the other of the pan.
end.

Gases are even worse conductors of heat than liquids,

which is why we can stand quite close to a fire or
stove without being burned.

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The heat you feel from an open fire is not transferred

by convection because hot air over the fire rises. The
heat is not transferred through conduction because
the conductivity of air is poor, and the cooler air
moving towards the fire overcomes the transfer of
heat outwards. So there must be some way for heat
to travel across space other than by conduction or
convection.

The term ‘radiation’ refers to the continual emission of

energy from the surface of all bodies. This energy is
known as radiant energy of which sunlight is a form.
Example of Convection This is why you feel warm standing in front of a
Transfer of heat by convection is often hastened by window whilst it is very cold outside.
the use of a ventilating fan to move the air
surrounding a hot object. The use of fan heaters in Expansion and Contraction
place of straight electric fires to heat a room, is a case All materials expand and contract with a change in
in point. When this process is used to remove heat, a temperature. This is most noticeable in gas which
fan or pump is often used to circulate the coolant expands the greatest amount and which is harnessed
medium to accelerate the transfer of heat. to do work. Solids and liquids expand much less than
gases and this must be taken into consideration when
Radiation designing all parts of aircraft and engines.

Radiation is the only form of energy transfer Expansion can be considered as a change in length, a
that does not require the presence of matter. change in area or change in volume.

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Linear Expansion Superficial expansion

This is an increase in area, and is often approximated
This is an increase in a single direction, (it may also
as  = 2 (units of : /oC or /K)
be a reduction in length often if the temperature
Change in area =
falls).
original area x coefficient of superficial expansion x
temperature change
Change in length =
original length x coefficient of linear expansion x
Change in area = original area x  x temp change
temperature change

Change in L = orig. length x  x temp. change. Volumetric expansion

This is an increase in volume and is often
This may be written as: approximated as  = 3 (units of : /oC or /K)

L 2 - L1 = L1  (T2 - T1) Change in volume =

original volume x coefficient of volumetric expansion
Where: x temperature change
L2 and L1 are final and initial lengths*
2 and 1 are final and initial temperatures (oC of K) Change in volume = orig. volume x  x temp. change
 is a material constant - coefficient of linear
expansion (/oC or /K). Different materials expand at different rates, and this
may be used, for example, when shrink fitting
*Units are normally in metres but could be in components.
centimetres of millimetres. It does not matter as long
as all lengths have the same units.

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Expansion of Solids Exercise 15

Engineers are familiar with the effect of temperature 1. What is temperature?
on structures and components, as the temperature
increases, things expand (dimensions increase) and 2. Write out the conversion in symbols:
vice versa. Expansion affects solids, liquids and gases. 2a. o
C to oF and
o
2b. F to oC.
But how much does a component expand? The
answer should be obvious. 3. Write out the approximate conversion in symbols:
o
Expansion is proportional to the increase in 3a. C to oF and
o
temperature, to the original dimension and depends 3b. F to oC.
on the actual material used.
4. What is heat?

Expansion of Fluids 5. What is heat capacity or specific heat?

Liquids behave in a similar way to solids when heated,
but (a) they expand more than solids, and (b) they 6. Write out the relationship between the amount of
expand volumetrically. Note that when heated, the heat added and the change in temperature of an
container tends to expand as well, which may or may object.
not be important to a designer. 6a. In words
6b. In symbols:
Gases however, behave in a rather more complex
way, as volume and temperature changes are usually
accompanied by pressure changes.

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7. In the SI system of units, what are the units for: 12. Which is the only form of energy transfer that
7a. Q does not require the presence of matter?
7b. c
7c. m 13. Which process is the heat transferred by the
7d. T movement of fluid?

8. How much energy is required to raise 2 kg water 14. If the coefficient of linear expansion is 12x10-6/oC,
by 50 ºC? The specific heat of water is what is the approximate value of the coefficient of
4200 J kg-1 K–1. superficial expansion?

9. If heat energy of 270 kJ, when added to a 10 kg 15. A metal block of volume 0.02 m3 is subjected to a
block of aluminium raises its temperature from temperature rise of 50oC. If  = 20 x 10-6 /oC.
287 K to 317 K. What is the specific heat of What is the change in volume of the cube?
aluminium?

Expansion
10. A steel bar has a length of 1 m at 10oC. What will
Be the change in the length of the bar if it is
heated to 310 oC? Use  = 20 x 10-6 /oC.

11. A rectangular slab of concrete has an area of

50 m2 is subject to a temperature rise of 80oC.
What is the increase in the area of the concrete?
Use  = 10 x 10-6 /oC.

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Answers 6b. Q = cmT

Exercise 15
7a. Q is energy and hence the units are Joules.
1. Temperature is a measure of the quantity of 7b. The specific heat capacity (c) is the same as
energy possessed by a body or substance. It the thermal energy required to produce a 1 K
measures the vibration of the molecules, rise in temperature in a mass of 1kg.
which form the substance. Therefore: c =
9 total energy ÷ (mass x temperature rise),
2a. oF = (oC x ) + 32 and
5 thus units are J kg-1K–1
5
2b. oC = (oF – 32) x 7c. m: Mass (kg).
9
7d. T: Tfinal - Tinitial
3a. o
F = (oC x 2) + 30 and As this is a difference of units either ºC or K
o
3b. C = (oF – 30) ÷ 2
8. The heat added:
4. Heat is the exchange of thermal energy from a Q = c x m x T J
hot body to a cold body. = 4200 x 2 x 50 J
= 420000 J = 420 kJ
5. The specific heat or specific heat capacity is
the amount of heat per unit mass required to Q
9. c =
raise the temperature by one degree Celsius. m x T

6a. Heat added = specific heat x mass object 270000

c = = 900 J kg-1 K–1.
x temperature change. 10 x 30

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Expansion
10. L2 - L1 = L1  ( 2 - 1 )
= 1x 20 x 10-6 x 300 = 6 x 10-3 m = 6 mm

11. Superficial expansion  = 2

Change in area
= original area
x coeff. of superficial exp. x temp. change
= 50 x (2 x 10 x 10-6) x 80
= 1000 x 80 x 10-6 = 0.08 m2.

12. Radiation

13. Convection

14. 24 x 10-6/oC.

15. Increase in volume is approximately

3V( 2 - 1 ).
Increase in volume
= 3 x 0.02 x 50 x 20 x 10-6
= 60 x 10-6 cubic metres.

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Chapter 2.3.2: Energy conservation limits the amount of work we can

The Laws of Thermodynamics get out of a certain amount of heat.

Introduction 0th Law of Thermodynamics

Heat is a form of energy. It is disordered energy. This states that if two bodies A, and C, are at the
Work is the conversion of one form of energy into same temperature, and a third body, B, is at the
another form. Thermodynamics is the study of the same temperature as, A, then the bodies, B, and C,
way that one does work with heat. must be at the same temperature.

A very simple device that can convert heat into

potential energy is a rubber band. Unlike most other
substances, rubber contracts when heated. We can
therefore lift an object by heating a rubber band. Heat
is converted into gravitational potential energy
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, then they must be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

Thermodynamic Systems
Thermodynamic systems are defined amounts of
thermodynamic substances such as compressible
fluids, which are surrounded by a definable boundary.

How much work can we possible get out of heat?

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These compressible fluids, gases or vapours, are the fluid will start with one set of properties and end
termed working fluid in that they enable the system to up with another.
do work or have work done upon it. In a closed If the system boundary is moved during the process
system, only transient energies in the form of heat, Q, then work is done by or done on the
and work, W, can cross the system boundaries. thermodynamic system.
Addition or subtraction of work or heat will result in a
change of internal energy of the thermodynamic Closed Thermodynamic System
system.
This type of system has a closed or fixed boundary
Note: internal energy is the sum of the potential and containing a fixed amount of vapour or gas, while an
kinetic energy of the molecules. exchange of heat and work may take place.
Properties of Thermodynamic Systems
The elements that make up a thermodynamic system
are:
a) A working fluid such as water steam, air.
b) A Heat Source.
c) A heat sink (cold body) to enable heat transfer.
d) System boundaries which may or may not be fixed.
Consider a cylinder and piston of an internal
The working fluid will have observable quantities such combustion engine. With the valves shut the closed
as pressure, volume and temperature. system is as shown. The transient energy is the fuel
which is ignited by the spark plug causing the piston
When the working fluid is subject to a process, such to move. Thus the system does mechanical work.
as being compressed by a piston or heated up, then

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In a closed system there is no mass transfer of the First Law of Thermodynamics

system fluid. Movement of the system boundary is The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is
required for work to be done on the system or by the conserved.
system.
We may express it in the following way:
Open Systems
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
In this type of system there is an opening in the
system boundary to allow a mass transfer of fluid to The change in internal energy of a system is equal to
take place while the transient energies heat (Q) and the heat added to the system minus the work done by
work (W) are being interchanged. the system.

U = Q – W ( is the mathematical symbol for a

change in a quantity)
where U is the change in internal energy,
Q is the heat added to the system
And W is the work done by the system.
The first law makes use of the key concepts of internal
energy, heat, and system work. It is used extensively
A practical example of this type of system is a gas in the discussion of heat engines. The equation
turbine engine. represents the first law of thermodynamics applied to
a closed system.
Q is positive when energy is added to the system and
negative when energy is taken out of the system.

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W is positive when work is done by the system and Let the electric heater be the system under
negative when work is done on the system. consideration.
When work is done by a thermodynamic system, it is U = Q - W.
usually a gas that is doing the work. The work done
U = 0 since the temperature of the heating element
by a gas at a constant pressure is:
is constant. (There is no rise in the internal energy of
The line from a to b the heating element)
represents an expansion Therefore,
of a gas at constant
Q = W.
pressure. The work done
is the area under the W is the electrical energy put into the system. It is
curve. negative. Q must be negative. It is the heat leaving
the system. 500 J of heat are leaving the system per
second. 500 J / s  3600 s = 1.8 MJ of electrical
energy are converted into heat every hour. All the
In the example shown above the work done by the electrical energy put into the system is converted into
gas W = PV. heat. (Any form of ordered energy can be completely
converted into heat.)
Example 38
Assume you are running an electric heater. It has Second Law of Thermodynamics
warmed up and is now running at a constant
temperature. It consumes 500 Watts of electrical The second Law extends the concepts introduced in
power. How much electrical energy is converted into the First Law of Thermodynamics.
heat per hour?
Normally,

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Heat always travels from a hot to cold.

The second law of thermodynamics is a general

principle which places constraints upon the direction of
heat transfer and the attainable efficiencies of heat
engines. In so doing, it goes beyond the limitations
imposed by the first law of thermodynamics.

The second law tells us: that although the net heat
supplied is equal to the network done, the total or
gross heat supplied must be greater than the net work
done.

Consider the heat engine shown in the diagram. The

net work done Wnet is the difference between the Heat
in Qin and the heat out Qout.
Wnet QH – QC
Thus Wnet = Qin – Qout Alternative notation = =
QH QH
From the second law Qin>Wnet
The second law defines the thermal efficiency of a
Net work done (Wnet)
Thermal efficiency,  = heat engine. Consider the analogy of a waterfall of
Total Heat supplied (Qin)
height h. The potential energy of this is mgh. If a
Wnet Qin – Qout water wheel is set half way up the waterfall then only
or = =
Qin Qin h
half the energy can be extracted (mg ). Thus a
2

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maximum of 50% of the energy can be extracted. which includes the conversion to heat as one of the
Consider a heat engine, taking heat energy from a steps will be inherently less efficient than one
source at 600 K and exhausting this to a heat sink at which is purely mechanical.
300 K. The minimum temperature that can be reached
is absolute zero 0 K. Thus the efficiency of the heat Third Law of Thermodynamics
engine can be at most 50%. The Third Law of thermodynamics states:

Another consequence of the second law is: The entropy of a system approaches a constant value
It is not possible to have a thermal transfer of energy as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
from a colder to hotter body without doing work. Entropy is a measure of the degree of disorder (or
energy loss) in a system, it tells us how the practical
The second law of thermodynamics is a profound system deviates from the ideal.
principle of nature which affects the way energy can
The third law is included for completeness only you
be used. There are several approaches to stating this
will not be examined on it.
principle qualitatively. Here are some approaches to
giving the basic sense of the principle. Gases
1. Heat will not flow spontaneously from a cold object An ideal gas will not turn into a liquid.
to a hot object. An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions
2. You cannot create a heat engine which extracts between atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic and
heat and converts it all to useful work. in which there are no intermolecular attractive forces.
One can visualise it as a collection of perfectly hard
3. There is a thermal bottleneck which constrains
spheres which collide but which otherwise do not
devices which convert stored energy to heat and
interact with each other. In such a gas, all the internal
then use the heat to accomplish work. For a given
energy is in the form of kinetic energy and any change
mechanical efficiency of the devices, a machine

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in internal energy is accompanied by a change in determination of the average kinetic energy of those
temperature. molecules. The temperature is taken to be
proportional to this average kinetic energy; this
An ideal gas can be characterised by three state invokes the idea of kinetic temperature.
variables: absolute pressure (P), volume (V), and
absolute temperature (T). The relationship between Definition: Isothermal and Adiabatic Processes
them may be deduced from kinetic theory and is An isothermal process is one in which the
called the Ideal Gas Law: temperature in a system remains constant, an
adiabatic process is one where no heat is added to,
PV = nRT = NkT or taken away from the system.
N = number of moles
R = universal gas constant = 8.3145 J/mol K
Ideal Gas Law with Constraints
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38066 x 10-23 J/K
k = R/NA where (Gay-Lussac’s Law or the Common Gas Law)
NA = Avogadro’s number = 6.0221 x 1023
For the purpose of calculations, it is convenient to
Note: this law is stated here for completeness only. place the ideal gas law in the form:
The variables within the formula are beyond the scope P1V1 P2V2
of this course, it is not examinable however the gas =
T1 T2
laws that follow are.
Where the subscripts, 1 and 2, refer to the initial and
The ideal gas law can be viewed as arising from the final states of the process. This is an adiabatic
kinetic pressure of gas molecules colliding with the process.
walls of a container in accordance with Newton's laws.
But there is also a statistical element in the

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If the temperature is constrained to be constant, this Example 39

becomes: Gas at constant temperature has a volume of 10 m3
Boyle's Law and pressure of 300 kPa. Its volume is decreased to 5
m3. What is the new pressure?
P1V1 = P2V2
Rearranging the formula for Boyle’s Law:
This is considering Isothermal process,
(constant temperature) P1V1 300 x 103 x 10
P2 = = = 600 x 103 = 600 kPa.
V2 5
Charles' Law
If the pressure is constant, then the ideal gas law Example 40
takes the form: 4.0 m3 of gas is at a pressure of 100 kPa and a
temperature of 27 oC. The gas contracts so that the
V1 V2
= volume is decreases to 2 m3 but the pressure
T1 T2
increases to 400 kPa. What is the new temperature of
T2 the gas?
or V2 = V1 x
T1 The first thing to note is that temperature must be in
which has been historically called Charles' Law. It is Kelvin, thus 27oC = 273 + 27 = 300 K.
appropriate for experiments performed in the We will need to use the ideal gas law:
presence of a constant atmospheric pressure
(isobaric process). P1V1 P2V2
= Rearranging this to find T2, gives:
T1 T2
Calculations involving the gas laws must have P2V2 T1 400 x 103 x 2 x 300
temperatures expressed in degrees Kelvin, K. T2 = = = 600 K.
P1V1 100 x 103 x 4

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Specific Heats of Gases Cp

The ratio of the specific heats, symbol  = , in
The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit Cv
mass required to raise the temperature by one Cp
which Cp is greater than Cv, hence  1.
degree Celsius. This is sufficient when considering Cv
solids and liquids. Gases can be a different case
however, and the heat supplied to produce a This particular relationship is frequently used in
temperature rise will vary, depending on whether the thermodynamics, pv = constant.
gas is allowed to expand or not, whilst being heated.

This leads to the two specific heat values.

Cp is the specific heat of the gas which is maintained

at constant pressure, but allowed to expand.

Cv is the specific heat of the gas which is maintained

at a constant volume.
Work Done by or on a Gas
In the first case, the heat input raises the
temperature, and causes the gas to expand, during Put simply, work is done by a gas that is
which the gas does work (gives out energy). expanding; work is done on a gas that is being
In the second case, the heat input only raises the compressed.
temperature.

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These different equations give different curves, and

hence different work values, but this is beyond the
scope of this module.

Note also that an expanding gas tends to cool; a gas

being compressed tends to heat-up.

PV Diagrams
Pressure-Volume (PV) diagrams are a primary
This is a simplification but reference to a pressure- visualisation tool for the study of heat engines. Since
volume (pv) diagram is helpful. the engines usually involve a gas as a working
substance, the ideal gas law relates the PV diagram to
The work done by or on the gas is given by the area the temperature so that the three essential state
under the p-v curve. variables for the gas can be tracked through the
engine cycle. Work is done only when the volume of
If we go from V1 to V2 (expansion) work is done by the gas changes, the diagram gives a visual
the gas. interpretation of work done.

If we go from V2 to V1 (compression) work is done on The internal energy of an ideal gas depends upon its
the gas. temperature, the PV diagram along with the
temperatures calculated from the ideal gas law
The exact amount of work depends on the exact determine the changes in the internal energy of the
nature of the expansion / compression, i.e. is the gas so that the amount of heat added can be
relevant gas law pv = constant or pvn = constant or evaluated from the first law of thermodynamics. In
pv = constant? summary, the PV diagram provides the framework for

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the analysis of any heat engine which uses a gas as a

working substance.

Isothermal and Adiabatic Process

An isothermal process is one in which the
temperature in a system remains constant, an
adiabatic process is one where no heat is added to,
or taken away from the system. Both these processes
can occur when a gas expands or it is compressed and
can be seen to operate in a system known as a heat
engine, e.g. a combustion engine.

Heat Engines
A heat engine typically uses energy provided in the
form of heat to do work and then exhausts the heat
which cannot be used to do work. Thermodynamics is
the study of the relationships between heat and work.
The first law and second law of thermodynamics General heat engines can be described by the
constrain the operation of a heat engine. The first law reservoir model (top) or by a PV diagram (bottom).
is the application of conservation of energy to the
The net work done is the area enclosed by the cycle.
system, and the second sets limits on the possible
efficiency of the machine and determines the direction The Carnot efficiency is a direct consequence of the
of energy flow. Second Law of Thermodynamics.

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Heat Engine Processes U = Q – W, 0 = Q – W, Q=W

Heat engine processes are shown on a PV diagram. If there is an increase in volume at Constant Pressure,
Besides constant pressure, volume and temperature then the gas is doing work and the temperature of the
processes, a useful process is the adiabatic process gas will rise. If there is a decrease in volume work is
where no heat enters or leaves the system. So no being done to the gas, but the temperature will fall
heat is gained or lost by the system. The first law of (Heat extracted).
thermodynamics with Q=0, i.e. heat = zero shows
When the volume remains constant NO work is done,
that all the change in internal energy is in the form of
but for an increase in pressure the temperature of the
work done.
gas will rise and for a decrease in pressure the
U = Q – W, U = 0 – W, U = – W, temperature will decrease.
This puts a constraint on the heat engine process
leading to the adiabatic condition shown. This
condition can be used to derive the expression for the
work done during an adiabatic process.
Note, the gas parameters behave according to the
Common Gas Law:
P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
Since for an ideal gas the internal energy is
proportional to temperature, it follows there is no
change in the internal energy of the gas during an
isothermal process. All the heat added to the system
is used to do work.

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Engine Cycles
The heat engine cycle is shown below:
For a constant mass of gas, the operation of a heat
engine is a repeating cycle and its PV diagram will be
a closed figure. The idea of an engine cycle is
illustrated below for one of the simplest kinds of
cycles. If the cycle is operated clockwise on the
diagram, the engine uses heat to do net work. If
operated counter-clockwise, it uses work to transport
heat and is therefore acting as a refrigerator or a heat
pump.

This is a simplified cycle for a heat pump.

This is a simplified cycle for an engine.

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Carnot Cycle TH QH
=
The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot TC QC
cycle, consisting of two isothermal processes and Note TH, and TC must be measured in Kelvin.
two adiabatic processes. The Carnot cycle can be
thought of as the most efficient heat engine cycle
allowed by physical laws. When the second law of
thermodynamics states that not all the supplied heat
in a heat engine can be used to do work, the Carnot
efficiency sets the limiting value on the fraction of the
heat which can be so used.

In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the

processes involved in the heat engine cycle must be
reversible and involve no change in energy available
to do work. This means that the Carnot cycle is an
idealisation, since no real engine processes are
reversible and all real physical processes involve some
increase in energy available to do work.
Adiabatic: All the change in internal energy is in the
form of work done.
It turns out that we can define the source
temperature, TH, and the sink temperature TC in terms Isothermal: No change in the internal energy of the
of the thermal energies QH and QC gas during an isothermal process. All the heat added
to or taken away from the system is used to do work
or have work done on it.

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Heat Flow to Hotter Region

Although internal energy will not spontaneously flow
from a hot region to a cold region, it can be forced to
do so by doing work on the system. Refrigerators and
heat pumps are examples of heat engines which cause
energy to be transferred from a cold area to a hot
area. Usually this is done with the aid of a phase
change, i.e., a refrigerant liquid is forced to evaporate
and extract energy from the cold area. Then it is Heat Pump: Reservoir model
compressed and forced to condense in the hot area, Heat pumps are the opposite to Heat engines in that
dumping its heat of vaporisation into the hot area. the input to heat pumps in work done and the output
is heat.
QH
Coefficient of Performance, CP =
W
Limit for Ideal
General Definition Carnot Case
QH QH TH
CP = = =>
W QH – QC TH – TC
The heat pump can be represented by the reservoir Ideal coefficient
model: of performance
A more informative analysis of heat engines can be
obtained from the PV diagram.

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4 to 5 The expansion valve (throttle) creates a

sudden reduction of pressure which lowers
the boiling point of the liquid, which flashes
to liquid + vapour taking in heat from the
medium surrounding the evaporator.
5 to 1 Liquid is evaporated and expands at constant
pressure removing heat from the
environment.

Refrigerator

1 to 2 The working fluid (refrigerant) in vapour

state is compressed, raising its temperature.
2 to 3 The super heated vapour is cooled to
saturated vapour. Heat is removed from
refrigerant at constant pressure and rejected
to the environment.
3 to 4 The vapour condenses at constant
temperature to a liquid releasing more heat.

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A refrigerator is a heat engine in which work is done Heat Pump

on a refrigerant substance in order to collect energy A heat pump is a device which uses external work to
from a cold region and exhaust it in a higher extract an amount of heat QC from a cold reservoir
temperature region, thereby further cooling the cold and delivers heat QH to a hot reservoir. A heat pump
region. is subject to the same limitations from the second law
Refrigerators have made use of fluorinated of thermodynamics as any other heat engine.
hydrocarbons with trade names like Freon-12, Freon-
22, etc. which can be forced to evaporate and then Therefore a maximum efficiency can be calculated
condense by successively lowering and raising the from the Carnot cycle. Heat Pumps are usually
pressure. They can therefore "pump" energy from a characterised by a coefficient of performance which is
cold region to a hotter region by extracting the heat of the number of units of energy delivered to the hot
vaporisation from the cold region and dumping it in reservoir per unit work input.
the hotter region outside the refrigerator. The
statements about refrigerators apply to air Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps
conditioners and heat pumps, which embody the same Air conditioners and heat pumps are heat engines like
principles. the refrigerator. They make good use of the high
A refrigerant is a fluid that has a low boiling point. quality and flexibility of electric energy in that they
can use one unit of electric energy to transfer more
Although this process works very well and has been in
than one unit of energy from a cold area to a hot
place for decades, the bad news about it is that
area.
fluorinated hydrocarbons released into the
atmosphere are potent agents for the destruction of
the ozone in the upper atmosphere. Therefore tighter
and tighter restrictions are being placed on their use.

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For example, an electric resistance heater using one

kilowatt-hour of electric energy can transfer only 1
kWh of energy to heat your house at 100% efficiency.
But 1 kWh of energy used in an electric heat pump
could "pump" 3 kWh of energy from the cooler outside
environment into your house for heating. The ratio of
the energy transferred to the electric energy used in
the process is called its coefficient of performance
(CP).

A typical CP for a commercial heat pump is between 3

and 4 units transferred per unit of electric energy
supplied.
Heat of Evaporation
Definitions of Various Forms of Heat
The energy required to change a gram (or kilogram)
Heat of Fusion of a liquid into the gaseous state at the boiling
The energy required to change a gram (or kilogram) point is called the heat of evaporation. This energy
of a substance from the solid to the liquid state breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and
without changing its temperature is commonly called also must provide the energy necessary to expand the
it's "heat of fusion". This energy breaks down the gas (the PV work). For an ideal gas, there is no
solid bonds, but leaves a significant amount of energy longer any potential energy associated with
associated with the intermolecular forces of the liquid intermolecular forces. So the internal energy is
state. entirely in the molecular kinetic energy.
Heat Energy Required = mass x Heat of fusion

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At B, corresponding to 100ºC (the boiling point of

water) the graph follows BC, which represents the
constant temperature of 100ºC. After a time, the
graph resumes its original path, CD.

What was happened to the heat supplied during the

time period between B and C?

The answer is that it was used, not to raise the

temperature, but to change the state from water into
steam. This is termed latent heat, and also features
when ice melts to become water.

So latent heat is the heat required to cause a change

of state, and sensible heat is the heat required to
Calculation of latent heat (Heat of Evaporation) cause a change of temperature.
required:

Quantity of heat energy required = Mass x latent heat

Latent Heat / Sensible Heat

If water, for example, is heated at a constant rate, the
temperature will rise, shown by AB.

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Thermal Energy
Example 40
The average translational kinetic energy possessed by
LF The heat of fusion of water = 334 kJ/kg free particles is sometimes called the thermal
LV The heat of vaporisation for water = 2260 kJ/kg energy per particle. It is useful in making judgements
C The specific heat of water = 4.2 kJ/kg/K about whether the internal energy possessed by a
Consider 5 kg of ice, how much energy is required to system of particles will be sufficient to cause other
heat this up so as to create 5 kg of steam at 100 oC? phenomena, e.g. their use as a fuel.
The energy required, EF to melt 5 kilograms of ice to
water is EF = m x LF
Heat of Combustion
EF = 5 x 334 = 1670 kJ Any organic substance contains energy that can be
released in the form of heat when it is burned in the
The energy required to raise the temperature of the presence of oxygen. This process is a chemical
water from 0oC to 100oC, is EC = m x C x T reaction called combustion. It requires three
essential inputs, a fuel (the organic substance),
EC = 5 x 4.2 x 100 = 2100 kJ
oxygen and heat. It is combustion that occurs in aero
The energy required, Ev to turn 5 kilograms of water engines and any occur heat engine.
to steam is EV = m x LV

EV = 5 x 2260 = 11300 kJ

Thus the total energy required ETot = EF + EC + Ev

ETot = 1670 + 2100 + 11300 = 15070 kJ.

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Exercise 16 10. Write out in symbols Charles’s Law.

1. What is the 0th law of thermodynamics?
11. Assuming constant pressure, if the temperature of
2. What is the 1st Law of thermodynamics? 8 cubic metres of gas at a temperature 700 K is
3. Write out the formula for the change in internal cooled to a volume of 4 cubic metres. What is the
energy of a system: new temperature in oC?
3a. In words
12. Calculations involving the gas law must have
3b. In symbols temperatures expressed in what units?
4. What are the consequences of the 2nd Law of 13. What are Heat Engines?
Thermodynamics
14. Define the Carnot Cycle.
5. An isothermal process:
15. What is heat of fusion?
6. An adiabatic process:
16. What is heat of evaporation?
7. Write out in symbols Gay - Lussac's Law or
Common Gas Law.
17. If the heat of fusion of water is LF =334 kJ/kg and
the energy required to heat a given mass of ice is
8. 2 m3 of gas at a temperature of 600 K and a 66.8 MJ. What is the mass?
pressure of 300 kPa. The pressure of the gas is
decreased to 150 kPa and the temperature is
18. What are latent and sensible heat?
dropped to 450 K. What is the new volume?
19. What is thermal energy?
9. Write out in symbols Boyle’s Law. 20. What is heat of combustion?

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Answers supplied must be greater than the net work

done. or,
Exercise 16
It is not possible to have a thermal transfer of
1. What is the 0th law of thermodynamics?
energy from a colder to hotter body without
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a
doing work.
third body, then they must be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
5. An isothermal process: is one in which the
st
2. What is the 1 Law of thermodynamics temperature in a system remains constant.
The first law of thermodynamics states that
energy is conserved. 6. An adiabatic process: is one where no heat is
or added to, or taken away from the system.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed. P1V1 P2V2

7. =
T1 T2
3a. Change in internal energy
= Heat added to the system P1V1 P2V2
– work done by the system. 8. =
T1 T2
3b. U = Q – W P1V1T2 300 x 103 x 2 x 450
V2 = = = 3.0 m3
P2T1 150 x 103 x 600
4. Heat always travels from a hot to cold.
or, 9. P1V1 = P2V2
that although the net heat supplied is equal to
the net work done, the total or gross heat V1 V2 T2
10. = or V2 = V1 x
T1 T2 T1

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16. What is heat of evaporation?

V1 V2 V2 4 The energy required to change a kilogram of a
11. = or T2 = T1 x = 700 x = 350 K liquid into the gaseous state at the boiling point
T1 T2 V1 8
is called the heat of evaporation.
Temperature in oC = 350 -273 = 77 oC
12. Kelvin, K.
17. Energy Required = mass x Heat of fusion
13. What are Heat Engines?
Therefore,
A heat engine typically uses energy provided in
the form of heat to do work and then exhausts Energy 66.8 x 106
mass = = = 200 kg
the heat which cannot be used to do work. Heat of fusion 334 x 103
18. What are latent and sensible heat?
14. Define the Carnot Cycle. Latent heat is the heat required to cause a
The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot change of state, and sensible heat is the heat
cycle, consisting of two isothermal processes required to cause a change of temperature.
and two adiabatic processes. The Carnot cycle
can be thought of as the most efficient heat 19. What is thermal energy?
engine cycle allowed by physical laws. The average translational kinetic energy
possessed by free particles is sometimes called
15. What is heat of fusion? the thermal energy per particle.
The energy required to change a kilogram of a
substance from the solid to the liquid state 20. What is heat of combustion?
without changing its temperature is commonly
Any organic substance contains energy that can
called "heat of fusion". Sometimes known as be released in the form of heat when it is burned
Latent heat of fusion in the presence of oxygen.

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Section 2.4: Optics (Light) Normally Electromagnetic waves are emitted when
electrons lose energy; however, Gamma rays are
Chapter 2.4.1: Nature of Light emitted from the nucleus of some unstable (radio
Electromagnetic radiation sometimes acts as a wave active) atoms.
and sometimes as a particle (photon). In this course
we treat it as a wave. General Properties of electromagnetic waves:
1. They travel in straight line at a speed of 3 x 108
Electromagnetic waves as the name implies have m/s in a vacuum.
associated electric and magnetic fields. The electrically
charged particles in the atom, protons and electrons 2. The wave speed, frequency and wavelength are
have electric and magnetic fields associated with related by: wave speed = frequency x wavelength
them. Electromagnetic waves are emitted when in symbols: c = fWhere c is the speed of light
electrically charged particles change their energy. 3. The intensity of a wave emitted from a point source
in a vacuum is proportional to 1/square of distance,
Electrons within a particular shell can have different i.e. I  1/r2.
energies. Normally these are in a low energy state
4. They are all transverse waves, where the
within a particle shell. However, when the atom is
oscillations are produced by changing electrical and
excited perhaps by heating, the electrons move to
magnetic fields.
higher energy states. Electrons at these “higher”
energy states jump to a lower energy releasing 5. They all are subject to reflection, refraction,
electromagnetic radiation. The bigger the jump, the interference, diffraction and polarisation.
more energy is released and hence the higher the As the speed of an electromagnetic wave is constant
frequency. in any given material then the frequency is
proportional to 1/wavelength, thus the greater the

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frequency, the smaller the wavelength. The

electromagnetic waves with greatest energy have the
highest frequency.

Gamma rays have wavelengths of less than 10-10 m

and frequencies 1019 to 1021 Hz. Gamma rays can
pass through a thin sheet of lead with very little
effect. You need about 10 cm of lead to stop most
gamma rays completely.

X-rays with wavelengths of about 10-9 m and

frequencies of 1017 to 1018 Hz will penetrate the soft
tissues of the body and are used to create X-ray
images of organs inside a body.

At the other end of the energy range we have radio

waves with wavelengths of 1-10 km and frequencies
of 106 to 105 Hz.

Light waves are a very small part of the

electromagnetic spectrum having wavelengths of 7 x
10-7 m (red) to 4 x 10-7 m (violet) which correspond to
a frequency range of 4.3 x 1014 Hz to 7.5 x 1014 Hz.

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b) The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is 600

Example 41
terra Hertz (THz). What is its wavelength and what
In the following examples take the speed of light as type of wave is this?
3 x 108 m/s.
600 THz is 600 x 1012 Hz = 6 x 1014 m
The formula relating speed of light, to frequency and
a) The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is 400
wave length is c = f
micron. What is its frequency and what type of wave
is this? c 3 x108
Therefore  = = = 0.5 x 10-6 m
400 micron is 400 x 10-6 m = 4 x 10-4 m. f 6 x1014
= 5 x 10-7 m
The formula relating speed of light, to frequency and
wave length is c = f This is the green wavelength of light.

c 3 x 108
Therefore f = = = 0.75 x 1012 Hz
 4 x 10-4
= 7.5 x 1011 Hz.
This is just in the infrared region of the spectrum.

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Chapter 2.4.2: Laws of Reflection and Plain Mirrors

Refraction
Reflection
Light can also be reflected, usually by mirrors, which
are made by depositing a thin layer of metal on one
side of a piece of glass. Some interesting facts may
be obtained.

Observation and measurement will show that:

When you look in a mirror, you see a reflection,
a. the normal, the incident and reflected rays all usually termed an image. The diagram above shows
lie in the same plane. 2 reflected rays, viewing an object O from two
b. the angle of incidence equals the angle of different angles. Note the reflected rays appear to
reflection. come from I which corresponds to the image, and
lies on the same normal to the mirror as the object,
and appears the same distance behind the mirror
as the object is in front.

Note also that the image is a virtual image, it can

be seen, but cannot be shown on a screen.

Note also that it appears the same size as the object,

and is laterally inverted. These are features of
images in plane mirrors.

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Curved Mirrors Consider a ray of light travelling parallel to the

principal axis. When this is reflected at the mirror the
Mirrors can also be curved; sometimes they are
resultant ray will always pass through the principal
spherical, sometimes parabolic. The basic law,
focus. (The incident angle = reflected angle with the
incidence equals reflection - still holds, but the curved
normal to the surface being the line that passes
surface allows the rays to be focussed or dispersed.
through the point C.
Note: FP is known as the focal length. The rays
Ray Diagram for Mirrors
actually pass through F, and a real image can be
Definitions formed.
C is the centre of
For convex mirrors the
Curvature for the
centre of curvature C
mirror
and principal focus F are
P is the centre of virtual.
the mirror surface
FP is still the focal
and is known as
length, but the image is
the pole.
virtual.
F is the principal
Convex Mirror
focus and is the
point where Concave Mirror
parallel light rays
Principal axis is the line through
converge. It is
C, F and P.
about ½ radius .

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To determine the position and size of the image any For an object positioned beyond the centre of
two of the following three rays must be drawn. curvature, C, the resulting image will be inverted and
reduced. When the object is placed at the centre of
1. A ray of light parallel to the principal axis, which
curvature, the image will be the same height as the
reflected through the principal focus F.
object but will still be inverted. The image is real.
2. A ray of light through the centre of curvature C,
which will be reflected back through C. Between the C and F
3. A ray through the principal focus F, which is
reflected back parallel to the principal axis.
The size of the image depends on the position of the
object.

Concave and Convex Mirrors

Concave Mirrors
Beyond the Centre of Curvature When the object is positioned in between C and F the
image is inverted and appears larger than the object.
The size increases as the object moves towards F. The
image is real.

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Object between F and the Mirror Convex Mirrors

At F the image is infinite in height. Beyond F the

image becomes virtual that is it cannot be projected.
The image is also no longer inverted but is magnified.
As the object moves closer to the mirror's surface the
magnification of the virtual image decreases.
image height The image can be constructed by taking a ray parallel
magnification = to the principal axis. When this is reflected the by the
object height
mirror the virtual extension to the ray will pass
It can be shown for spherical mirrors that:
through the principal focus F. Draw another ray from
image distance (V) the object to the centre of curvature, C. The virtual
magnification = .
object distance (u) image will be formed where they cross.

Concave mirrors (e.g. shaving mirrors) give a Another ray could be used to construct the image.
magnified, erect (right way up) image, if viewed This is the virtual extension of a ray from the object
from close-to. reflected at the pole of the mirror.

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Convex mirrors (e.g. driving mirrors) give a Refraction

smaller, erect image, but with a wide field of
view. Convex mirrors produce virtual images.

Parabolic Reflectors
Parabolic reflectors can focus a wide parallel beam.
By placing the bulb at the focus, they can produce a
strong beam of light. (Conversely, they can focus
microwave signals when used as an aerial).

The reflected rays from a bulb

at the focus of a carefully Many people have noticed a strange optical
selected parabolic reflector phenomenon when looking at submerged objects.
can be made to be parallel Such an object often appears to be at a reduced
with each other. depth. The rays appear to have been ‘bent’ at the
water / air boundary. This is known as Refraction.

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Refractive Index

Another phenomenon may occur. In the diagram, ray

The angles of incidence and refraction are not equal, (1) has been refracted across the boundary, but ray
but they are related, shown as (Snell’s Law): (2) has been internally reflected at the boundary.

sine i There is a critical angle of incidence when the ray in

= a constant = 
sine r the denser medium does not emerge, but travels
 is known as the refractive index and depends on the along the boundary.
2 mediums involved.
It can be shown that:
speed of light in medium 1
 =
speed of light in medium 2
Note as light travels from a less dense medium to a
more dense medium light is bent toward the normal.
If it travels from a more dense medium to a less
dense medium it is bent away from the normal.

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1 position of the object in relation to the focal length of

The relationship: sine C = exists.
 the lens.
Refraction is the basic principle which explains the
workings of prisms and lenses. The focal length is a function of the curvature of the
lens’ surfaces.
Convex and Concave Lenses
Ray Diagram for Lenses
Lenses can be made of glass or plastic, and like
To determine the position and size of the image any
mirrors, have spherical surfaces so as, to give concave
two of the following three rays must be drawn.
or convex lenses. The light rays then meet the
surface of the lens at an angle to the normal, and are 1. A ray of light parallel to the principal axis, which
then refracted. As the rays exits the lens, a second after refraction passes through the principal focus F.
refraction takes place. 2. A ray through the principal focus F, which is
refracted parallel to the principal axis.
3. A light ray through the optical centre of the lens
that will pass through in a straight line.

As with mirrors, images can be real or virtual, erect or

inverted, and larger or smaller. The nature of the
image will depend on the type of lens, and the

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Convex lenses can produce virtual images. Convex lenses can produce real images.

For objects outside the focal point, real inverted and

If the object is between the lens and the focal point, magnifying images will be produced. This is how
(on the left); the image (as viewed from the right) telescopes work.
will be erect, (up the right way) and magnified. This
is how magnifying lenses work. Concave lenses produce a virtual image.

If the object is on the left of the lens; the image,

when viewed on the right will be diminished and erect.

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Exercise 17 6. Convex mirrors:

1. Laws of reflection state: 6a. Type of image:
6b. Orientation:
2. Draw a ray diagram for a concave mirror showing 6c. Size:
how two parallel rays can be brought to a focus. Mark
the focal length on the diagram. 7. For curved mirrors, if the image distance is 1.2
metres and the object distance is 0.8 metre, what is
3. Draw a ray diagram for a convex mirror showing the magnification?
how two parallel rays can be brought to a focus. Mark
the focal length on the diagram. 8. The diagram below shows refraction. Label the
incident ray, the angle of incidence, ”i”, the refracted
4. Consider Concave mirrors when the object is ray and the angle of the refracted ray, “r”.
positioned in between the centre of curvature and
the principal focus:
4a. Type of image:
4b. Orientation:
4c. Size:

5. Consider Concave mirrors when the object is

positioned in between the principal focus and the
mirror (Viewed close to):
9. What is the formula for the critical angle, C, when
5a. Type of image:
the ray from a denser medium does not emerge, but
5b. Orientation:
travels along the boundary?
5c. Size:

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10. If the speed of light in air is 3 x 108 m/s and the 16. Convex lenses if the object between the focal
refractive index going from air to a medium is 1.5. point and the lens:
What is the speed of light in the material? 16a. Type of image:
16b. Orientation:
11. If the refractive index air to glass is 1.4. If light is 16c. Size:
travelling from the glass to air, what is the critical
angle?

12. Draw a ray diagram for a concave lens showing

how two parallel rays can be brought to a focus.

13. Draw a ray diagram for a convex lens showing

how two parallel rays can be brought to a focus.

14. Concave lenses:

14a. Type of image:
14b. Orientation:
14c. Size:

15. Convex lenses if the object is outside the focal

point:
15a. Type of image:
15b. Orientation:
15c. Size:

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Answers 5a. Type of image: Virtual

5b. Orientation: Erect
Exercise 17
5c. Size: Magnified
1. The incident and reflected rays lie in the same
plane, and the angle of incidence equals the 6a. Type of image: Virtual
angle of reflection. 6b. Orientation: Erect with a wide field of view
6c. Size: Reduced
2. image distance 1.2
7. magnification = = = 1.5
object distance 0.8

8.

FP is the
focal length
3.

FP is
the
focal
1
length 9. sine C =

4a. Type of image: Real 3 x 108
10. Speed of light in medium 2 =
4b. Orientation: Inverted 
4c. Size: Magnified = 2 x 108 m/s

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1 1 13.
11. sine C = = = 0.714.
 1.4

The angle C = sin-1 0.714 = 45.6o

12.

14a. Type of image: Virtual

14b. Orientation: Erect
14c. Size: Reduced

15a. Type of image: Real

15b. Orientation: Inverted
15c. Size: Magnified

16a. Type of image: Virtual

16b. Orientation: Erect
16c. Size: Magnified

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Chapter 2.4.3: Fibre Optics By increasing the angle of incidence, the angle of
refraction will eventually become 90, as in the case of
Total Internal Reflection
the ray AP'D.
As already stated, on refraction at a denser
medium, a beam of light is bent towards the A further increase in the angle of incidence should
normal and, vice versa. give an angle of refraction greater than 90, but
this is impossible and the ray is reflection at the
boundary, remaining within the denser medium, this
is 'total internal reflection'. None of the light
passes through the boundary.

Fibre Optics
The science of fibre optics depends upon the total
internal reflection of light rays. Light can be
trapped by total internal reflection inside a bent glass
rod and piped along a curved path as in the diagram
below:

In the diagram above, the ray APB is refracted away

from the normal. For any rarer medium the angle
of refraction is always greater than the angle of
incidence.

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The fibre optic concept uses a core having a high was about 2 decibels per kilometre, but modern cables
refractive index and an outer sheath with a low reduce this by a factor of 10.
refractive index, so as to cause the ray to
experience an angle of refraction of more than 900. Some Consideration for Modern Fibre Optic
This is not possible and thus the ray is reflected back Communication Systems
into the inner core. Modern fibre-optic communication systems generally
include an optical transmitter to convert an electrical
A single, very thin glass fibre behaves in the same signal into an optical signal; a cable containing
way. If several thousand such fibres were bundled bundles of multiple optical fibres; amplifiers or
together a flexible light pipe is obtained that can be repeater are needed to boost the signal when long
used from many different applications, e.g. doctors or distances are involved; and an optical receiver to
engineers Endo-scopes.
recover the signal as an electrical signal.
The latest telephone cables are often optical (very The maximum transmission distance is limited not by
pure glass) fibres carrying information as pulses of direct material absorption but by several types of
laser light. They have much lower attenuation and dispersion or spreading of optical pulses as they travel
interference than copper cables and for a given size along the fibre
cable they can carry much more signal traffic.
Because the effect of dispersion increases with the
The fibres are so small that once the light is length of the fibre, a fibre transmission system is
introduced into the aperture of the fibre it will often characterised by its bandwidth-distance product,
continue to reflect almost without loss off the walls of often expressed in units of MHz.km. This value is a
the fibre and thus can travel long distances in the product of bandwidth and distance because there is a
fibre. Any losses are mainly caused by scattering of trade off between the bandwidth of the signal and the
light and absorption of energy. Typical value of loss distance it can be carried.

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Fibre Optic Imaging Key Points

Fibre optic imaging uses the fact that the light striking Propagation of light through a fibre optic depends
the end of an individual fibre will be transmitted to the upon total internal reflection of light rays.
other end of that fibre. Each fibre acts as a light pipe,
transmitting the light from that part of the image
Fibre optic cables use a core having a high
along the fibre. If the arrangement of the fibres in the
refractive index and an outer sheath with low
bundle is kept constant then the transmitted light
refractive index.
forms a mosaic image of the light which struck the
end of the bundle.

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Section 2.5: Wave Motion and Sound appear to be plane waves which travel together as a
front in a straight-line direction, perhaps towards a
Chapter 2.5.1: Wave Motion sandy shore. Or the waves may be circular waves
Introduction which originate from the point where the disturbances
occur; such circular waves travel across the surface of
For many people, the first thought concerning waves
the water in all directions.
conjures up a picture of a wave moving across the
surface of an ocean, lake, pond or other body of Another picture of waves involves the movement of a
water. The waves are created by some form of a slinky or similar set of coils. If a slinky is stretched out
disturbance, such as a rock thrown into the water. from end to end, a wave can be introduced into the
slinky by either vibrating the first coil up and down
vertically or back and forth horizontally.

The water wave has a crest and a trough and travels

from one location to another. One crest is often
followed by a second crest which is often followed by a
third crest. Every crest is separated by a trough to
create an alternating pattern of crests and troughs. A
duck or gull at rest on the surface of the water is A wave will subsequently be seen travelling from one
observed to bob up-and-down at rather regular time end of the slinky to the other. As the wave moves
intervals as the wave passes by. The waves may along the slinky, each individual coil is seen to move

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out of place and then return to its original position. Transverse Waves
The coils always move in the same direction that the A transverse wave is a wave in which particles of
first coil was vibrated. A continued vibration of the the medium move in a direction perpendicular to
first coil results in a continued back and forth motion the direction which the wave moves.
of the other coils. If looked at closely, one notices that
the wave does not stop when it reaches the end of the
slinky; rather it seems to bounce off the end and head
back from where it started.

Categories of Waves
Waves come in many shapes and forms. While all
waves share some basic characteristic properties and
behaviours, some waves can be distinguished from
others based on some very observable (and some
non-observable) characteristics. It is common to
categorise waves based on these distinguishing
characteristics.

(a) One way to categorise waves is on the basis of the If a slinky is stretched out in a horizontal direction
direction of movement of the individual particles of across the classroom, and a pulse is introduced into
the medium relative to the direction which the waves the slinky on the left end by vibrating the first coil up
travel. Categorising waves on this basis leads to two and down, then energy will begin to be transported
notable categories: transverse waves and longitudinal through the slinky from left to right. As the energy is
waves. transported from left to right, the individual coils of

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the medium will be displaced upwards and Longitudinal Waves

downwards. In this case, the particles of the medium A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles of
move perpendicular to the direction the pulse moves. the medium move in a direction parallel to the
If the displacement of a particle is traced out with direction which the wave moves.
time then a sine wave is produced as shown below.

This type of wave is a transverse wave. Transverse

If a slinky is stretched out in a horizontal direction
waves are always characterised by particle motion
across the classroom, and a pulse is introduced into
being perpendicular to wave motion.
the slinky on the left end by vibrating the first coil left
and right, then energy will begin to be transported

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through the slinky from left to right. As the energy is This type of wave is a longitudinal wave. Longitudinal
transported from left to right, the individual coils of waves are always characterised by particle motion
the medium will be displaced leftwards and being parallel to wave motion.
rightwards. In this case, the particles of the medium
move parallel to the direction which the pulse moves. Sound Waves
If the displacement of a particle is traced out with A sound wave is a classic example of a longitudinal
time then a sine wave is produced as shown below. wave. As a sound wave moves through the air,
particles of air vibrate back and forth; in the same
direction and in the opposite direction of energy
transport.

Each individual particle pushes on its neighbouring

particle so as to push it forward.

The collision of particle no. 1 with its neighbour serves

to restore particle no. 1 to its original position and
displace particle no.2 in a forwards direction.

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This back and forth motion of particles in the direction (b) Another way to categorise waves is on the basis of
of energy transport creates regions within the medium the ability (or inability) to transmit energy through a
where the particles are pressed together and other vacuum (i.e., empty space). Categorising waves on
regions where the particles are spread apart. this basis leads to two notable categories:
Electromagnetic waves and mechanical waves.

Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave is a wave which is
capable of transmitting its energy through a
vacuum (i.e., empty space). Electromagnetic waves
are produced by the vibration of electrons within
atoms on the Sun's surface. These waves
subsequently travel through the vacuum of outer
space, subsequently reaching Earth. Were it not for
the ability of electromagnetic waves to travel to Earth,
Longitudinal waves can always be quickly identified by
there would undoubtedly be no life on Earth.
the presence of such regions. This process continues
along the chain of particles until the sound wave
Mechanical Waves
reaches the ear of the listener.
A mechanical wave is a wave which is not capable of
Ultra sound and earthquake P waves (primary waves)
transmitting its energy through a vacuum. Mechanical
are examples of longitudinal waves.
waves require a medium in order to transport their
energy from one location to another. A sound wave
is an example of a mechanical wave. Sound waves
are incapable of travelling through a vacuum.

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Anatomy of a Wave the shape of the rope in time, then it would look like
the diagram on the left hand side of this page.
A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles
of the medium are displaced in a direction The line A to I through the centre of the diagram
perpendicular to the direction of energy transport. represents the equilibrium or rest position of the rope.

Crest: Points B and F on the diagram represent the

crests of this wave. The crest of a wave is the point
on the medium which exhibits the maximum amount
of positive or upwards displacement from the rest
position.

Trough: Points D and H on the diagram represent the

troughs of this wave. The trough of a wave is the
point on the medium which exhibits the maximum
amount of negative or downwards displacement from
the rest position.

Amplitude: The amplitude of a wave refers to the

maximum amount of displacement of a particle
on the medium from its rest position. In a sense,
A transverse wave can be created in a rope if the rope the amplitude is the distance from rest to crest.
is stretched out horizontally and the end is vibrated
back-and-forth in a vertical direction. If a snap-shot of Similarly, the absolute amplitude can be measured
such a transverse wave could be taken so as to freeze from the rest position to the trough position.

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The absolute value means that the positive value of A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles
amplitude is taken. of the medium are displaced in a direction parallel to
the direction of energy transport. A longitudinal wave
Peak to Peak value: This is the distance from the can be created in a slinky if the slinky is stretched out
trough to the crest and is twice the amplitude. horizontally and the end coil is vibrated back-and-
forth in a horizontal direction. If a snap-shot of such a
Wavelength: The wavelength of a wave is simply longitudinal wave could be taken so as to freeze the
the length of one complete wave cycle. A wave shape of the slinky in time, then it would look like the
has a repeating pattern. And the length of one such following diagram.
repetition (known as a wave cycle) is the wavelength.
The wavelength can be measured as the distance from
crest to crest or from trough to trough. In fact, the
wavelength of a wave can be measured as the
distance from a point on a wave to the
corresponding point on the next cycle of the
wave.

In the diagram above, the wavelength is the distance

from A to E, or the distance from B to F, or the
distance from C to G, or the distance from B to F, or
Wavelength: As discussed above, the wavelength of
the distance from D to H. Any one of these distance
a wave is the length of one complete cycle of a wave.
measurements would suffice in determining the
For a transverse wave, the wavelength is determined
wavelength of this wave.
by measuring from crest to crest. A longitudinal wave
does not have a crest; so how can its wavelength be

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determined? The wavelength can always be Frequency and Period of a Wave

determined by measuring the distance between any It was mentioned earlier that a wave is created in a
two corresponding points on adjacent waves. In the slinky by the periodic and repeating vibration of the
case of a longitudinal wave, a wavelength first coil of the slinky. This vibration creates a
measurement is made by measuring the distance from disturbance which moves through the slinky and
a compression to the next compression or from a transports energy from the first coil to the last coil. A
rarefaction to the next rarefaction. On the diagram single back-and-forth vibration of the first coil of a
above, the distance from a point C to the next point C slinky introduces a pulse into the medium. But the act
or from a point R to the next point R would be of continually vibrating the first coil with a back-and-
representative of the wavelength. forth motion in periodic fashion introduces a wave into
the slinky.
Amplitude: The amplitude is the maximum Suppose that a hand holding the first coil of a slinky is
displacement of a particle from its rest position. moved back-and-forth two complete cycles in one
Comparing transverse and longitudinal waves, the second:
trough of a transverse wave corresponds to the
rarefaction of the longitudinal wave and the crest of a  The rate of the hand's motion would be 2
transverse wave corresponds to compression on a cycles/second.
longitudinal wave. In transverse waves the distance  The first coil, being attached to the hand, in turn
from the trough to the crest is twice the amplitude. In would vibrate at a rate of 2 cycles/second.
longitudinal waves the corresponding distance is from  The second coil, being attached to the first coil,
rarefaction to compression. Thus the distance between would vibrate at a rate of 2 cycles/second. In
rarefaction and compression is equal to twice the fact, every coil of the slinky would vibrate at this
amplitude of the longitudinal wave. rate of 2 cycles/second.

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This rate of 2 cycles/second is referred to as the

frequency of the wave.

Frequency
The frequency of a wave refers to how often the
particles of the medium vibrate when a wave passes
through the medium.

Hertz
Period (Periodic time)
The frequency is the number of complete vibration
cycles of a medium per a given amount of time and it Period refers to the time which it takes to do
as the units of cycles per second or Hertz (Hz) where something. When an event occurs repeatedly, then we
1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle/second. say that the event is periodic and refer to the time
for the event to repeat itself as the period. The period
The frequency of a sound wave not only refers to the of a wave is the time for a particle on a medium
number of back-and-forth vibrations of the particles to make one complete vibration cycle. Period,
per unit of time, but also refers to the number of being a time, is measured in units of time such as
compression or rarefaction disturbances which pass a seconds, hours, days or years.
given point per unit of time.
Frequency and period are distinctly different, yet
A detector could be used to detect the frequency of related, quantities. Frequency refers to how often
these pressure oscillations over a given period of time. something happens; period refers to the time it takes
The typical output provided by such a detector is a something to happen. Frequency is a rate quantity;
pressure-time plot as shown opposite. period is a time quantity. Mathematically, the period

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is the reciprocal of the frequency and vice versa. In Interference Phenomena

equation form, this is expressed as follows. Wave interference is the phenomenon which occurs
1 1 when two waves meet while travelling through the
period = and frequency =
frequency period same medium. The interference of waves causes the
medium to take on a shape which results from the net
Since the symbol f is used for frequency and the effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of
symbol T is used for period, these equations are also the medium.
expressed as:-
1 1 To begin our exploration of wave interference,
T= and f = consider two pulses of the same amplitude travelling
f T
Normally frequency is measured in Hz or cycles per in different directions along the same medium. Let's
second and period is in seconds. suppose that each crest has an amplitude of +1 unit
(the positive indicates an upward displacement as
Example 42 would be expected for a crest) and has the shape of a
If the period is 10 seconds what is the frequency? sine wave.

1 1 As the sine crests move towards each other, there will

F= = = 0.1 Hz.
T 10 eventually be a moment in time when they are
If the frequency is 50 Hz what is the period? completely overlapped. At that moment, the
resulting shape of the medium would be a sine crest
1 1 with a greater amplitude (of +2 units). The
T= = = 0.02 seconds.
f 50 diagrams below depict the before- and during
Surface wave: This is a wave at that propagates at interference snapshots of the medium for two such
the interface of two different media. crests.

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The individual sine crests are drawn in red and blue

and the resulting displacement of the medium is
drawn in green.

This type of interference is sometimes called

constructive interference.
Destructive Interference
Constructive Interference
Destructive interference is a type of interference
which occurs at any location along the medium where
the two interfering waves have a displacement in
the opposite direction. For instance, when a sine
crest with an amplitude of +1 unit meets a sine
trough with an amplitude of -1 unit, destructive
Constructive interference is a type of interference interference occurs. This is depicted in the diagram
which occurs at any location along the medium where below.
the two interfering waves have a displacement
in the same direction. In this case, both waves have
an upward displacement; consequently, the medium
has an upward displacement which is greater than
the displacement of the two interfering pulses.

Constructive interference is observed when a crest

In the situation in the diagram above, the interfering
meets a crest; but it is also observed when a trough
pulses have the same maximum displacement but in
meets a trough as shown in the diagram opposite.
opposite directions. The result is that the two pulses

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cancel each other for the duration of the overlap. waves demands that the principle of superposition is
Once the two pulses pass through each other, there is applied.
still a crest and a trough heading in the same direction
which they were heading before interference. The principle of superposition is sometimes stated
as follows:
Destructive interference leads to only a
momentary condition in which the medium's When two waves interfere, the resulting
displacement is less than the displacement of the displacement of the medium at any location is
largest-amplitude wave. the algebraic sum of the displacements of the
individual waves at that same location.
Another way to look at interference is to say that
when waves are in phase constructive interference Standing Waves
can take place and when the waves are anti-phase, The wave we have discussed so far are travelling or
destructive interference can take place. progressive waves, which through a medium. The
velocity of the wave, its frequency and wavelength are
Constructive and destructive interference happens related by the formula: v = f If a travelling wave is
when the waves are totally in phase or out of phase.
reflected back, then with the right combination of
When the phases are in between, a complex
wavelength and velocity, the wave travelling in
interference pattern can be set up.
opposite direction can produce a stationary or
standing wave.
The Principle of Superposition
The task of determining the shape of the resultant A standing wave pattern is an interference
wave caused by the interference of two separate phenomenon. It is a vibration pattern created within
a medium when the vibration frequency of the source

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causes reflected waves from one end of the medium results in a resulting disturbance of the medium which
to interfere with incident waves from the source in is irregular and non-repeating, i.e. there is no
such a manner that specific points along the medium standing wave. A standing wave pattern is not actually
appear to be standing still, (i.e. in phase and at the a wave; rather it is the pattern resulting from the
same frequency, but travelling in opposite directions). presence of two waves (sometimes more) of the same
Because the observed wave pattern is characterised frequency with different directions of travel within the
by points which appear to be standing still, the same medium.
pattern is often called a "standing wave pattern."
Examples of standing waves:
Such patterns are only Transverse standing waves can be seen on the strings
created within the medium of musical instruments, such as a guitar or a violin.
at specific frequencies of Longitudinal standing waves are created in organ
vibration; these frequencies pipes.
are known as harmonic
frequencies, or merely They can also occur in unbalanced rotating shafts.
harmonics.

The first three harmonics are

shown on the right.  is the
wavelength.

At any frequency other than a harmonic frequency,

the interference of reflected and incident waves

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The diagram below depicts a standing wave pattern in Node

a medium. A snapshot of the medium over time is No displacement is experienced.
depicted. Note that point B on the medium is a point which
never moves. Point B is a point of no displacement;
such points are known as nodes.

Sound
A sound wave is a pressure disturbance which travels
through a medium by means of particle interaction. As
one particle becomes disturbed, it exerts a force on
the next adjacent particle, thus disturbing that particle
from rest and transporting the energy through the
Anti-node medium. Like any wave, the speed of a sound wave
Maximum displacement is experienced. refers to how fast the disturbance is passed from
Note that point A on the medium moves from a particle to particle.
positive to a negative displacement over time; such
points are known as anti-nodes. While frequency refers to the number of vibrations
which an individual particle makes per unit of time,
The motion would continue and persist, with point A speed refers to the distance which the disturbance
returning to the same positive displacement and then travels per unit of time.
continuing its back-and-forth vibration between the up
to the down position.

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Speed of Sound halving of the frequency; yet the wave speed is not
changed.
Like any wave, a sound wave has a speed which is
mathematically related to the frequency and the
The speed of a sound wave depends on the properties
wavelength of the wave.
of the medium through which it moves and the only
way to change the speed is to change the properties
Speed = frequency x wavelength
of the medium.
Using the symbols v,  and f, the equation can be re-
The speed of sound is primarily affected by
written as
temperature, the lower the temperature, the
V=f. lower the speed of sound. A formula exists, where;
(where V = speed: f = frequency; = wavelength)
Speed of sound = RT
The above equations are useful for solving
mathematical problems related to the speed, where  = ratio of specific heats of the gas
frequency and wavelength relationship. R = gas constant
T = gas temperature (in Kelvin)
However, one important misconception could be Another formula used for liquids and solids is:
conveyed by the equation. Even though wave speed is
calculated using the frequency and the wavelength, V= B/
the wave speed is not dependent upon these B = bulk modulus  = density
quantities. An alteration in wavelength does not affect
(i.e., change) wave speed. Rather, an alteration in (Shown for completeness not necessary for the
wavelength affects the frequency in an inverse course)
manner. A doubling of the wavelength results in a

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The speed of sound is temperature and density The greater the amplitude of vibrations of the
dependent, thus varies according to the nature of the particles of the medium, the greater the rate at which
material. The speed of sound in air at 15oC is 340 energy is transported through it, and the more
m/s, in water at 0oC it is 1400 m/s and in concrete it intense, (louder) the sound wave is.
is approximately 5000 m/s. In general, the speed of
sound increases, from gas (slowest), through liquid to Intensity is the energy/time/area; and since the
solid (fastest). energy/time ratio is equivalent to the quantity power,
intensity is simply the power/area.
The speed of sound is of utmost importance in the
study of aerodynamics, because it determines the Energy Power
nature and formation of shock waves. Because of Intensity = or Intensity =
Time x Area Area
this, aircraft speed is often expressed in relation to
the speed to sound.
Typical units for expressing the intensity of a sound
Mach Number = wave are Watts/meter2.
True airspeed of aircraft
Speed of sound (allowing for temperature)
(Aircraft travelling at speeds greater than Mach 1 are
supersonic and generating shock waves which will be
covered in later modules).

Intensity
The amount of energy which is transported past a
given area of the medium per unit of time is known as
the intensity of the sound wave.

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The scale for measuring intensity is the decibel scale. The threshold of hearing is assigned a sound level of 0
decibels (abbreviated 0 dB); this sound corresponds to an intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2.

Intensity # Times
Source Intensity
Level Greater Than TOH
Threshold of Hearing (TOH) 1*10-12 W/m2 0 dB 100
Rustling Leaves 1*10-11 W/m2 10 dB 101
Whisper 1*10-10 W/m2 20 dB 102
Normal Conversation 1*10-6 W/m2 60 dB 106
Busy Street Traffic 1*10-5 W/m2 70 dB 107
Vacuum Cleaner 1*10-4 W/m2 80 dB 108
Large Orchestra 6.3*10-3 W/m2 98 dB 109.8
Walkman at Maximum Level 1*10-2 W/m2 100 dB 1010
Front Rows of Rock Concert 1*10-1 W/m2 110 dB 1011
Threshold of Pain 1*101 W/m2 130 dB 1013
Military Jet Takeoff 1*102 W/m2 140 dB 1014
Instant Perforation of Eardrum 1*104 W/m2 160 dB 1016

While the intensity of a sound is a very objective quantity which can be measured with sensitive instrumentation,
the loudness of a sound is more of a subjective response which will vary with a number of factors. The same
sound will not be perceived to have the same loudness to all individuals.

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Pitch The first step in naming the interval is to find the

distance between the notes as they are written on the
The ears of humans (and other animals) are sensitive
staff. Count every line and every space in between the
detectors capable of detecting the fluctuations in air
notes, as well as the lines or spaces that the notes are
pressure which impinge upon the eardrum. The
on. This gives you the number for the interval.
human ear is capable of detecting sound waves with a
wide range of frequencies, ranging between
approximately 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.

The sensations of these frequencies are commonly

referred to as the pitch of a sound. A high pitch
sound corresponds to a high frequency and a
low pitch sound corresponds to a low frequency.

Such sound waves form the basis of intervals in

music. How are intervals named in music notation?
The staff is the basis of music notation it consists of 5
parallel Lines with 4 spaces between them. Thus, to find the interval, count the lines or spaces
that the two notes are on as well as all the lines or
spaces in between.
The simple intervals are one octave or less.

The music notation the notes etc. are written on the

staff.

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For example, any two sounds whose frequencies make When a source is stationary, the sound wave leaves
a 2:1 ratio are said to be separated by an octave and the source as shown below:
result in a particularly pleasing sensation when heard;
that is, two sound waves sound good when played
together if one sound has twice the frequency of the
other. Similarly two sounds with a frequency ratio of
5:4 are said to be separated by an interval of a third;
such sound waves also sound good when played
together. Examples of other sound wave intervals and
their respective frequency ratios are listed in the table
below.

Interval Frequency Examples

Ratio
Octave* 2:1 512 Hz and 256 Hz
Third* 5:4 320 Hz and 256 Hz
Fourth* 4:3 342 Hz and 256 Hz The Doppler Effect can be described as the effect
Fifth* 3:2 384 Hz and 256 Hz produced by a moving source of waves in which there
* These are musical terms is an apparent upward shift in frequency for the
observer and the source are approaching and an
apparent downward shift in frequency when the
Doppler Effect observer and the source is receding.
The Doppler Effect is a phenomenon observed
whenever the source of waves is moving with respect When the source is moving towards the observer the
to an observer. wavelength of the sound is decreased and hence the

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frequency increases. When the source is moving a vehicle was travelling towards you on the highway. As
way from the observer the wavelength increases and the car approached with its siren blasting, the pitch of
the frequency decreases. the siren sound (a measure of the siren's frequency)
was high; and then suddenly after the car passed by,
the pitch of the siren sound was low. That was the
Doppler Effect - an apparent shift in frequency for a
sound wave produced by a moving source.

If the observer is stationary and the source is moving:

The source is moving towards the observer:
1
f’ = f x .
1 - vs/v

The source is moving away from the observer.

1
f’ = f x .
1 + vs/v
The Doppler Effect can be observed to occur with all
types of waves - most notably water waves, sound Where:
waves, and light waves. f’ is the observed frequency (Hz).
f is the frequency of the sound wave generated by the
We are most familiar with the Doppler Effect because source (Hz).
of our experiences with sound waves. Perhaps you v = speed of the sound wave (m/s).
recall an instance in which a police car or emergency vs = speed of the source (m/s).

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Exercise 18 7. Define frequency of a wave.

1. What is a transverse wave? 8. What is 1 Hertz equivalent to in cycles per second?
2. What is a longitudinal wave? 9. Define the period of a wave.
3. What is an electromagnetic wave? 10. Write the relationship between period and
4. What is a mechanical wave? frequency,
5. What type of wave is a sound wave? 10a. In words.
10b. In symbols.
6a. In the diagram below what does  represents?
6b. What does and y represents?
11. Constructive Interference occurs when:
12. Destructive Interference occurs when:
13. State the principle of superposition.
14. What is the definition of standing waves?
15. What is an anti-node?
16. What is a node
17. Write out the relationship between the speed of a
wave and its frequency and wavelength,
17a. In words.
17b. In symbols.

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18. What is the formula for the Mach Number?

19. What is the definition for the intensity of sound?
20. Write in words the formula for intensity of sound.
21. What is the scale for measuring intensity?

22a. The threshold of hearing is assigned a sound of?

22b. This sound corresponds to an intensity of?

23a. What does a high pitch sound corresponds to?

23b. What does a low pitch sound corresponds to?

24. Define the Doppler Effect.

25. What does the apparent frequency of the wave
do when the source and observer are approaching
each other?
26. What does the apparent frequency of the wave
do when the source and observer are moving away
from each other?

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Answers 7. The frequency of a wave refers to how often

the particles of the medium vibrate when a wave
Exercise 18
passes through the medium.
1. A transverse wave is a wave in which
particles of the medium move in a direction 8. 1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle/second.
perpendicular to the direction which the wave
moves. 9. The period of a wave is the time for a particle
on a medium to make one complete vibration
2. A longitudinal wave is a wave in which cycle.
particles of the medium move in a direction 1 1
parallel to the direction which the wave moves. 10a. period = and frequency =
frequency period
1 1
3. An electromagnetic wave is a wave which is 10b. T = and f =
f T
capable of transmitting its energy through a
vacuum. 11. Constructive Interference occurs when two
interfering waves have a displacement in the
4. A mechanical wave is a wave which is NOT same direction.
capable of transmitting its energy through a
vacuum. 12. Destructive Interference occurs when two
interfering waves have displacements of equal
5. A sound wave is a mechanical and amplitude, but in the opposite directions.
longitudinal wave.

6a.  wavelength.
6b. y represents amplitude.

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13. The principle of superposition: 19. Intensity is the amount of energy transported
When two waves interfere, the resulting past a given area per unit time.
displacement of the medium at any location is
the algebraic sum of the displacements of the 20.
individual waves at that same location. energy power
Intensity = or intensity =
time x area area
14. It is a vibration pattern created when the
21. decibel scale.
vibration frequency of the source causes
reflected waves from one end of the medium to 22a. 0 decibels (0 dB)
interfere with incident waves from the source in 22b. An intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2.
such a manner that specific points appear to be
standing still. 23a. high frequency
23b. low frequency.
15. Anti-node: Maximum displacement is
experienced. 24. When there is relative motion between a
wave source and an observer, a change in
16. Node: No displacement is experienced. frequency takes place. This is change in
frequency is known as the Doppler Effect.
17a. Speed = frequency x wavelength
17b. v = f . 
25. The apparent frequency of the wave increases.
18. Mach Number = 26. The apparent frequency of the wave decreases.
true speed of aircraft
speed of sound (allowing for temperature)

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References
Aircraft Engineering Principles, Lloyd Dingle and Mike
Tooley, Elsevier Press.

Physics, Ken Dobson, David Grace and David Lovett,

Collins Advanced Science, HarperCollins.

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