PHRASES, CLAUSES AND SENTENCES

Phrases, Clauses and Sentences are the most important structural units of language. They provide structure and
meaning to almost all the languages. The phrases and clauses provide a sense to a sentence. A complete
understanding of the structural parameters is crucial to the understanding of the meaning of sentences.

1- Phrase

Any group of meaningful words that don’t make complete sense is a phrase. If taken alone i.e. without other
words, it will not be meaningful at all. However, a phrase occurs inside a sentence as its structural part.

Some of the examples of phrases are: in ten steps, the great man, a pink flower, the thick canopy, expansion
term, etc. Phrases are of several types as follows:

 Prepositional Phrase: This group of words begins with a preposition. The preposition precedes a noun
or a pronoun or something which acts as a noun or a pronoun. Let us see some examples. She was lost at
sea. I am writing this essay for the entire class. The entire prepositional phrase acts as an adverb or an
adjective most of the times.

 Noun Phrase: This is a phrase that acts as a noun in a sentence. A noun or a pronoun and its modifiers
make up a noun phrase. For example: The man takes the yellow bus every day. Samuel has a very
beautiful bag.

 Verb Phrase: This phrase will contain a main verb and one or more helping verb. These two will have a
link that connects them together. This phrase will define the various times of the action in a sentence. For
example: The car is moving in a circle. Will he be eating the entire buffet? How are you doing? These
are some of the common examples and the structure is modal verb + auxiliary verb + main verb (as in
the sentence above).

2- Clause: A clause is also a group of words, but this group must contain the subject and a predicate. Hence, a
clause can make complete sense even when presented outside the sentence. A clause is that part of a sentence
that contains the subject and the predicate. For example, I have a dog. The snow is falling since yesterday.
Clauses are of following types:

 Main or Independent Clause: The main clause is that part of a sentence that not only contains the
subject and the predicate but also makes perfect sense if we take it out of the sentence. In other words,
we can say that this clause does not need a context to make sense. For example: China is growing at a
very fast rate and this has surprised many economists. The clauses in bold are independent clauses.

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 Subordinate or Dependent Clause: A subordinate or a dependent clause must also contain the subject
and the predicate. The only condition is that these kinds of clauses won’t make proper sense without
another clause. The dependent clause depends on the main clause for deriving a proper meaning. The
words in bold are the subordinate clauses. Examples: Eduard has a dog who can stand on two legs. That
is the umbrella which I bought online. Iran has a very beautiful culture which is also one of the oldest
cultures in the world. 

3- Sentence and Sentence Structure

We define a sentence as a collection of words that make a certain intended sense. The definition is also
sometimes put as a collection or group of words that make sense to a reader. Grammatically, we say that a
sentence must have a predefined structure. A sentence may contain a subject, a predicate, verbs and auxiliary
verbs etc.

A sentence could be a command, a statement, an exclamation, a question. It has a main clause and sometimes
many clauses with at least one main clause. The sentence has to end with a full stop and must have a verb in it.
For example: Wait here. Put it on. I am a very strong person but I also need to know more. The sentence
structure has the following basic parts:

 Subject: About which something is being said.

 Predicate: Tells us something about the subject.

 Direct object: A person or thing that is affected by the verb.

 Indirect object: Usually followed by direct objects.

 The object of the preposition: Functions as a noun or pronoun and comes right after the preposition.

 Verbs: Indicates action, the occurrence of something or state of being.

 Phrases: Makes sense but not complete sense, thus can’t stand alone.

 Complements: It provides complete meaning to a subject, an object or a verb.

Question: A sentence has only one clause. What type of clause is it and why?

TYPES OF SENTENCES

1- Simple sentence: is one which consists only of one independent clause. It conveys a complete a message,
an idea or a thought but itself. It does not need or require anything else to be understood. EXAMPLES:

 Richard bought some apple juice last night.

 Nancy has not come to classes lately.
 Carlos, my brother, is living in the USA since 1999.

As it can be noted in the above examples, the simple sentences consist of only one subject, one verb, and
one complement.

2- Compound sentence: is one which consists of two or more independent clauses (simple sentences). The
independent clauses making up compound sentences are being joined by coordinating conjunctions,
correlative conjunctions and connectors.

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 COORDINATING CONJUCTIONS:

Coordinating conjunctions are used to join words, phrases and clauses of the same type; for example, a noun
to a noun, an adjective to an adjective, an adverb to an adverb, a pronoun to a pronoun, an independent
clause to an independent clause, etc.

Coordinating Conjunctions serve different purposes:

AND is used to show addition.

 Sandra told me you about your problem, and I am offering my help.

 My father lives in Santa Ana, and he works in San Salvador.
BUT and YET are used to show contrast.

 I heard the teacher, yet I still do not understand the question.

 I am hungry, but I do not want to eat anything.
SO is used to show result.

 Many people want to work in call centers, so they are learning English.
 Marvin wants to get a good job, so he is studying hard in the university.
FOR is used to show reason.

 I will study hard, for I want to pass the test.

 He is not coming to classes, for he is not interested in passing the subject.
OR and NOR are used to show contrast or alternation.

 I do not like to read, nor do I like to write.

 Sandra cannot play chess, nor can she play the guitar.
 Go to the hospital, or ask the doctor to come home.
 She goes to the gym every day, or she goes jogging.

Notice that a comma must be placed in front of the coordinating conjunction. For
example: she came first, so she won the price.

When the same subject is used in both or several independent clauses, or parts of compound sentences, it is
usually not repeated.

 He has played, had fun, watched television, but is still angry.

All the sentences above are compound; they are made up of independent clauses joined by coordinating
conjunction.
CORRELATIVE CONJUCTIONS:
The correlative conjunctions are used to join elements of the same type (as coordinating conjunctions do).
Most of them join clauses, phrases or single words.
They are neither… nor, not only… but also, both… and, either… or, whether… or.

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  Not only does she work as a teacher, but she also works as a cashier.
 Neither has she told me anything about her trip, nor do I want to talk about it.
 Neither did she speak English, nor could she play the guitar.
 Either you pay your debts, or you will never be trusted.
CONNECTORS:
Besides coordinating or correlative conjunctions, which are used in to join two independent clauses to form
compound sentences, connectors or conjunctive adverbs are used to form compound sentences.
There is a great variety of connectors used for different purposes, such as to add a related idea, to contrast, to
show consequence or result, to compare, etc.
These connectors can only join two independent clauses; they can appear between the two clauses they
connect or somewhere else in the sentence. The following are the most common connectors.
TO ADD A RELATED IDEA: also, anyway, besides, furthermore, moreover, otherwise, as matter of fact,
in addition, in fact, in the same way, in like manner, likewise, similarly…

 I live so far away to visit you often; besides, you are never home.
moreover
anyway
 Mr. Morrison is an excellent doctor; likewise, his daughter is an efficient dentist.
TO CONTRAST A RELATED IDEA: at the same time, conversely, however, in contrast to, nevertheless,
on the contrary, on the other hand…

 You did not study for the exam; nevertheless, you passed it.
 Ann came home very late last night; on the contrary, her husband arrived very early.
TO SHOW CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT: accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, for this
reason, thus, therefore…

 The road was wet and slippery; hence, there were many accidents.
TO COMPARE: similarly, likewise, compared to..

 Silvia went to a prestigious school; likewise, her daughter is going to attend a prestigious university.
TO SUMMARIZE: finally, in this manner, in conclusion, indeed, on the whole, summarizing, to sum up, to
summarize, in the same way…

 Grammar II is not so difficult; in conclusion, we can get through this easily.

TO SHOW REPETITION OR ILLUSTRATION OF AN IDEA: briefly, e.g., for example, for instance,
in other words, namely, such as, that is, then, that is to say, say…

 Mary will graduate next year; namely, she finishes her studies this year.
TO SHOW TIME RELATIONSHIP: at last, at the same time, at this point, afterwards, formerly,
meanwhile, now, presently, somewhat later, soon after, therefore, thereafter…
All the sentences above are made up of two independent clauses. These two independent clauses are joined
by connectors, which are placed between the two clauses.
These connectors, as said before, can also be placed somewhere the clauses.
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  Mary will get her diploma in December; she, namely, will have finished studying in October.
 Mary will get her diploma on December; she will have finished studying in October, namely.

3- Complex sentences: these sentences are made up of an independent clause of part and one or more
dependent clauses. What is an adverb clause?
ADVERB CLAUSES - They function as an adverb would. There are as many as types of adverbs. They can
mark place, time, contrast, cause, manner, etc.

Punctuation

When an adverb clause begins the sentence, use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: As soon as
he arrives, we will have some lunch. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence, there is no need for a
comma. Example: He gave me a call when he arrived in town.

An adverb clause will meet three requirements:

 First, it will contain a subject and verb.

 You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete
thought.

Finally, you will notice that the clause answers one of these three adverb questions: How? When? or Why?

Formula:

- Adverbial clause + , + Independent clause (a comma after adverbial clause)

- Independent clause + Adverbial clause (no comma after adverbial clause)

Example:

- As he didn’t understand, he asked the teacher to explain.

- He asked the teacher to explain as he didn’t understand.

2) TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

There are several different kinds of adverbial clauses; in addition, the subordinators can distinguish the
different types of adverbial clauses.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF TIME

We use adverb clause of time to modify verb in main clause and to tell the time that an action takes place.

Subordinating Conjunctions: when, whenever, anytime, before, after, till, until, while, since, just as, as
soon as, as often as, now that, as long as …

Example:

- She ran away while I was sleeping.

- While I was sleeping, she ran away.

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 ADVERB CLAUSE OF PLACE

We use adverb clause of place to modify verb in main clause and to tell the place that an action takes place.

Subordinating Conjunctions: where, as far as, as near as, wherever, anywhere…

Example:

- She is always drunk wherever I meet her.

- Wherever I meet her, she is always drunk.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF MANNER

We use adverb clause of manner to modify verb in main clause and to tell how an action takes place.

Subordinating Conjunctions: as if, as though, as

Example:

- The boy speaks as if he is sick.

- As if he is sick, the boy speaks.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF CAUSE/REASON

We use adverb clause of cause/reason to modify verb in main clause and to tell the cause that an action takes
place.

Subordinating Conjunctions: because, as, for, that

Example:

- I come here because I want to meet you.

- Because I want to meet you, I come here.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONDITION

We use adverb clause of condition to modify verb in main clause and to tell the condition that an action
takes place or someone does something.

Subordinating Conjunctions: if, whether, if … not, unless, supposing that, provided that, in the condition
that, as long as that

Example:

- I will commit suicide unless you love me. - Unless you love me, I will commit suicide.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF PURPOSE

We use adverb clause of purpose to modify verb in main clause and to tell the aim that someone does
something or something happens.

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Subordinating Conjunctions: so that, in order that,

Example:

- I tell him every day in order that he can remember. - In order that he can remember, I tell him every day.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF RESULT/CONSEQUENCE

We use adverb clause of result/consequence to modify verb in main clause and to tell the result that someone
does something or something happens.

Subordinating Conjunctions: “that” is used to recognize adverb clause of result

Subject + verb + so + adjective/adverb + that + subject + verb + complement

Example:

- She is so hungry that she has lunch early. - That she has lunch early, she is so hungry.

Subject + verb + such + noun(s) + that + subject + verb + complement

Example:

- She acts such a rude manner that no man loves her. - That no man loves her, she acts such a rude manner.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONCESSION/CONTRAST

We use adverb clause of concession/contrast to modify verb in main clause and it is introduced by the
below-written subordinating conjunctions:

Subordinating Conjunctions: though, however, even though, even if, although, so, in spite of the fact that,
the fact that, despite that, whether or, granted that, whoever, whatever, whichever, no matter what, whereas,
while

Example:

- I have never committed crime although I am poor. - Although I am poor, I have never committed crime.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF DEGREE

We use adverb clause of degree to modify verb in main clause.

Subordinating Conjunctions: according to as, according to how

Example:

- She will be paid according to how she works. - According to how she works, she will be paid.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF COMPARISON

We use adverb clause of comparison to modify verb in main clause.

Subject + verb + as + adjective/adverb + as + subject + verb + complement

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Example:

- Your book is as small as my book is. - You speak as fast as she does.

Sub + verb + adj/adv-er /more-adj/adv + than + sub + verb + complement

Example:

- She runs faster than I do. - They speak more fluently than he does.

4- Compound Complex Sentences: A compound sentence is made of two simple sentences joined by a
coordinating conjunction. A complex sentence is made of a simple sentence and a dependent, or subordinate,
clause (has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought.

So, a compound complex sentence is made up of more than one sentence joined by a conjunction, and at
least one of those sentences is complex. In other words, it is a compound sentence with a dependent, or
subordinate clause.

In simple words, a compound-complex sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.

Example:

- Kate doesn’t like cartoons because they are loud, so she doesn’t watch them.

- Usually I take a walk every day while the sun sets, but it was raining today.

- Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't found anyone to go with.