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UNIT 3, Sentence Structure - Categories - Handout

This document discusses sentence structure categories including lexical categories like nouns, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions and verbs. It also covers phrasal categories like noun phrases, adverb phrases, adjective phrases, prepositional phrases and verb phrases. Phrasal categories can function as subjects, predicates, modifiers or complements. Co-ordinate phrases are also examined, which contain a coordinator linking two constituents of the same syntactic category.

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139 views38 pages

UNIT 3, Sentence Structure - Categories - Handout

This document discusses sentence structure categories including lexical categories like nouns, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions and verbs. It also covers phrasal categories like noun phrases, adverb phrases, adjective phrases, prepositional phrases and verb phrases. Phrasal categories can function as subjects, predicates, modifiers or complements. Co-ordinate phrases are also examined, which contain a coordinator linking two constituents of the same syntactic category.

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Quỳnh Nguyễn
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Sentence structure: Categories

Unit 3
Unit 3 – Sentence structure:
Categories
I. Nouns & Noun phrases
II. Adverbs & AdvPs
III. Adjectives & APs
IV. Prepositions & PPs
V. Co-ordinate phrases
Summary
Lexical vs Phrasal categories
Lexical categories Phrasal categories

nouns noun phrases


adverbs adverb phrases
adjectives adjective phrases
prepositions prepositional phrases
verbs verb phrases

subject, predicate,
HEAD of a phrase
modifier, complement
Other Lexical categories
Articles (a, an, the)
Demonstratives (this, that, these, those)
Conjunctions (and, but, although,…)
Degree words (very, rather, extremely,…)
Auxiliaries (be, have, do, may, could,…)

can’t function as HEAD of a phrase


A. Questions for discussion (pp. 45-51)
1. Underline the NPs in the following sentences and decide
whether they function as subjects or complements.
(a) Andy broke the window of my room.
(b) Everyone said they wanted a long holiday.
2. Draw phrase markers:
(a) himself
(b) Elizabeth
(c) you
A. NOUNS
- Traditional definition: A noun names a person, place
or thing.
- Syntactic definition: Nouns have
(a) the same function / distribution (HEAD of an NP)
(b) a genitive / possessive form (John’s, mother’s)
(c) Four sub-categories: proper vs common;
count vs mass
N.B. Sub-categories of nouns

Proper nouns
can stand alone to form NP
(April, Hanoi)
Common nouns - follow articles (the)
(car, dog, love) - countable if referring to things/people
Count nouns - follow indefinite articles/ numerals
(a car, two dogs) - countable > plural forms

Mass nouns - uncountable > NO plural forms


(butter, modesty)
Some words may belong to different categories:
- I like to eat fruit. (mass)
- I love tropical fruits such as bananas and guavas.
B. NOUN PHRASES
- may function as subjects or complements

E.g. Two extremely clever plans have been prepared.


[subject]

They have prepared two extremely clever plans.


[complement]
B. NOUN PHRASES
- may function as subjects or complements

NP NP

PHRASE
PHRASE

PHRASE N
PHRASE N

two extremely clever plans a wood bridge design


An NP may contain more than one noun, but only ONE
noun can be its HEAD.
N.B.1 HEAD of an NP
- can be a N or pronoun
- determines the number (singular/plural) of the NP
- determines the gender of the NP

E.g
(a) Two extremely clever plans [have been accepted]
=> They [have been accepted] > plural, neutral
(b) His new mistress [is from Spain]
=> She [is from Spain] > singular, feminine
N.B.2 Phrase markers for proper names and
pronouns as HEAD (pp 50-51)

NP NP

name pronoun

John They
N.B.3 Kinds of pronouns (p.48)
B. Questions for discussion (pp. 52-54)
3. Give two examples of Degree adverbs (not mentioned in
the T’s notes). Explain why you think they are Degree
adverbs.
4. Give two examples of General adverbs (not mentioned in
the T’s notes). Explain why you think they are general
adverbs.
5. Draw phrase markers:
(a) slowly
(b) very slowly
(c) quite oddly disturbing (experience)
A. ADVERBS
- two main kinds

Degree adverbs - can’t stand alone


(very, rather, extremely,…)
- modifying an A / Adv
General adverbs (p.54) - as HEAD of an AdvP
oddly, instantly, awkwardly,
enthusiastically, potentially,…

e.g.
(a) a rather nice hat (RATHER = DEG)

(b) (drive) very fast (VERY = DEG)


B. ADVERB PHRASES
=> with a general Adv as Head

HEAD can be modified by a Degree adverb or another


adverb phrase.
e.g.
(a) quite incredibly
DEG -> Adv (incredibly) as H > AdvP
(modifier)
(b) quite incredibly fast
AdvP -> Adv (fast) as H > AdvP
(modifier)
B. ADVERB PHRASES
=> functioning as modifier or complement

E.g.
- very badly written (essay)
[modifier]

- more obviously artificial (flowers)


[modifier]

- He treated her very badly.


[complement]
N.B. Phrase markers for AdvPs

AdvP-a

AdvP AdvP AdvP-b Adv

Adv DEG Adv DEG Adv

fast quite incredibly quite incredibly fast


C. Questions for discussion (p. 52)
6. Give two examples of gradable adjectives (not mentioned
in the T’s notes). Explain why you think they are gradable.
7. Give two examples of non-gradable adjectives (not
mentioned in the T’s notes). Explain why you think they are
non-gradable.
8. Underline the APs in the following sentences and decide
whether they function as modifiers or complements?
(a) It was quite icy last night and my thin blanket couldn’t
help.
(b) The best-selling book which made me sad was so very
touchy.
A. ADJECTIVES
- two main kinds

Gradable - having comparison forms


VERY (good, old, tall,…) - modified by DEG
Non-gradable (p.52) - NO comparison forms
dead, alive, main, fatal,.. - NOT modified by DEG

e.g.
(a) a rather tall man
(b) * a very dead man
B. ADJECTIVE PHRASES
=> with an A as HEAD

=> HEAD can be modified by a DEG or an AdvP.


e.g.
(a) very intelligent [students] (DEG -> A as Head)

(b) quite obviously artificial [flowers]


(AdvP -> A as Head)
B. ADJECTIVE PHRASES
=> functioning as Modifier or Complement

E.g.
- a very intelligent student
[modifier]

- John is very intelligent.


[complement]
N.B. Phrase markers for APs

AP

AP AP AdvP A

A DEG A DEG Adv

good very intelligent more obviously artificial


D. Questions for discussion (pp 54-55)
9. Give two examples of Prepositions followed by an NP.
10. (a) Give two examples of Prepositions that can stand
alone as Prepositional phrases in their own right (i.e.
single-word PPs).
(b) What meanings do these single-word PPs express?
11. Replace each PP by a single word:
- to/in a foreign country
- on the upper floor
- on the day before today
- on the day after today
PREPOSITIONS & PPs
- Preposition = HEAD of PP
- Two kinds

+ NPS as complements of, for, about, to, in, at,


above, from, …
 NPs as complements here, there, away, abroad, now,
(p.55) upwards, upstairs, then, …

-> can replace a PP


e.g. beside a stream => there / here
at the present time => now
N.B. Phrase markers for PPs

PP
PP

P P NP

now at the present time


N.B.2 Different viewpoints about single-word PPs
Traditional grammar:
- there, here, now, upwards,… => Adverbs
E. Questions for discussion (pp 55-60)
12. Give examples of five co-ordinate conjunctions.
Note: What does FANBOYS stand for?
13. What is the most important principle about the two
constituents linked by a co-ordinator?
14. Underline the coordinate constituents and state their
categories (Note: (d) is ambiguous).
E. Questions for discussion (pp 55-60)
15. Draw phrase markers:
(a) here and there
(b) now or in the future
(c) very hot but quite pleasant
(d) in Asia or Africa
(e) fast and very carelessly
Co-ordinate phrases contain:
- a co-ordinator (and, but, or)
- two constituents / sisters of the same category

NP
NP
NP NP
NP NP
name name

(a) Max and Carol (b) two cars and three bikes
> ambiguous structure (e.g. too hot and stuffy)

AP AP

AP AP DEG A

A DEG A A A

(c) stuffy and too hot (d) too hot and stuffy
AdvP

AdvP AdvP

DEG Adv DEG Adv

(e) very slowly and rather carefully


PP
PP
PP PP
P NP
P NP P NP
P P Name

(f) to and from Cairo (g) on the wall and under the bed
SUMMARY
(a) Lexical categories such as N, A, Adv, P, V
=> Head of the phrase
(b) Phrasal categories such as NP, AP, AdvP, PP,
VP
=> functions of Subject, Predicate, Modifier or
Complement
(c) Co-ordinate phrases
=> co-ordinated constituents > same category

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