1.

Origin and Distribution of Chickpea:

Chickpea is known to have originated in western Asia (probably eastern Turkey). The cultivated chickpea
is not found in the wild and C.reticulatum is its progenitor, while C.echinospermum is a close relative.
From west Asia, it spread to Europe and in more recent times, it was introduced in tropical Africa, central
and southern America and Australia.

Introduction of chickpea in India appears to be independent in the north and Peninsular India. The
earliest record of chickpea in India is from Atranji Khera in Uttar Pradesh and this dates backs to 2000 BC.
Its introduction to Peninsular India appears to be between 500 and 300 BC.Global production of
chickpeas is around 7.5 M t from an area of 10 M ha with a productivity of 750 kg ha-1 India is the
premier chickpea growing country accounting for 77 per cent of the total area and production in the
world. Other important chickpea producing countries are Pakistan, Turkey, Mexico, Burma and Ethiopia.
Major chickpea growing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.

In India chickpea is cultivated (2005-06) on 7.1 M ha, producing 5.7 M t with a productivity of 800 kg ha-
1. Madhya Pradesh with 2.6 M ha producing 2.4 M t with a productivity of 930 kg ha-1 ranks first in area,
production and productivity.

11. Harvesting and Storage of Chickpea:

Chickpea takes more number of days (around 150 days) for maturity under north Indian conditions than
in Deccan and farther south (110 days). The plants are pulled out or cut with a sickle and carried to
threshing flour.

After sun drying for about a week, it is threshed under the feet of cattle or by beating with sticks. The
yield of rainfed crop ranges from 800 kg ha-1 in south to about 1000 kg ha-1 in north India. Yield around
4.01 ha-1 have been obtained in Punjab and Haryana under favourable conditions. Clean dry seed is
stored similar to that of pigeonpea and other pulses.

Chickpea: Adaptation and Varieties

Chickpea has an indeterminate growth habit and will continue to flower while growing conditions remain
favourable for vegetative growth. Moisture or nitrogen stress is required to encourage seed set and to
hasten maturity.
In Saskatchewan, due to growth habit:

Kabuli chickpea is best adapted to the Brown Soil Zone; and

Desi chickpea is best adapted to the Brown and Dark Brown Soil Zones.

Soil Zones

Chickpea is not well adapted to saline soils or to high-moisture areas. It is not well-suited to soils with
high clay content or areas where soils are slow to warm in the spring. Chickpea does not tolerate wet or
waterlogged soils.

Production limitations in Saskatchewan include:

The long growing season requirement for current varieties; and

The high risk of the extremely aggressive disease, ascochyta blight.

Planting chickpea outside the areas of best adaptation has proven to be very risky due to:

Delayed maturity;

High green seed content; and

Destructive disease infections.

Chickpea can be planted on either summerfallow or stubble in the Brown Soil Zone and on stubble in the
Dark Brown Soil Zone.

Planting on stubble fields tends to reduce vegetative growth and results in moisture stress to hasten
maturity.

Due to the indeterminate growth habit of chickpea, plants can re-grow late in the season after rain
showers or in the absence of a killing frost. There are no management practices to overcome the
problem of late vegetative re-growth.
Chickpea is heat-tolerant and thrives under good moisture conditions with daytime temperatures
between 21ºC and 29ºC and night temperatures near 20ºC. Chickpea is relatively drought-tolerant due
to its long taproot, which allows it to use water from greater depths than other pulse crops.

To prevent delayed or uneven maturity, avoid planting chickpea in low lying areas in the field, around
sloughs or in areas with high soil organic matter.

Botanical description of chickpea:

Chickpea is a herbaceous annual plant which branches from the base. It is almost a small bush with
diffused, spreading branches. The plant is mostly covered with glandular or non glandular hairs but some
genotypes do not possess hair. Based on seed size and color, cultivated chickpeas are of two types.

Macrosperma (kabuli type)- The seeds of this type are large (100-seed mass >25 g), round or ram head,
and cream-colored. The plant is medium to tall in height, with large leaflets and white flowers, and
contains no anthocyanin.

Microsperma (desi type)- The seeds of this type are small and angular in shape. The seed color varies
from cream, black, brown, yellow to green. There are 2-3 ovules pod but on an average 1-2 seeds pod
are produced. The plants are short with small leaflets and purplish flowers, and contain anthocyanin.

Chickpea cultivation

Chickpeas are cultivated under both irrigated and rainfed conditions. Basically this crop is winter season
crop. This crop does not tolerate frost especially @ flowering stage as this will damage the seed
development in the pod. Annually 65 to 95 cm rainfall is required for its cultivation.

Chickpea Cultivation:-, (Cicer arietinum), also called garbanzo bean or Bengal gram, annual plant of the
pea family (Fabaceae), widely grown for its nutritious seeds. Chickpeas are an important food plant in
India, Africa, and Central and South America.

DISEASES Found In Chickpea Cultivation

The important diseases of chick pea are wilt, sclerotinia blight, grey mold, rust and Ascochyta blight.
Symptoms of these diseases and their suitable control measures are given below:

Wilt
The main cause of this disease is a fungus, Fusarium orthocerus through other fungi are also associated
with this disease. This disease causes considerable loss in most of the gram growing regions. The
symptoms of the disease may be seen in the seedling stage as well as in an advanced stage of plant
growth. The leaves start yellowing and afterwards drying. The plants too become yellowish and finally
dry out. Roots turn black and ultimately decompose.

CONTROL MEASURES Of Disease In Chickpea Cultivation

Treat the seed with Benlate T or a mixture of Benlate of Thiram (1:1) at the rate of 2.5 g per kg of seed.

Grow the resistant varieties like C-214, Avrodhi, Uday, BG-244; Pusa-362, JG-315, Phule G-5 etc.

In fields having heavy incidence of gram wilt, the cultivation of chick pea should be avoided for three to
four years.

As far as possible sowing of chick pea should not be done before third week of October.

Deep planting of chick pea about 8-10 centimeters deep in the light soils reduces the gram wilt
incidence.

Sclerotinia Blight

It is caused by a gungus Scleritinia sclerotiorum. This diseas causes losses in Punjab, Haryana and
Wester Uttar Pradesh. The disease affects all the plants except the roots. The infection in the initial stage
is visible on the stem near the ground. The affected plants first become yellow, then brown and
ultimately dry out. On close observation, brown colored spots may be seen on affected stem which later
girdle it. White cottony growth of the fungus with hard, black colored sclerotia may be seen on these
spots on the stem.

CONTROL MEASURES

Use only healthy seeds free from sclerotia.

Grow disease resistant varieties like G-543, Gaurav, Pusa-261 etc.

After harvest, the diseased plants should not be allowed to stand in the field but should be destroyed by
burning.

Treat the soil with a mixture of fungicides like Brassicol and Captan at the rate of 10 kg per hectare.
Grey Mold

This disease is caused by a fungus Botrytis cinerea survives in the soil. This disease causes
considerable damage in tarai area of Uttar Pradesh. Brown necrotic spots appear on twigs, petioles,
leaves and flowers of the plant on attaining full vegetative growth. The branches and the stem also get
affected parts. The affected stem finally breaks and the plant dies.

CONTROL MEASURES

Plant the crop late i.e. first fortnight of November.

Spray the crop with 0.2% carbendazim (Bavistin).

Rust

This disease is caused by a fungus Uromyces ciceris arietini. The disease is more severe in Punjab and
Uttar Pradesh. The symptoms are visible in early February. Small, round to oval, light or dark brown
pustules are formed on the under surface of the leaves. The pustules later turn black. Afterwards, these
pustules appear on upper surface of leaves, petioles, twigs and pods. The affected leaves pre-maturely
fall and therefore the yield is considerably reduced.

CONTROL MEASURES

With the appearance of first symptoms, spray the crop with 0.2% Mancozeb 75 WP followed by two
more sprays at 10 days interval.

Plant only resistant varieties like Gaurav.

Ascochyta Blight

This disease is caused by Ascochyta rabi, a fungus which survives on plant trash left in the soil. This is
an important disease prevalent in Punjab and parts of Himachal Pradesh. All the plant part except the
root is affected. Small round, yellowish-brown spots are seen on the leaves in the months of January and
February. The spots also spread to petioles and branches where they are elongated and become dark
brown in color. The affected plants finally dry up.

CONTROL MEASURES

Plant only healthy seed. Before planting treat the seed with fungicides like Thiram or Carbendazim
(Bavistin) at the rate of 2.5 g/kg of seed.

Follow three year crop rotation.

Plant resistant varieties/tolerant varieties like G-543, Pusa-256, Gaurav, GNG-146, PBG-1 etc.

INSECT PESTS Found In Chickpea Cultivation

Some of the important insect pests of chick pea with their control measures are given below:

Cutworm

Gram cutworm is a serious pest in low lying areas where fields are cloddy. The larvae of this insect
remain hidden under these clods during the day time and cause damage during the night. The
caterpillars cut the plants at ground level. The pest is sporadic in nature and can be controlled by the
application of Lindane 6% granules at the rate of 20-25 kg per hectare mixed in the soil.

Gram Pod Borer

This is the most serious pest of chick pea and causes damage up to 75 per cent reduction in yield. The
caterpillar not only defoliates the tender leaves but also makes holes in the pods and feed upon the
developing grains. While feeding on the developing seeds the anterior body portion of the caterpillar
remains inside the pod and rest half or so hanging outside. When seeds of one pod are finished, it moves
to the next. Unless the pest is controlled in the initial stages of infestation it takes the heavy toll of the
crop. As a matter of fact this pest is the most limiting factor in gram production.

CONTROL MEASURES
Spray Monocrotophos (Nuvacron) 36 EC at the time of pod formation at the rate of 1 millilitre mixed in 1
liter of water. The amount of solution may vary from 600-800 liters per hectare. The spray should be
repeated, if needed after 15 days.

Alternatively, spray Endisulfan 35 EC at the rate of 1.25 liters mixed in 1000 liters of water per hectare.

Crop becomes ready for harvest when leaves turn reddish-brown and start shedding. Plants are either
plucked out by hand or cut with sickle. The crop is allowed to dry in sun on threshing floor for about five
to six days. Thereafter, threshing is done either by beating the plants with sticks or by trampling under
the feet of bullocks.

Harvest Of Chickpea
Timing is critical when harvesting chickpeas, moisture content should be around 13 per cent, any lower
will risk seed cracking/shattering. Closed or open front headers can be used to harvest the seed but
attention to the correct settings is vital

Chickpea can be a very profitable crop to grow. Successfully obtaining human grade is dependent on
good management throughout the season but particular attention at harvesting will maximize both
quality and storability of the crop.

Chickpeas are indeterminate so harvest management must consider fields with variability in maturity
levels. To ensure high quality, farmers may need to manage areas within the fields separately. For
example, low spots that have not reached physiological maturity should be desiccated when they have
reached the appropriate stage and not with the rest of the field. By including them with the crop that is
at the proper stage, the result will be harvested crop that is not uniform in quality with varying moisture
levels that will impact storage and could contain chemical residues.

Threshing of Chickpea
Traditionally, farmers thresh their crop by trampling it with bullocks. The animals are allowed to walk on
the plants in circles.For easy threshing and to avoid damage to the seed, the seeds are removed from the
threshing lot when about 60-70% seeds have separated from the straw. Now most farmers use
commercially available power threshes.

The Farm Machinery Institute, the National Institute of RNAM [Regional Network for Agricultural
Machinery] in Pakistan, has developed a chickpea thresher to help solve labor shortage during chickpea
threshing and wheat harvesting seasons which overlap each other. The machine consists of three rasp-
bar cyclinder for threshing, delivery augers, rubber flap elevator, an aspirator fan for cleaning and an
oscillating screen. A grain bagging spout is also provided at one end of the thresher. The machine is
powered from the tractor PTO and mounted on the tractor's three point linkage for transport. Test
results during the 1988 harvest season showed that the machine had an intake crop capacity of 1,000-
1,500 kg/ha and cleaning efficiency of about 94%. Grain breakage was about 2% while grain loss was
about 3%. Two men could operate the thresher. The newly designed thresher was well accepted in
chickpea growing areas of Pakistan. However, farmers have suggested that a scavenging drum for
chopping straw be incorporated in the next prototype.

storage of chickpea
Handle chickpeas with care, using a conveyor instead of an auger if possible, as chickpeas are susceptible
to breaking. Chickpeas will darken and deteriorate in quality the longer they're stored.

Remove the remaining chickpeas from the can.

Rinse and drain them.

Put them in an airtight container and drizzle with a small amount of olive oil. This will keep the chickpeas
moist.

Store in the refrigerator for up to 5 days.

If storing in the freezer, add a little bit of water to prevent freezer burn.

fertilization of chickpea
Fertility requirements for chickpea are not well-defined. Based on limited data, the requirements for
phosphorus, potassium and sulphur are similar to pea or lentil. A well-inoculated crop should not require
nitrogen fertilizer, provided the appropriate Rhizobium inoculants are used and nitrogen fixation is
optimized.

If nitrogen fixation is not optimized due to unfavourable growing conditions (e.g. relatively dry seed bed),
chickpea may benefit from low rates of starter N in some years.

High rates of starter nitrogen

Some growers and researchers are testing the application of higher rates of starter nitrogen (applied
away from the seed) without inoculant to enhance chickpea's early vegetative growth and to speed crop
maturity by causing a nitrogen deficiency in late summer.

Excessive use of nitrogen fertilizer, or high levels of available soil nitrogen, reduces nitrogen fixation and
may delay maturity. A soil test will provide a guideline for fertility needs.

NOTE: General guidance values for fertilizer under normal conditions of nutrient content in the soil and
an average annual rainfall of 400 l/m2. Under irrigated conditions, the phosphorus and potassium dose
should be increased by at least 25%.

Fertilizer recommendations for the chickpea.

• Complex NPK fertilizers are applied during sowing to balance the soil content in nutrients: main,
secondary and micronutrients. The right formulation and balance will be applied according to the
contents of the soil, considering the needs of the crop and the expected yield.

Fertiberia has a great deal of knowledge of Spanish soils, based on long experience analysing and
proposing fertilizer strategies to farmers. This, along with numerous fertilizer trials carried out with the
farmers themselves and in collaboration with universities and research organisations, has led to the
design of fertilizer balances adapted to the growing of chickpea in the different producing areas.

• Nitrogen fertilizers complete nutritional requirements at times of maximum need, being key to the
development of the crop. Fertilizers with additional nutrients are used when convenient. N is a growth
factor, and knowledge of its dynamics in the soil and at moments of maximum demand by the crop
allows us to improve efficiency when applying this element. Applying sulphur, microelements and
nitrogen together improves efficiency in their assimilation by synergy (S, Zn, Mg).

Fertiberia offers a wide range of nitrogen fertilizers with secondary nutrients and micronutrients.

Common Pests and Diseases

Diseases

Category : Fungal

Ascochyta blight Ascochyta rabiei

Symptoms

Water-soaked pale spots on young leaves which enlarge rapidly under cool, wet conditions and coalesce
to cause blighting of leaves; elongated lesions often cause girdling of the stems which break off; new
shoots may form at the breakage points; if pods become infected it can lead to reduced seed set; if
infected seeds are planted, the seedlings will develop dark brown lesions at the base of the stem and
may dry up and die

Cause

Fungus

Comments

Disease emergence if favored by wet weather; spores are carried to new plants by wind and water
splash

Management

Grow more resistant varieties such as PBA Slasher or Genesis™ 090; even resistant varieties require
fungicide application at early podding to ensure high quality seed; more susceptible varieties may
require a first fungicide application approximately 4-6 weeks after sowing
Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporum

Symptoms

Weak and wilting leaf stems, leaves and flowers; lower leaves drying out and dying; leaves turning brown
or pale yellow; splitting the stem reveals discoloration of the inner tissue; leaves turn dull yellow in color
and collapse

Cause

Fungus

Comments

Disease emergence favors warm, moist soils; disease can be spread by water splash, movement of
infected soil and plants and by infected seed

Management

The primary method of controlling the disease is to use resistant varieties; damage can be reduced by
application of appropriate fungicides; crop debris should be removed or plowed deeply into the soil after
harvest; if disease is present in the soil then a rotation to a non-host for a period of three years can
reduce the levels of inoculum in the soil

Sclerotinia stem rot (White mold) Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Symptoms

Plants rapidly wilting and dying, often without turning yellow; as plants dry out they may turn straw
yellow in color; small black fungal bodies (sclerotia) may be present on the surface of the root just below
the soil line together with white fluffy mycelium; water soaked lesions may be present on the stem in
Spring; infected tissues dry out and may become covered in white mycelium

Cause

Fungus

Comments

Disease emergence favors very wet weather conditions; disease is usually introduced to non-infected
areas by infected seed

Management

Plant only certified seed; if disease is known to present rotate crops with non-hosts such as cereals; if
problem is severe then a 4 year rotation away from susceptible plants may be required; there are no
seed treatments or fungicides available to treat the disease

Symptoms

Plants rapidly wilting and dying, often without turning yellow; as plants dry out they may turn straw
yellow in color; small black fungal bodies (sclerotia) may be present on the surface of the root just below
the soil line together with white fluffy mycelium; water soaked lesions may be present on the stem in
Spring; infected tissues dry out and may become covered in white mycelium

Cause

Fungus

Comments

Disease emergence favors very wet weather conditions; disease is usually introduced to non-infected
areas by infected seed

Management

Plant only certified seed; if disease is known to present rotate crops with non-hosts such as cereals; if
problem is severe then a 4 year rotation away from susceptible plants may be required; there are no
seed treatments or fungicides available to treat the disease

Category : Fungal, Oomycete

Damping-off Pythium spp.

Symptoms

Failure of seedling to emerge; light brown, seedlings with light brown to redwater-soaked roots and
stems; collapse of plants; plant dry up and die; stunted plant growth; rotting taproot with few lateral
roots

Cause

Fungus

Comments

Occurs more often in cold temperatures when growth of seedlings is slow and in moist soil

Management

Treat seeds with fungicide prior to planting

Category : Oomycete

Dry root rot Macrophomina phaseolina

Symptoms

Leaves and leaf stems wilting; dark, rotten tap roots; gray fibrous fungal threads on the tap root

Cause

Fungus

Comments

Favors high temperature and low moisture

Management

No fungicides provide effective control of the disease and management therefore relies on cultural
practices; utilize adequate plant spacing to avoid overcrowding and competition for water which can
promote the disease; crop rotation to a non-host may help reduce the population in the soil

Phytophthora root rot Phytophthora megasperma

Symptoms

Leaves of plants turning yellow and drying out; decaying roots; small brown lesions on roots which
enlarge and create necrotic patches; lesions may girdle stem

Cause

Oomycete

Comments

Favors warm, wet soil

Management

Varieties with resistance to the disease are available in most areas where root rot is a problem

Pests
Category : Insects

Beet armyworm Spodoptera exigua

Symptoms

Singular, or closely grouped circular to irregularly shaped holes in foliage; heavy feeding by young larvae
leads to skeletonized leaves; larvae are dark green to brown caterpillars with banding patterns

Cause
Insect

Comments

Beet armyworm is a serious pest of chickpea in India and Mexico; Insect can go through 3–5 generations
a year

Management

Organic methods of controlling armyworms include biological control by natural enemies which
parasitize the larvae and the application of Bacillus thuringiensis; there are chemicals available for
commercial control but many that are available for the home garden do not provide adequate control of
the larvae

Chickpea leafminer Liriomyza cicerina

Symptoms

Leaves may have a stippled appearance from females puncturing leaf with ovipositor to feed on exudate;
female lays eggs under leaf surface and newly hatched larvae damage the leaf by feeding on the inner
tissues; feeding damage from larvae causes the development of winding white trails of the leaf surface;
if feeding damage is extensive, the entire leaf may dry out and drop from the plant; damage to young
seedlings may result in the death of the plant; crop yield may be reduced

Cause

Insect

Comments

Chickpea leafminers can cause heavy losses in North Africa, West Asia and Northern Europe

Management

Cultural control methods include planting chickpeas in early winter instead of Spring when the
populations of the insects are at less damaging levels; crop debris should be plowed deeply into the soil
to destroy overwintering pupae; chickpea cultivars with smaller leaf sizes are less attractive to
leafminers; insects may be controlled through the application of appropriate chemical insecticides

Cowpea aphid (Black aphid) Aphis craccivora

Symptoms

Deformed leaves and shoots; curled leaves; if infestation is severe then plants may be killed; seed fill and
yield may be reduced; aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew which encourages the
growth of sooty mold on the plants; adult insect is small and soft bodied and is easily distinguished from
other aphids by its shiny-black color
Cause

Insect

Comments

Black aphids can cause severe damage when infestation is high but more commonly cause problems in
chickpea crops through the transmission of several plant viruses

Management

Plants should be monitored for signs of aphids; if insects are present then control measures should be
implemented; some chickpea cultivars are more susceptible to aphid infestation than others - cultivars
with a low density of trichomes (leaf hairs) are more susceptible than others; chemical control may be
warranted although aphids have developed resistance to several insecticides in India; cultural control
methods include early planting which promotes early closure of the plant canopy and reduced the
spread of viruses; aphid infestations tend to be worse when broad plant spacing is employed

Cutworms (Black cutworm, Winter cutworm) Agrotis ipsilon

Agrotis segetum

Symptoms

Stems of young transplants or seedlings may be severed at soil line; if infection occurs later, irregular
holes are eaten into the surface of fruits; larvae causing the damage are usually active at night and hide
during the day in the soil at the base of the plants or in plant debris of toppled plant; larvae are 2.5–5.0
cm (1–2 in) in length; larvae may exhibit a variety of patterns and coloration but will usually curl up into a
C-shape when disturbed

Cause

Insect

Comments

Favors late tillage and planting; major pest for corn and will start attacking everything else after corn is
rotated out

Management

Remove all plant residue from soil after harvest or at least two weeks before planting, this is especially
important if the previous crop was another host such as alfalfa, beans or a leguminous cover crop; plastic
or foil collars fitted around plant stems to cover the bottom 3 inches above the soil line and extending a
couple of inches into the soil can prevent larvae severing plants; hand-pick larvae after dark; spread
diatomaceous earth around the base of the plants (this creates a sharp barrier that will cut the insects if
they try and crawl over it); apply appropriate insecticides to infested areas of garden or field if not
growing organically

Pod borers (Cotton bollworm, Australian bollworm) Helicoverpa armigera

Helicoverpa punctigera

Symptoms

Young larvae feed on foliage initially; young chickpea plants may be completely destroyed; older larvae
bore into seed pods and consume seeds; insect frass (feces) may be present outside the feeding holes

Cause

Insects

Comments

Helicoverpa armigera is widely distributed in Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Mediterranean; also a pest
of cotton, pigeonpea, sunflower, tomato, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, okra, beans, tobacco, linseed and
a number of fruit trees; Helicoverpa punctigera is a major pest of chickpea in Australia

Management

The insect can be very damaging in the areas where it occurs and plants should be monitored carefully
for presence of larvae; identifying the species of Helicoverpa present can be important for management
decisions as H. armigera is resistant to some insecticides (particularly synthetic pyrethroids), while H.
punctigera is susceptible to all insecticides; small larvae should be distinguished with the use of a hand
lens or microscope; young H. armigera larvae have a distinctive saddle on the fourth body segment
which is absent from the larvae of H. punctigera (see image); older larvae can be distinguished by the
color of the hairs behind the head - H. armigera possess white hairs, while H. punctigera have black
hairs; both types of larvae may also be controlled organically via release of natural enemies which
parasitize the larvae and the application of Bacillus thuringiensis