Neolithic and Chalcolithic

Cultures UNIT 3 CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES

Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Ahar Culture
3.3 Kayatha Culture
3.4 Malwa Culture
3.5 Jorwe Culture
3.6 Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) Culture
3.7 Painted Gray Ware (PWG) Culture
3.8 Summary
Suggested Reading
Sample Questions

Learning Objectives &

Once you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
Ø understand the regional diversity of Chalcolithic cultures in western and
central India;
Ø understand the significance of the chronology of these cultures;
Ø understand how the Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) culture and the Painted
Gray ware (PWG) culture are distinctively different; and
Ø grasp the problem of how the entire cultural landscape in north, western
and central India remained devoid of full-fledged urbanism for almost
thousand years following the Harappan decline.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In post-independent period an interest developed among the scholars for the
systematic study of social organisations and political and economic institutions.
This was apparent in writings of scholars like D.D. Kosambi. A similar interest
influenced the archaeological work during this time when, spearheaded by
scholars like H.D. Sankalia, there appeared an effort to reconstruct the past ways
of life in different regions. Detailed exploration of Chalcolithic sites followed,
particularly in central and western India, with excavations at a few chosen sites.
Multi-disciplinary studies at sites like Inamgaon in Maharashtra threw substantial
light on past subsistence, religious practices and social organisation. The
Chalcolithic culture of a region was defined according to certain salient features
seen in ceramics and other cultural equipments like copper artifacts, beads of
semi-precious stones, stone tools and terracotta figurines. Migration and diffusion
of population groups were often cited as causes for the origin of these cultures,
as seen for example, in the idea of an Aryan ‘people’ being the bearers. Often
linkages of archaeological sites were sought with names of places mentioned in
the Puranas and epics which were believed to have been located in the same
geographical region. Many of these ideas have been critiqued in recent years,
e.g. defining a culture on the basis of pottery types and explaining change by
32 factors of diffusion and migration (Panja 2002).
On the other hand the Ochre Coloured Pottery, commonly known as OCP, seen Chalcolithic Cultures
at over one hundred sites in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh, presents a different problem. Opinions are still divided about the
authorship of OCP ‘cultures’. The dates assigned are diverse, ranging from 2800
BC to 900 BC. The PGW phase, marked by the deluxe ware of the same name
has evoked many queries regarding its status. Its association with iron at some
sites has been the subject of much scholarly discussion.

The Chalcolithic cultures such as Ahar, Kayatha, Malwa, Jorwe, Ochre

colored Pottery and Painted Gray are discussed in this unit.

3.2 AHAR CULTURE

The Ahar culture –also known as the Banas culture, the latter term derived from
the name of the valley in which most of the sites of this culture are located—is
among the earliest Chalcolithic cultures of India. This is seen from the calibrated
radio-carbon dates available from many of the sites. The culture has been named
after the type site Ahar, in District Udaipur, Rajasthan which was excavated in
1961-62 by H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College, Pune. South eastern Rajasthan,
where the Ahar culture sites are found, is known as Mewar. Within this region,
the sites are located in the eastern plain and the southeastern plateau, two of the
terrains that mark the physiographic condition of Rajasthan. This region is rich
in mineral deposits, and archaeologists postulate from available evidence that
this region also supplied copper to the Harappan sites.

More than sixty sites of the Ahar culture have been discovered so far, of which
the most extensively excavated sites are Ahar and Balathal. The sites of Gilund,
Bagor and Ojiyana have also been excavated, while section scraping at Marmi
and Tarawat was undertaken to ascertain the culture sequence and chronology.
Excavations at Ahar revealed a two-fold sequence of cultures of which the first
period (Period I) is Chalcolithic and the second (Period II) is early Historic.
Available radio-carbon dates (calibrated) suggest a time bracket of 2025 BC—
1270 BC for the Chalcolithic phase. The ancient mound of Balathal is located on
the eastern fringe of the village Balathal in Udaipur district, on the west bank of
a river locally known as Kataranadi. The excavations were conducted at the site
from 1994-2000 by Deccan College, Pune, in collaboration with Institute of
Rajasthan Studies, Rajasthan University, under V.N. Misra. This site also revealed
habitational deposits belonging to cultural periods like Ahar. A series of radio
carbon dates place the Chalcolithic culture at Balathal between the beginning of
3rd millennium BC and 1500 BC.

Balathal is perhaps the most-extensively researched site of this culture, the

ceramics having been subjected to detailed studies. Based on the material culture
of Balathal, and a comparative study with that of the other sites (Misra, 2002-
03), has divided the Ahar culture into four phases like Early Ahar/Balathal phase,
Transitional Phase, Mature Ahar phase and Late Ahar phase.

The Early Ahar phase has so far been noticed only at Balathal. It is marked by
mud and mud brick houses with hearths in some. The material culture is
characterised by eight types of wares, the potters having already invented the
inverted firing technique of black and red ware and that of reserved slip ware. In
the inverted technique at the time of firing the pots are places in an inverted
33
Neolithic and Chalcolithic manner, so that the parts, which did not get any oxygen became black, while the
Cultures
portion which had access to oxygen became red. A Sturdy Red ware and Red
Slipped ware and painted Buff ware are noticed. Beads of steatite and terracotta
have been obtained in good numbers. A few stone implements are also found.
The faunal and floral remains indicate a mixed economy. This phase is placed at
the end of fourth millennium BC.

The second phase, also identified at Balathal is a transitional one which did not
have a long time span. In the upper layers the Mature Aharian gradually became
prominent. This is evident in the ceramic types.

The Mature phase witnessed a large number of settlements and the emergence of
a few key sites and many satellite sites. A uniform settlement pattern is seen at
all sites with certain additional features at some sites like a fortified enclosure at
Balathal. Houses were now made of stone, mud and mud brick. At Balathal the
fortified enclosure is centrally located and surrounded by the residential complex.
The reasons for such a plan remain unknown till today. Features associated with
the houses are hearths, storage pits, saddle querns and small storage jars. Industrial
activities were marked in mass production of ceramics, metal works, and
development of bead industries. Beads are made in shell, bone, ivory, semi-
precious stones, steatite and terracotta. The diagnostic wares of this period are
the black and red wares, red and grey wares. Refinement of technology is seen at
this stage with the invention of fast wheel. Hallmark of this stage are the
techniques of slipping, polishing or burnishing and embellishing the vessels with
many types of decorations. A large number of new shapes and forms emerged
during this period. Sankalia and his team had discovered several copper ore
quarrying sites within the radius of 32 km of Ahar. For this reason, this region is
considered as the source of copper supply to the Harappans.

The evidence of rice has been noticed at Ahar in the form of impressions on
potsherds. The other crops cultivated during this period were wheat, barley, millet-
bajra and jawar. Faunal remains of domesticated species like cattle, buffalo, goat,
sheep, pig, dog and fowl have been recovered from excavations. The wild animals
hunted were sambhar, nilgai, chital, blackbuck and wild boar. The evidence
suggests mixed economy of cultivation and hunting gathering.

As for social organisation one cannot rule out the presence of specialised classes
of craftsmen. But, on the basis of the limited nature of evidence it is not known
whether it was a chiefdom society. The evidence of fortification at Balathal implies
that there may have been internecine conflicts. A large number of bull figurines
appearing in large number from the end of the mature Ahar phase has been ascribed
with ideological meaning, but nothing concrete can be said.

An inhospitable climate experienced during the end of the second millennium

BC led to the termination of the farming culture in southeastern Rajasthan.
Features of decline are evident in the Late Ahar phase.

Regarding the authorship of this culture opinions are sharply divided. Sankalia
had seen a West Asian link which was disputed by later scholars. Recent research
highlights the affinity between the Ahar culture and a chalcolithic culture in
Gujarat.

34
 Chalcolithic Cultures
3.3 KAYATHA CULTURE
This Chalcolithic culture was named after the type site Kayatha, in Ujjain dist.,
Madhya Pradesh. The excavation was due to the joint collaboration of Deccan
College, Pune and Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and
Archaeology, Vikram University, Ujjain. Kayatha has been identified with the
ancient Kapitthaka, birth place of the celebrated astronomer-astrologer Varaha.
Excavations revealed a five-fold sequence of cultures:
i) Kayatha culture (Ca. 2450-2000 BC.)
ii) Ahar culture (Ca. 1950-1700 BC)
iii) Malwa culture (Ca. 1700-1400 BC)
iv) Early Historic (Ca. 600 BC-200 BC)
v) Sunga-Kusana-Gupta (Ca. 200 BC-600 BC)
Over forty settlements of the Kayatha culture have been so far discovered in the
Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh, most of them being located on the tributaries
of the Chambal River.
The characteristic forms of ceramics include: the chocolate slipped ware also
known as Kayatha ware. The types are bowls, high and short-necked storage jars
with globular profile and basins. Similarities are evident with the sturdy painted
pottery found at some pre-Harappan sites. A red painted buff ware, a concave
necked pot with a bulging body, with or without carination, a dish or shallow
bowl and a basin, most probably constituted table ware. Some bowls, basins and
globular pots represented combed ware. The bulk of the total yield, about 60%,
including forms like handis, basins and storage jars were coarse handmade red/
grey ware. Use of both copper and stone tools was found. A cache of copper has
been found, as well as two exquisitely made copper axes, cast in moulds. A
specialised blade industry existed as seen from evidence of mass production of
chalcedony blades in the crested guiding ridge technique. Ornaments like two
bead necklaces have been found. Beads were manufactured from semi-precious
stones. Most of these artifacts were found inside a house, which could not be
fully excavated.
People lived in small huts with well-rammed floors and wattle and daub walls
supporting a thatched roof. A mixed economy was practiced as seen from evidence
on subsistence farming, stock raising and hunting-fishing. Barley and wheat were
grown. Domesticated animals included cattle and sheep/goat. Interestingly, horse
remains have been found from the Chalcolithic level at Kayatha.
As no antecedent stages of this culture are found in the Malwa region, Dhavalikar
(1997) is of the opinion that the Kayatha culture—the earliest chalcolithic culture
in the Malwa region— had developed elsewhere. Following which people
migrated with the culture to this region. The sudden end of this culture is ascribed
to an earthquake. The presence of a sterile layer between the levels of the Kayatha
and the succeeding Ahar culture points to a hiatus between the two.

3.4 MALWA CULTURE

The Malwa culture is the most predominant chalcolithic culture of central India,
with a wide distribution of sites almost all over Malwa region. It was first 35
Neolithic and Chalcolithic identified in the excavations at Maheshwar, on river Narmada. Maheshwar was
Cultures
identified with the ancient Mahishmati of the Puranas. Navdatoli on the opposite
bank also revealed great potential and was subsequently excavated. Other
excavated sites of this culture are Nagda, Kayatha, Eran etc. On the basis of
calibrated dates the Malwa culture is placed in the bracket of 1900-1400 BC.

Malwa region lying to the east of the Banas valley and Aravalli hills forms
a distinct geographical unit, forming a link between the Indo-Gangetic
plain and the peninsular region. Two great river systems, the Chambal and
the Narmada traverse the region. A very heavy concentration of Malwa
settlements is found in the central Narmada basin, which is considered to
be a very fertile land.

Sites are mostly found on the banks of the tributaries. They were not affected by
flood, unlike those on the main river. A sort of two level settlement pattern existed,
consisting of a large number of small villages and a few large villages. Among
the latter one may include Navdatoli, Nagda and Eran, Navdatoli being perhaps
the largest. There were two parts of occupation at Navdatoli, enclosed by a
fortification wall. Perhaps in historical times the centre shifted to Maheshwar.
At Nagda, a mud rampart has been recorded- a feature also seen at Eran.

At Nagda, the houses seem to have been laid out in rows along the road and by-
lanes. The use of mud-bricks and fired bricks at Nagda is significant as they are
absent at other Malwa sites. The houses were multi-roomed with a chulah (Hearth/
oven) bearing four arms. The floors were rammed hard, and there were several
floor levels indicating periodic repair and re-laying. There were pebble platforms
as well. Two rooms enclosing squarish pits have also been found, the function of
which remains unclear. At Navdatoli, a number of structures were laid bare
belonging to four different phases of chalcolithic culture. Both round huts and
rectangular houses were found together in each phase. Pit-dwellings were noticed
in the first phase. Usually round huts were found in clusters of two, three or four.
Dhavalikar (1997) suggests each cluster represented a household, of which one
had a hearth while others served different functions. Rectangular structures were
quite spacious with thick mud walls and wooden posts supporting the thatched
roof. The floor was rammed hard. A circular structure in one of the houses was
possibly meant to be a storage bin. An extensive burnt floor has been found,
possibly used as a threshing floor.

There were a number of postholes which did not follow any sensible plan; possibly
they were stakes where domestic animals were tethered at night. A burnt house
belonging to the latest stage of the Chalcolithic phase has been recorded from
Navdatoli. Storage jars and squarish pots have been found inside this house.
Multi-roomed structures at Navdatoli are particularly evident from a house in
phase II which is marked by rows of postholes of which a double set of postholes
forms the back wall. The total extent of the settlement at Navdatoli was about 7
ha. At Navdatoli a large burnt red floor was found. It had a squarish pit in the
middle. In the four corners of the pit were found charred wooden posts which
probably supported a canopy above. Inside the pit were burnt wooden splinters.
Two high-necked pots were also found there. The function of this structure is
unknown. This pit was part of a one room house as seen from a hearth in the
northern part and a circular pot rest in the west.

36
The Malwa culture spread into Maharashtra by 1700 BC and some of the Malwa Chalcolithic Cultures
sites like Prakash in the Tapi valley, Daimabad in the Godavari valley and
Inamgaon in the Bhima valley were quite extensive. At Daimabad, the excavator
has identified craftsmen’s houses and structures with religious affiliation. The
most important structures of the Malwa period at Daimabad were House nos.
32,33 and 54 which formed one complex, located in an enclosure wall. Large
fire pits were found in house no. 54, identified as sacrificial altars; two-armed
chulahs were also identified. At Inamgaon 20 houses of the Malwa period have
been identified, they were large rectangular structures with a low partition wall
in the middle. Inside the room were low mudwalls with large fire pits and pit
silos meant for storage. Circular pit dwellings also existed at Inamgaon.

The subsistence practices and diet can be reconstructed from remains of

carbonized grains of wheat, barley, jawar, rice, legumes, oilseeds and fruits. These
are found at different sites due to ecological species types varied from site to
site. Animal flesh also formed a part of the Chalcolithic diet.

The material culture constituted chiefly of ceramic types, the Malwa ware forming
the principal type. It was essentially buff or cream slipped with painted patterns
in dark brown. A pottery kiln belonging to the Malwa period has been uncovered
at Inamgaon. Other ceramic wares were white painted black-and-red ware of the
Ahar culture, a cream slipped ware, a coarse red/grey ware and handmade storage
jars. Dhavalikar drew parallels of some forms of Malwa ware from Navdatoli
with forms found in West Asian sites. Other components of the material
assemblage were blade tools, copper artefacts and beads of semi-precious stones.
Stone rubbers, muellers, querns, grinding stones, hammer stones, sling stones
and mace heads have been found pointing to mixed subsistence practices.

Religious beliefs are reconstructed from fragmentary evidence. Terracotta female

figurines of indistinct types have been found while a few examples of more
definite forms exist. Representations of male figures in painted forms are seen in
some wares. Terracotta bull figurines were either mere toys or associated with
religious beliefs. Presence of a specific structure has been interpreted as fire
alter, evidence of fire worship.

The decline of the Malwa culture has been placed in around 1400 BC which
coincided with that of Ahar culture as well. Dhavalikar suggests climatic
deterioration for the end of these cultures.

3.5 JORWE CULTURE

The Jorwe culture is the most important and characteristic chalcolithic culture
of Maharashtra, extending almost all over the present state, excepting the coastal
strip on the west and Vidarbha in the north east. The culture is named after the
type site of Jorwe in Ahmadnagar district, Gujrat. The culture was discovered in
1950. In regions, such as, Prakash in the Tapi valley, Daimabad in the Pravara-
Godavari valley and Inamgaon in the Bhima valley large centres of this culture
were found. This is a notable feature of Jorwe culture.

Although over 200 sites of this culture have been documented so far, only a few
sites have been subjected to large scale excavations. Inamgaon and Daimabad
are two excavated sites. In understanding the settlement pattern of the Jorwe
37
Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites, ecological differences between different regions have been highlighted
Cultures
(Dhavalikar, 1997). The high concentration of sites in the Tapi valley has been
put down to the occurrence of tracts of highly fertile black cotton soil in the
region. The sparse settlement pattern of the Bhima valley, on the other hand, is
explained by the fact that the whole basin is practically a dry area. Following
regional approaches in archaeology, environment was taken as a prime
determinant, and attempts were made to characterise different kinds of sites in
functional terms. On the basis of the limited data Dhavalikar classifies all the
Jorwe sites as regional centres, namely, villages, hamlets, farmsteads and camps
(Dhavalikar 1997).
The regional centres of Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaon are extensive in area,
with a very rich material culture. The work in Inamgaon (Dhavalikar et al 1988)
was a breakthrough in Chalcolithic studies. Interdisciplinary in nature it
incorporated many disciplines which resulted in a systematic study of the past.
Several structures were laid bare at the site of which the granary and the diversion
channels may be taken as examples of public architecture. Dhavalikar unearthed
over one hundred and thirty houses belonging to both Early and Late Jorwe
phases. The Early Jorwe houses were rectangular in plan while the Late Jorwe
ones were circular. Dhavalikar ascribes the change in house plan to deteriorating
economic condition of the people in the Late Jorwe period when the climate
became more dry and arid. He also associated the two contrasting house plans to
different ways of life, the Early Jorwe rectangular houses to a sedentary pattern,
and the Late Jorwe circular houses to a semi-nomadic existence. To arrive at this
conclusion he relied on ethnographic observations on dwellings of present-day
communities in and around Inamgaon. This use of ethnographic analogy was
critiqued by later scholars (Panja, 2002). These houses revealed features like a
fire pit or chulah and storage bins.
A large number of Jorwe sites can be classified as villages, most of them being
about 2 ha in extent. A few of these were excavated. They are Songaon, Chandoli,
Apegaon and Walki (Dhavalikar, 1997). A small number of sites, not over a
hectare in extent, possibly consisting of a few households are considered as
hamlets. Sites located within 2-3 km of the major sites, and situated close to the
fields to facilitate the conduct of agricultural operations, have been defined as
farmsteads. Walki in Pune district, lying mid-way between Pune and Inamgaon,
is an important example. Threshing floors were identified at this site. Transitory
camps are not easy to identify but Dhavalikar identified one of these at Pachad,
at the foot of Raigad fort near Mahad on the western coast in Maharasthra.
Based on an analysis of organic remains the subsistence base was reconstructed.
It was based on dry-farming with stock-raising and hunting-fishing as ancillary
activities. A variety of crops were grown, and the Jorwe farmers have also been
credited for practicing crop rotation. The principal crops were barley, wheat,
jowar, rice, ragi, green pea, grass pea, lentil, and green and black gram. Our
knowledge of the early subsistence patterns is mostly formed on the work at
Inamgaon. For the first time site-catchment analysis was carried out to understand
the link between Inamgaon and its immediate surroundings. The Late Jorwe
phase, however, marks the decline of agriculture. A fresh analysis of bones
recovered from the Inamgaon excavations (Pawankar, 1996) revealed that the
number of bones of wild animals increased drastically in the later levels. From
this evidence it was deduced that environmental degradation led to a change in
38 subsistence strategies from agriculture to hunting in the Late Jorwe period.
At Inamgaon the stone blade/flake industry is substantially represented, occurring Chalcolithic Cultures
at all levels. Considerable progress in ceramic technology is seen. The painted
pottery was wheel-made and well-fired. Four pottery kilns have so far come to
light through excavations. The Jorwe black-on-red painted pottery is characterised
by some forms of which the most important are the spouted jar and the carinated
bowl. Other forms include storage jars, basins, cups and an occasional channel
spouted bowl. The other important ceramic types are a coarse red/grey ware, a
handmade ware, and a handmade red ware, the latter occurring in negligible
quantities. Metal technology of the Chalcolithic people was in a rudimentary
stage. Lime making was a flourishing industry. Like in other aspects of material
culture there was a marked decline in ceramics too in the Late Jorwe period.

A noteworthy feature of the Jorwe culture is the mode of disposal of the dead. A
substantial number of burials were exposed in Inamgaon and Daimabad. Many
child burials were found in urns laid in pits. In case of adults, the portion below
the ankles was chopped off. Among the Inamgaon burials the most important
and unique is a four legged urn burial with an adult skeleton inside. Religious
beliefs were reconstructed from the presence of terracotta figurines.

By analysing these different aspects of material culture Davalikar talked of a

chiefdom society which has been critiqued (Panja, 2002).

The antecedents of this culture are seen in the preceding Malwa cultural elements.
A large number of the settlements were deserted at the end of second millennium
BC for climatic deterioration.

3.6 OCHRE COLORED POTTERY (OCP) CULTURE

The OCP or the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture is named after a ceramic type
which is extremely rolled and fragile. It has a wash of red ochre which is easily
washed off and hence its name. It was first recognised by B.B. Lal in 1951 in a
small excavation at Bisauli and Rajpur Parsu, the two sites in Uttar Pradesh
where Copper hoards were found earlier. Lal also found similar pottery in his
excavations at Hastinapura in the levels below those yielding the Painted Grey
ware (PGW). Later exploration and selected excavation brought to light several
OCP sites in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. At a majority
of sites the OCP is found in small bits, but some sites in the upper Ganga-Yamuna
doab, namely, Bahadarabad, Manpur, Bhatpura, Ambkheri and Bargaon have
yielded larger fragments which have enabled one to study the representative
forms. It appears from the better preserved specimens from sites like Ahichchhatra
that the pottery was treated with a thick slip and sometimes was also ornamented
with painted patterns in black. Incised decorations as well. At Atranjikhera there
is a variety of OCP which is decorated with incised patterns, while Lal Qila has
provided evidence of a developed OCP. Jodhpura is the only site where the
habitational deposit of the OCP had been found in the form of well made floors,
mud huts, hearth, terracotta human male figurines and bull figurines. This shows
that the OCP people led a sedentary existence, similar to many early farming
communities of this period. Remains of domesticated animals like cattle, and
evidence of cultivated crops like rice and barley further provide information on
their subsistence practices.

39
Neolithic and Chalcolithic The association of OCP with Copper Hoards found from different parts of northern
Cultures
and eastern India is one of the knottiest problems of Indian archaeology. The
Copper Hoards consist of implements of different kinds, such as, celts, rings,
harpoons, anthropomorphs, double axes, antennae etc. On the basis of their
occurrence at different sites the culture is grouped into different zones. Their
origin is shrouded in mystery. The presence of OCP and copper objects together
at many sites like Ganeswar, Saipai, Bisauli, Rajpur, Parsu, Bahadarabad, Nasirpur
and Baharia has been taken as evidence of their association. There are
diametrically opposite views regarding this. Other treat them as two completely
separate entities. Some assign the OCP either to pre-Harappans, Harappans, or
Late Harappans, while others assign this to the Aryans, still others see a tribal
association. The chronological span ranges from 2600 to 900 BC.

Although the picture is still very confusing regarding the origin, development
and authorship of copper hoards and OCP and their relationship with other
cultures, Dhavalikar tries to suggest a framework for the development of the
OCP, on the basis of the available evidence. The beginning of OCP is put down
to 2800 BC, the evidence coming from Ganeshwar-Jodhpura in Rajasthan. The
presence of hundreds of copper objects here has led Dhavalikar to argue that it
was a centre for supplying copper artefacts to the Harappans. A close examination
of the OCP from the upper Ganga basin shows that it has striking similarities
with the pre-Harappan or Early Harappan artifacts from Indus as well as sites in
the Yamuna valley. The second stage in the development of OCP is marked at
Alamgirpur where OCP shapes are represented at the cultural levels and at
Ambkheri and Bargaon where the Harappan influence is distinctly seen in pottery
forms. Dhavalikar explains this as a development of ‘symbiotic relationship.’
The third stage begins from the beginning of the second millennium, marked by
a drastic change in climate with the onset of aridity. The people of this culture
were forced to move to the upper Ganga basin, and later to middle Ganga valley
under the adverse circumstances. Possibly they buried their copper objects at
these sites when they could not survive. In the final stage they reached the middle
Ganga valley where they could not survive for long as well. Incidentally, the
OCP has not so far been reported from Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh
(except at Gungeria) where copper hoards have been found.

3.7 PAINTED GRAY WARE (PGW) CULTURE

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is a very fine, smooth, and even-coloured grey pottery,
with a thin fabric. It was made out of well-worked, very high quality clay. Designs,
mostly simple geometric patterns were painted on the pots in black. The uniform
colour and texture of the pots indicates very sophisticated firing techniques. PGW
seems to have been a deluxe ware, forming a very small percentage of the total
pottery assemblage at the levels at which these were found. It occurs along with
other pottery types such as plain grey ware, Black and Red Ware (BRW) and
black slipped ware, which were perhaps used in everyday life. The dates of the
PGW culture range from 1100-500/400 BCE and the sites show a wide
geographical distribution, stretching from the Himalayan foothills to the Malwa
plateau in central India, and from the Bahawalpur region of Pakistan to Kaushambi
near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. Apart from the plains it has been found in the
hilly regions of Kumaon and Garhwal. Sporadic potsherds were found at a few
places like Vaishali in Bihar, Lakhiyopur in Sind and Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh.
40
The main concentration of the sites is however, in the Indo-Gangetic divide, Chalcolithic Cultures
Sutlej basin, and upper Ganga plains. There are regional variations of this culture
both in the pottery as well in associated remains. In the archaeological sequence
of the Ganga valley the PGW phase is followed by the Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW). PGW was first identified at Ahichchhatra in the 1940’s but its
full significance was understood only after excavations at Hastinapur in 1954-
55. Since then important evidence of the PGW material culture is available from
excavated sites like Alamgirpur, Mathura, Bhagwanpura, Kaushambi, Sravasti
and others. It occurs in four kinds of stratigraphic contexts. At some sites it is
preceded by a late Harappan level, with an intervening break in occupation. At
other sites there is an overlap between the PGW and the Late Harappan phase.
At some sites it is preceded by the OCP culture, with a break in between. And at
other sites the PGW phase is preceded by a BRW phase, with a break in between.
At the upper end PGW overlaps with the NBP culture. Recent excavations at
Abhaipur, Pilibhit district, Uttar Pradesh, have thrown interesting light on this
culture (Mishra 2010). It is a multi-cultural site with OCP forming the earliest
deposit, followed by the Black-and-Red Ware (BRW) phase, which is succeeded
by the PGW phase, the final phase of occupation at the site being that of NBPW.
At Abhaipur, human burials have been found, the first such occurrence at any
PGW site. However, human skeletons were also discovered in the Late Harappa-
PGW interlocking stage at Bhagwanpura.

Structural remains at PGW levels consist mainly of wattle-and-daub and mud

huts. Unbaked bricks and one baked brick were found at Hastinapura. Jakhera
represents a fairly-evolved proto-urban stage of this culture.

The PGW sites indicate a subsistence base that included cultivation of rice, wheat
and barley. Double cropping was possibly practiced. There is no actual evidence
of irrigation facilities, but a few deep circular pits outside the habitation area at
Atranjikhera are indicative of kachcha wells. Animal husbandry was also
practiced.

The association of iron with PGW has drawn the attention of archaeologists for
long. There have been a series of debates on the impact of iron technology at the
beginnings of urbanism in the Ganga valley known as second urbanization.
Regarding PGW phase, it is seen that iron is not associated with this cultural
level at all the sites. It is not present at the sites in Ghaggar-Hakra area or in the
Bikaner region. At sites like Jakhera and Kaushami iron has been found at pre-
PGW BRW levels. But in the Ganga-Yamuna doab the earliest iron objects are
usually associated with PGW. Most of the iron artefacts seem to be connected
with war or hunting, like arrowheads, spearhead, blades, daggers etc. However,
clamps, sockets, rods, rings etc. which could have been connected with carpentry
have also been found. The mature PGW phase at Jakhera has also given important
evidence of iron implements used in agriculture like a sickle, ploughshare and
hoe.

Detailed studies of settlement patterns associated with PGW phase have been
carried out. Here one could mention Makkhan Lal’s study of the Kanpur district
and Erdosy’s study of the PGW settlements in Allahabad district.

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Neolithic and Chalcolithic
Cultures 3.8 SUMMARY
To sum up, the scenario in north, west and central India in the period spanning
from beginning of the 3rd millennium – 800 BCE speaks of a great deal of
diversity. At many times it is difficult to put the material assemblage in neatly
defined categories. A lot of overlapping of cultural traditions is noticed which
speaks of considerable vibrancy and mobility in the cultural landscape. The
regional diversity is all the more highlighted when one surveys chalcolithic
cultures in northern and eastern India, which however, fall outside the purview
of this unit.

Suggested Reading
Dhavalikar, M.K. 1997. Indian Protohistory. New Delhi: Books and Books.

Dhavalikar, M.K., H.D. Sankalia and Z,D. Ansari. 1988. Excavations at Inamgaon
Vol. I, part i & ii. Pune: Deccan College.

Mishra, A. 2010. Archaeological Investigations in Deoha River Valley with

Special Reference to Excavations at Abhaipur, District Pilibhit, Uttar Pradesh
in Archaeology of the Ganga Basin Paradigm Shift. Volume I (V.Tripathi ed.),
pp. 237-257. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House.

Misra, V.D. 2002. A Review of Copper Hoards and the OCP Culture in Indian
Archaeology in Retrospect. Volume I, Prehistory: Archaeology of South Asia
(S.Settar and R.Korisettar eds.), pp. 277-286. New Delhi: Indian Council of
Historical research and Manohar.

Panja, S. Research on the Deccan Chalcolithic in Indian Archaeology in

Retrospect: Volume I, Prehistory: Archaeology of South Asia (S.Settar and
R.Korisettar eds.), pp. 263-276. New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical research
and Manohar.

Pawankar, S., 1995. Man and Animal Relationship in Early farming Communities
of Western India with Special Reference to Inamgaon. Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune.
University of Poona.

Singh, U. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone
Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson Longman.

Sample Questions
1) Discuss the different types of Protohistoric regional variants.
2) What do you understand by Chalcolithic culture? Describe one very important
Chalcolithic culture.
Write a notes on the following
i) Jorwe Culture, ii) Malwa Culture, iii) Kayatha culture, iv) OCP and
PGW Cultures

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