International Journal Of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 7, July-2016 1623

ISSN 2229-5518

Satellite Model for Yaw-Axis Determination and

Control Using PID Compensator
Mbaocha C. C, Eze C. U, Ezenugu I. A, Onwumere J. C.

ABSTRACT

The attitude determination and control of satellites are some of the most important subsystems of a satellite since the accuracy of its mission depends
on this subsystem. The control task of this subsystem demands an optimal controller capable of accurately rotating the satellite body into desired
attitude. In this paper, a PID controller was designed as the compensator to step the yaw-axis angle of the satellite body through the accurate angular
position of a DC motor with optimum response as permissible. A mathematical model for the whole satellite yaw angle control system has been derived.
Again, the powerful computational tool of MATLAB was used to perfect the controller design and verify the result obtained. Thus, the design of control
system for the yaw angle with the fastest settling time, 1.09seconds, 4.55% overshoot and final value of 1 were achieved.

Keywords: Satellite, Attitude Control System, Stability Analysis, PID, Compensator, MATLAB.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION microsatellite [3]. The Princeton satellite system project paper
together with CTA space systems incorporates the
The orientation in space with respect to different coordinate
systems is referred to as the satellite attitude [1]. Real-time or
post-facto knowledge, and maintenance of a desired, specified
attitude within a given tolerance in a satellite system is known development of satellite attitude control system architecture,
as the attitude determination and control. Attitude called the SPACE CRAFT CONTROL SYSTEM [3, 4, and 5].
determination and control of satellites (ADCS) are some of the However, this research paper reports the mobilization of a
most important subsystems of a satellite. This is because the very powerful design and computational tool, MATLAB in
accuracy of its mission depends on the subsystem. It is the optimal design for satellite ACS.
satellites visual sense and feeling in space especially in small
satellites [1]. This paper presents a complete mathematical model for Low
Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite control system. A DC motor has
Furthermore, previous researches have been made on the been technically selected as the actuating elements to rotate
various methods and reasons of attitude control of the the satellite body to the desired yaw angle [6, 3]. The optimal
satellites. Some of the reasons for attitude control designs are control objective of fastest response time 1.09seconds and
as follow [2]: 4.55% overshoot has been achieved utilizing the correcting
signal from the saturated amplifier and PID controller. A
• In communication satellites, antennas are required to MATLAB Program was written for the PID controller design
be focused to a certain point on earth with high and the stability analysis conducted using the Nyquist stability
accuracy. criterion.

• In earth observing satellites, cameras are required to

be focused to a certain point on earth to give an
acceptable video coverage of the region. 2.0 DESIGN OBJECTIVES.

• In orbital maneuver, desired attitude must be

maneuvered.
Attitude Control means placing the satellite in a specific
• For maximum use of solar energy, solar cells must predetermined direction. This consists of attitude stabilization
be positioned to the sun. and control maneuver. The satellite is assumed to be a rigid
body operating in frictionless space with the disturbances. As
a resulting of these disturbances, in time, the satellite will drift
from the desired attitude angle, θ (t). Thus, a suitable control
As mentioned earlier, different researches have been reported system that returns and maintains the satellite on its desired
on the design of attitude control system such as the Orsted attitude angle, θ (t) = 0 must be designed. The control system
satellite attitude control system (ACS) project or the 65kg response should be as fast as possible with minimal overshoot
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International Journal Of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 7, July-2016 1624
ISSN 2229-5518
and zero- steady state error. Below in figure 1 is a schematic
representation of the overall control systems.

𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠)
𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 (𝑠𝑠) + E(s) Designed U(s) 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 (𝑠𝑠) DC + 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) Satellite 𝜃𝜃𝑂𝑂 (𝑠𝑠)
Amplifier
Desired controller Motor System Yaw-axis
+
Yaw-axis

Sensor

Figure 1: Yaw-axis attitude control system.

3.0 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 4.2 DC MOTOR MATHEMATICAL MODEL

The control design specifications are given below; The DC motor is the power actuator device that delivers
output torque, Tm(s) from the motor. The input is the amplifier
• The settling time is to be ≤ 2 seconds, voltage output, Vo(s) which supplies current, 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 to the
resistance, 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 and inductance, 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 of the armature windings.
• The overshoot ≤ 5% and The input voltage may be modeled in terms of the field or
armature terminals. Here, we make use of the armature –

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• Zero steady-state error. controlled DC motor which uses 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 as the control current [7].
From figure 3, when a constant field current is established in
the field coil, the motor torque, Tm(s) is;
4.0 SATELLITE ATTITUDE CONTROL SYSTEM Tm(s) = 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) (2)
MATHEMATICAL MODELS.
The armature current is related to the input voltage applied to
Mathematical models of physical systems are key elements in the armature by
the design and analysis of control systems. To understand and
control the complex satellite system, a quantitative 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) = (𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆)𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 (𝑠𝑠) (3)
mathematical model of the system must be derived from basic
relationship between system variables.

Hence, for the complete mathematical model of satellite

ADCS, a model of the individual control elements consisting
of the Amplifier, DC motor and the satellite system are
developed in the subsequent sections. Figure 2 below is an
algorithm for the proposed models.

Figure 3: DC motor armature-controlled rotational actuator.

4.1 AMPLIFIER MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Where 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 (𝑠𝑠) is the back electromotive force volt
Amplifiers used in many applications have gain, 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 . The proportional to the motor speed.
output voltage, Vo(s) is
Therefore, 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝜔𝜔(𝑠𝑠) (4)
Vo(s) = ka Vi(s) (1𝑎𝑎)
Where 𝜔𝜔(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑆𝑆 𝜃𝜃 (𝑠𝑠) which is the transform of the angular
Thus, the open-loop transfer function yields, speed and the armature current is

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑆𝑆) −𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝜔𝜔 (𝑠𝑠)

= ka (1𝑏𝑏) 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) = (5)
V i (s) 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆

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International Journal Of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 7, July-2016 1625
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• Establish the Control goals

Yaw-axis attitude to zero

• Identify the Variables to be Yaw angle

Controlled
3 Specifications:

Settling time ≤ 2 seconds

• Write Specifications
Over shoot ≤ 5%

Zero steady state error

• Establish the system configuration

See fig. 1; controller,

amplifier, DC motor and
satellite configuration
• Obtain a model of the Process, the
actuator and the satellite.
See equations 1 - 14

• Describe a Controller and select key Use of MATLAB

PID controller given; software

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parameters to be adjusted
See equations 15 - 18

• Optimize the parameters and analyze

their performance

If the performance meets the specifications, then

finalize the design.

Fig. 2: Design Algorithm for the ADCS.

Again, the motor torque Tm(s) is equal to the torque delivered

to the load hence, For most DC motors, km = kb = K , Combining equations (2),
(5) and (8) and letting Td(s) = 0, we obtain the D.C motor
Tm(s) = TL(s) + Td(s) (6) transfer function as [7],
Where Td(s) is the disturbance torque. The load torque, 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 for θ(s) 𝐾𝐾
= (9)
rotating inertia as shown in figure 3 is written as, 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) (𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆)+ 𝐾𝐾 2

𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠(𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽 + 𝑏𝑏)𝜃𝜃 (𝑠𝑠) (7) 4.3 SATELLITE SYSTEM MATHEMATICAL

Re-arranging equations (2) – (5), we obtain MODEL

𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) – 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠(𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽 + 𝑏𝑏)𝜃𝜃 (𝑠𝑠) (8) The moment of inertia of the entire system is J1 which
encompasses both the satellite body moment of inertia about
the axis of rotation at the centre of mass (Jf) and that of motor
(Ja). There is a vicious friction, B, as part of the load elements.
The angular displacement θo(s) of the satellite body around the
yaw-axis is the output of the satellite system and DC motor
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International Journal Of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 7, July-2016 1626
ISSN 2229-5518
torque Tm(s) is the input. Thus the transfer function of the aid of the powerful tool, MATLAB. Rise time: 4.705, settling
satellite attitude system is θo(s)/Tm(s). The differential time: 8.4719, settling min: 0.7729, settling max: 0.8541,
equation for the load elements is, overshoot: 0%, Undershoot: 0% peak: 0.854, peak time:
15.6655. From in figure 4 response, it is imperative that a
𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜
𝐽𝐽1 ( ) + 𝐵𝐵 ( ) = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (10) controller be designed in order to meet with the system design
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
specifications.
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the equation
(10) and assuming zero initial conditions we get;

𝐽𝐽1 (𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃0 (𝑠𝑠)) + 𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃0 (𝑠𝑠)) = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) (11)

Step Response System: g
Final value: 0
0.9
Rearranging Equations (11) yields;
0.8 System: g
θo (s) 1 Settling time (seconds): 8.47

= (12) 0.7
System: g
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠(𝐽𝐽 1 𝑠𝑠+ 𝐵𝐵) Rise time (seconds): 4.71

0.6
Hence, the combination of equations (1), (9) and (12) yields

Amplitude
the overall transfer function of the complete satellite attitude 0.5
model with U(s) as the control input signal; 0.4

θo (s) 𝐾𝐾 1 0.3
= * (13)
𝑈𝑈(𝑠𝑠) (𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆)+ 𝐾𝐾 2 𝑠𝑠(𝐽𝐽 1 𝑠𝑠+ 𝐵𝐵)
0.2

Equation (13) represents the satellite system transfer function 0.1

for type one system. In the subsequent sections, for the design

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0
of the optimal controller, the parameters of the satellite body 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
inertia, the D.C motor gains armature, inertia, electrical and Time (seconds)
electronic components, and amplifier gain are of utmost
importance and affects the whole design process. Thus, the Figure 4: Open-loop step plot for the Yaw-axis of ADCS.
following typical parameters for D.C motors, amplifier gain
and LEO satellite according to [7, 8 and 9], were assumed in .
this design.
5.0 PID CONTROLLER DESIGN
Table 1: ADCS for satellite parameters [7,8,9].
The three term proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative, PID
Amplifier constant, ka 10 controller is one form of controller most widely used in the
optimal process control and since the satellite system contains
DC Motor constant, K 0.01Nm/Amp an integrator, equation (14) makes it the most desirable choice
of controller [10,11]. The controller has the transfer function;
Armature resistance, Ra 1ohms
𝐾𝐾𝐼𝐼�
𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 + 𝑆𝑆 + 𝐾𝐾𝐷𝐷 𝑆𝑆 (15)
Armature Inductance, La 0.5H
It is called a PID because it contains proportional, 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 ,
DC motor moment of inertia, J 0.01kgm2
integral, 𝐾𝐾𝐼𝐼 , and derivative, 𝐾𝐾𝐷𝐷 terms. From equation (15),
Motor damping ratio, b 0.1Nms 𝐾𝐾𝐷𝐷 𝑆𝑆 2 + 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝑆𝑆 ′ + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾′
𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = = 𝐾𝐾𝐷𝐷 (𝑆𝑆 2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎) (16)
1 2 𝑆𝑆
Satellite moment of inertia, J 2.5kgm *
𝐾𝐾𝐷𝐷 (𝑆𝑆+𝑎𝑎)2
Therefore, 𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠) = (17)
Satellite damping ratio, B 1.17N-ms * 𝑆𝑆

Consequently, from (17), it will be observed that a PID

controller introduces a transfer function with one pole at the
Hence substituting the parameters into equation (13) yields the origin and two zeros that can be located anywhere in the S-
open-loop transfer function as; plane [11]. The controller is commonly referred to as the
second method of the Ziegler-Nichols tuning rule. Thus, the
θo (s) 0.1 control design problem now is to determine the values of K
G (s) = = (14)
θi(s) 𝑠𝑠(0.025𝑠𝑠 2 + 0.262𝑠𝑠+0.117) and a such that the optimal design specifications are achieved.

The plot of equation (14) to a step response is as shown below A MATHLAB program was written to set the search region
in figure 4 and the following step data were obtained with the as; 2 ≤ 𝐾𝐾 ≤ 40 and 0.05 ≤ 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 0.5.
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International Journal Of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 7, July-2016 1627
ISSN 2229-5518
The step size for, K, to be 1 and that for, a, to be 0.05, so as to
find the first set of variable K and a that will satisfy the Root Locus
satellite attitude control specifications. The closed-loop 15 14
transfer function of the controller and the satellite system 0.3 0.22 0.150.10.045
12
0.42
𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶 𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆 (𝑠𝑠) is given by; 10
10
8
θo (s ) (0.1𝑘𝑘)𝑠𝑠 2 + (0.2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )𝑠𝑠+(0.1𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 2 ) 0.58

Imaginary Axis (seconds-1)

= 6
θi(s ) 0.025𝑠𝑠 4 +0.262𝑠𝑠 3 + (0.117+(0.1𝑘𝑘))𝑠𝑠 2 + (0.2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )𝑠𝑠+0.1𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 2
5 4
0.85
(18) 2
0
A possible MATLAB program that produces the first optimal
set of variables, K and a that satisfies the given specifications 2
0.85
are shown in the appendix. The optimal values obtained by -5 4
this program are; 𝐾𝐾 = 15, 𝑎𝑎 = 0.15, overshoot, 𝑚𝑚 = 6
0.58
4.55% 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 1.09 seconds. The resulting unit-step 8
-10
response curve, root locus plot and bode plots of the yaw angle 10
are shown below in figures 5, 6 and 7 respectively. 0.42 12
0.3 0.22 0.150.10.045
-15 14
-6 -4 -2 0 2
Step Response -1
1.4
Real Axis (seconds )
System: c
Peak amplitude: 1.05 Figure 6: Root locus of the yaw-axis ACS system.
1.2 (%): 4.55
Overshoot
At time (seconds): 0.524 System: c System: c

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Settling time (seconds): 1.09 Final value: 1
1
Bode Diagram
20
System: c
0.8
Amplitude

Rise time (seconds): 0.264 0

Magnitude (dB)

System: c
-20 Peak gain (dB): 0.123
0.6
At f requency (rad/s): 0.123
-40
0.4
-60

0.2 -80
0
System: c
-45 Phase Margin (deg): 176
Phase (deg)

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Delay Margin (sec): 11.9
-90 At f requency (rad/s): 0.259
Time (seconds)
Closed loop stable? Yes
-135
Figure 5: The yaw-axis ADCS unit step response.
-180
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10
From figure 5, improvements in the unit step response Frequency (rad/s)
parameters are obtained, settling time, ts reduced from 8.47199
to 1.09seconds, rise time, tr reduced from 4.705 to 0.264 with a Figure 7: Bode plot of the yaw-axis ACS system.
final value of 1. An increase in overshoot from 0% to 4.55%
was observed in the above yaw angle step response. The From the bode plots of the overall system response, it is
increase in overshoot is as a result of the proportional (KP) and observed that the system is closed loop stable with phase
integral (KI) actions of the PID controller. Hence, the control margin (deg.): 176, frequency (rads/sec): 0.259.
design objectives are met.
Furthermore, the designed optimal controller satellite attitude
system may confidently be verified further by the stability
analysis using the Nyquist diagram. Thus, the open loop gain
is given below;
0.1[𝑘𝑘(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)2 ]
𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶 𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆 (𝑠𝑠) = (19)
𝑠𝑠 2 [0.025𝑠𝑠 2 +0.262𝑠𝑠+0.117]

Substituting the optimal values (𝐾𝐾, 𝑎𝑎) of the PID controller in

the above equation (19), and rewriting it into a polynomial
form, we get;

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International Journal Of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 7, July-2016 1628
ISSN 2229-5518
(1.5)𝑠𝑠 2 + (0.45)𝑠𝑠+(0.034)
𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶 𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆 (𝑠𝑠) = (20)
[0.025𝑠𝑠 4 +0.262𝑠𝑠 3 +0.117𝑠𝑠 2 ]

Again, the Nyquist plot is shown in figure 8 below as obtained

from running the MATLAB code written in appendix; APPENDIX

% PID CONTROLLER PROGRAMME FOR YAW-AXIS

Nyquist plot of Gc(s)Gsat(s) ACS SYSTEM %
5
0 dB
t=0:0.01:2.5;
2 dB -2 dB
for k = 40:-1:2;%start outer loop to vary the k values
Imaginary Axis

4 dB -4 dB
6 dB -6 dB
10 dB -10 dB
0
for a = 0.5:-0.05:0.05;%start inner loop to vary the k values

num = [0 0 0.1*k 0.2*k*a 0.1*k*a^2];

den = [0.025 0.262 0.117+(0.1*k) 0.2*k*a 0.1*k*a^2];

y = step(num,den,t);
-5
-2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis m = max(y);

Figure 8: Nyquist plot of 𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶 𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆 (𝑠𝑠) s = 251; while y(s)>0.98&y(s)< 1.02;

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Since the (-1) point is not encircled, the system is stable, s = s-1;end;
which is confirmed by the obtained step response of the yaw
angle satellite attitude control system, as the unit step response ts = (s-1)*0.01;
exhibits the maximum overshoot, m, of 4.55%, the settling
time, 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 , is 1.09seconds, and final value of 1. if m<1.05 & m > 1.00 & ts < 2.0

break;% breaks the inner loop

6.0 CONCLUSION end

This paper presents the design of a PID as an optimal end

controller for the satellite attitude control system. Thus, the
satellite body can be oriented around the desired Yaw-axis if m<1.05 & m > 1.00 & ts < 2.0
attitude of 90 degrees as quickly as 1.09 seconds settling time
break;% breaks the outer loop
without excessive overshoot of not more than 4.55%. A
mathematical model for the satellite attitude control system is end
derived with that of the PID controller.
end
Again, the powerful MATLAB tool was utilized for the design
and stability analysis stage. From the bode plots of the overall plot(t,y); grid; title( 'The Satellite Attitude Control System
system response, it is observed that the system is closed loop Unit Step Response')
stable with phase margin (deg.): 176, frequency (rads/sec):
0.259. Also, the MATHLAB program that computes an xlabel('Time sec'); ylabel(' The satellite angular yaw-axis
optimal PID controller parameters (k, a) to suite the control position')
requirements of any satellite attitude control system was
developed and implemented. solution = [k;a;m;ts]

% MATLAB ROOTS LOCUS COMMAND %

num= [0 0 1.5 0.45 0.034];

den = [0.025 0.262 1.612 0.45 0.034];

c=tf(num,den);

rlocusplot(c);grid

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International Journal Of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 7, July-2016 1629
ISSN 2229-5518
[8] C.N. Dorny, Understanding Dynamic Systems:
Approaches to Modeling, Analysis and Design, Prentice-Hall,
%MATLAB BODE PLOT COMMAND% Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 2003.
num= [0 0 1.5 0.45 0.034]; [9] K .Ogata, System Dynamics, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 2003.
den = [0.025 0.262 1.612 0.45 0.034];
[10] R. C. Dorf, Electrical Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed.,
c=tf(num,den); CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 1998.
bodeplot(c);grid [11] “Webb Automatic Guided Carts,” Jervis B. Webb
Company, http://www.jervisbwebb.com/, 2008.

% Nyquist plot of the SAC system open-loop transfer

function %
(1.5)𝑠𝑠 2 + (0.45)𝑠𝑠+(0.034)
% 𝐺𝐺𝐶𝐶 𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆 (𝑠𝑠) = % Dr Mbaocha, C. C: Is a PhD holder and a senior lecturer at
[0.025𝑠𝑠 4 +0.262𝑠𝑠 3 +0.117𝑠𝑠 2 ]
the department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
num = [0 0 1.5 0.45 0.034]; (EEE), Federal University of Technology, Owerri (FUTO) in
Nigeria. His areas of interests are in Controls Engineering,
den = [0.025 0.262 0.117 0 0]; Aircraft and Satellite Control Designs.

nyquist(num,den) Email: [email protected]

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v = [-2 2 -5 5];axis(v);grid Ezenugu, I. A : Is lecturer at the department of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, Imo State University (IMSU), Owerri,
title('Nyquist plot of Gc(s)Gsat(s)') Nigeria. His interests are in communication, electronics,
computer and control system engineering.

Email: [email protected]
REFERENCES
Eze, C.U: is currently an M.Eng student (Control Systems) of
[1] W. I. Sullivan, M. A. Paluszek, W. K. Daniel, "A New Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE), FUTO, Nigeria.
Satellite Attitude Control System", Princeton Satellite His research interests include; Efficient Energy Management
Systems, CTA Space Systems, Inc., Page 14, 2007. Systems, Control System Design, System Identification and
Modeling.
[2] M.J. Sidi, “Spacecraft Dynamics and Control; A Practical
Engineering Approach”, Cambridge University Press, 2007. Email: [email protected]

[3] R. Wisniewski, “Satellite Attitude Control Using Only Onwumere, J. C: is currently an M.Eng student (Control
Electromagnetic Actuation", Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Systems) of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE),
Control Engineering, Alborg University, Denmark, 1997. FUTO, Nigeria. His areas of interests are in Controls
Engineering and Power systems optimization. He is also a
[4] S.R. Bogh, T. B. Wisniewski, “Autonomous attitude Maintenance Engineer at GOEMETRICS Power Nigeria LTD.
control system”, IFAC Workshop on Control of Small
Spacecraft, Breckenridge, USA, 5th February, 1997. Email: [email protected]

[5] T. Bak, R. Wisniewski, and M. Blanke, “Autonomous

attitude determination and control system for the Orsted” in
IEEE Aerospace Application Conference. Colorado,
Feb.1996.

[6] K. Ogata, “Solving Control Engineering Problems with

MATHLAB”, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994.

[7] H.S. Black, “Stabilized Feed-Back Amplifiers,” Electrical

Engineering, 53, January 1934, pp.114-120. Also in Turning
Points in American History, J.E. Brittain, ed., IEEE Press,
New York, 1977, pp.359-361.

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