Matthews 1

MA 425
Assignment 8
Caden Matthews
Page 259
2. We begin by proving 2 since it is used in 3.

We have

The ratio test for the power series gives

3.
a.

1
|𝑧 − 0| = |𝑧| = 𝐿
=1
b.

1 1
|𝑧 − 1| = 𝐿
= 2
c.

1
|𝑧 − 0| = |𝑧| = 𝐿
=0
d.

1
|𝑧 − 𝑖| = 𝐿
=3
e.

1 10
|𝑧 + 2| = 𝐿
= 10
f.

|𝑧| = 2
 Matthews 2

13.
a.
We have 𝑓'' = 𝑓 + 𝑧𝑓'
Differentiation yields 𝑓''' = 𝑓' + 𝑓' + 𝑧𝑓'' = 2𝑓' + 𝑧𝑓''
Differentiation yields 𝑓'''' = 2𝑓'' + 𝑓'' + 𝑓''' = 3𝑓'' + 𝑧𝑓'''
(𝑛) (𝑛−2) (𝑛−1)
The obvious pattern of 𝑓 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑓 + 𝑧𝑓 emerges.
(𝑛) (𝑛−2)
This gives 𝑓 (0) = (𝑛 − 1)𝑓 (0)
(𝑛)
This clearly indicates that for odd 𝑛, 𝑓 (0) = 0.
(𝑛)
For even 𝑛, 𝑓 (0) = (𝑛 − 1)!! for 𝑛 > 0 and 1 for 𝑛 = 0.

Our Taylor Series is

𝑛
We will now prove a nifty fact about double factorials. (2𝑛)!! = 𝑛! * 2
Base Case: 𝑛 = 1
1
2!! = 2. 1! * 2 = 1 * 2 = 2.
Inductive step:
𝑘
Let (2𝑘)!! = 𝑘! * 2
𝑘 𝑘
We have (2𝑘 + 2)!! = (2𝑘 + 2) * (2𝑘)!! = (2𝑘 + 2)(𝑘! * 2 ) = 2(𝑘 + 1)𝑘! * 2
𝑘+1
= (𝑘 + 1)! * 2

Our Taylor Series is now

 Matthews 3

Page 267
1
𝑅=
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑠𝑢𝑝( 𝑛 |𝑎𝑛|)

3.
a.
𝑛
2 𝑛 2
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 . Clearly, 𝑎𝑛 = |𝑎𝑛|. Next, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
. We note that for all relevant 𝑛,
3 +4 3 +4
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
0 < 3 . Thus, 4 < 3 + 4 . Thus, 4 < 3 + 4 . Thus, 4 < 3 + 4 . We next note
1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
that since 4 > 3 for relevant 𝑛, we have that 3 + 4 < 4 + 4 = 2 𝑛 * 4. We wish to
1
𝑛 ε
show that 2 * 4 goes to 4 as 𝑛 goes to infinity. Take ε > 0. We then note that 4
+ 1 is
ε 1
positive. Thus, 𝑙𝑜𝑔2( 4 + 1) is defined. Let 𝑁 = ε . In the case that this 𝑁 would be
𝑙𝑜𝑔2( 4 +1)
1 1
ε
negative or 0, let 𝑁 = 1. Thus, for 𝑛 > 𝑁, we have that 2 𝑛 < 2 𝑁 = 4 + 1. Thus,
1 1 1

4 * 2 𝑛 − 4 < ε. We then note |4 * 2 𝑛 − 4| < ε. Therefore, 4 * 2 𝑛 converges to 4. Thus,

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 2
by the squeeze theorem, we have that 3 + 4 converges to 4. Thus, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
3 +4
1 1
converges to 2
. Therefore, 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑠𝑢𝑝( 𝑛 |𝑎𝑛|) = 2
. Thus, 𝑅 = 2.
b.
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
We have that 𝑎𝑛 = 2 when 𝑛 is a perfect square, and 0 otherwise. Therefore, 𝑎𝑛 = 2 in
the case that 𝑛 is a perfect square, and 0 otherwise. It is clear to see that limsup is whatever
𝑛
𝑛 −1/2
2 converges to. This happens to be 1. Since 𝑛 has negative power, as 𝑛 grows large, it
−1/2
𝑛
gets closer to 0. Thus, 2 will go to 1. Therefore, 𝑅 = 1.
c.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
We have that |𝑎𝑛| = 𝑎𝑛 = (2 + (− 1) ) . Thus, |𝑎𝑛| = 2 + (− 1) . We have a series
1
alternating between 1 and 3. Thus, limsup is 3. Thus, 𝑅 = 3
.
d.
𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑛+1)! 𝑛
𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1 −𝑛 1 𝑛 −1
We have that 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑛+1 * 𝑛!
= 𝑛+1 * 𝑛 = ( 𝑛+1 ) = ( 𝑛
) = ((1 + 𝑛
) ) .
(𝑛+1) (𝑛+1)
1
This goes to 𝑒
. Thus, 𝑅 = 𝑒.
 Matthews 4

e.
1/𝑛
4 𝑛 4
In the case that 𝑛 is even, 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛
. In the case that 𝑛 is odd, 𝑎𝑛 = 0. Thus, |𝑎𝑛| is 1/𝑛 1/𝑛
3 *𝑛
1/𝑛
4 4 1/𝑛
or 0. Thus, limsup is whatever 1/𝑛 1/𝑛 converges to. ( 3 ) converges to 1. Therefore, we
3 *𝑛
1 𝑛 1
care only about what 𝑛 converges to. We have that 𝑛 converges to 1. Thus, 𝑛 converges
𝑛 𝑛
1/𝑛
1 4 1
to 1
= 1. Thus, 1/𝑛 1/𝑛 converges to 1. Thus, 𝑅 = 1
= 1.
3 *𝑛

f.
𝑛
If 𝑛 is some factorial, then 𝑎𝑛 = 1. Otherwise, 𝑎𝑛 = 0. Thus, |𝑎𝑛| is 1 for 𝑛 that are
1
factorials and 0 otherwise. Thus, 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑠𝑢𝑝( 𝑛 |𝑎𝑛|) = 1. Thus, 𝑅 = 1
= 1.

9.
2
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 + 𝑓(𝑧 )
∞ ∞
𝑛 2 2𝑛
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑧 . Then we have that 𝑓(𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑧 .
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
2 2 4
Thus, 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑧 + 𝑎2𝑧 +... = 𝑧 + 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑧 + 𝑎2𝑧 +...
Thus, 𝑎0 can be anything, 𝑎1 = 1. Meaning 𝑎2 = 1. Meaning, 𝑎4 = 1. Meaning 𝑎8 = 1. Etc.
𝑘
If 𝑛 = 2 , then 𝑎𝑛 = 1.
We have that 𝑎3 = 𝑎5 = 𝑎7 = 𝑎9 =... = 0 since the right side contains no odd powers bigger
𝑘
than 1. We then have that by matching powers, 𝑛 ≠ 2 means 𝑎𝑛 = 0 (except for 𝑎0)
∞ 𝑛
2
Thus, we have 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑧 .
𝑛=0
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3.
a.
𝑧 1/3 2/3
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
= 𝑧+1
+ 𝑧−2
∞
1/3 1 𝑛 𝑛
We have that 𝑧+1
= 3
∑ (-1) 𝑧 . The root test shows that this converges for |𝑧| < 1.
𝑛=0
∞ 𝑛
2/3 −1 𝑧
We have that 𝑧−2
= 3
∑ 𝑛 . The root test shows that this converges for |𝑧| < 2 and thus
𝑛=0 2
for |𝑧| < 1.
∞ 𝑛
𝑧 𝑛 (−1) 1
We then have that (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
= ∑ 𝑧 [ 3
− 𝑛 ]. As the sum of two series convergent
𝑛=0 3*2

for |𝑧| < 1, this series must be convergent for |𝑧| < 1.
b.
2/3
The power series for 𝑧−2
is convergent for |𝑧| < 2, so we keep that.
∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
1/3 1 1/3 1 (−1) (−1)
We have that 𝑧+1
= 𝑧
* 1 = 3𝑧
∑ 𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛+1 . By the ratio test, this converges
1+ 𝑧 𝑧
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 3𝑧
−1 1
when | 𝑧
|= | 𝑧
| < 1. That is, when |𝑧| > 1.
∞ 𝑛 𝑛 2
𝑧 −1*𝑧 (−1) −1 1 −1 −𝑧 −𝑧
Thus, we have that (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
= ∑[ 𝑛 + 𝑛+1 ] =... 2 + 3𝑧
+ 3
+ 6
+ 12
+...
𝑛=0 3*2 3𝑧 3𝑧

Since this is the sum of two series convergent for 1 < |𝑧| < 2, it is also convergent for
1 < |𝑧| < 2.
c.
1/3
Out power series for 𝑧+1
is convergent for |𝑧| > 2, so we keep it.
∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛+1
2/3 2 1 2 2 2
We have that 𝑧−2
= 3𝑧
* 2 = 3𝑧
* ∑ 𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛+1 . By the ratio test, this converges
1− 𝑧
𝑛=0 𝑧 𝑛=0 3*𝑧
𝑛+2 𝑛+1
2 3*𝑧 2
when | 𝑛+2 * 𝑛+1 |= | 𝑧
| < 1. That is, when |𝑧| > 2.
3*𝑧 2
∞ 𝑛 𝑛+1 ∞ 𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑧 (−1) 2 1 (−1) +2
Thus, (𝑧+1)(𝑧−2)
= ∑[ 𝑛+1 + 𝑛+1 ] = ∑ 𝑛+1 [ 3
].
𝑛=0 3𝑧 3𝑧 𝑛=0 𝑧
Since this is the sum of two series convergent for |𝑧| > 2, it is also convergent for |𝑧| > 2.
 Matthews 6

4.
∞ 𝑛 2𝑛+1 3 5
(−1) 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Recall 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧) = ∑ (2𝑛+1)!
=𝑧− 3!
+ 5!
−...
𝑛=0
∞ 𝑛 2𝑛+1 2𝑛+1 3 3 5 5
(−1) 2 𝑧 2𝑧 2𝑧
Thus, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑧) = ∑ (2𝑛+1)!
= 2𝑧 − 3!
+ 5!
−...
𝑛=0
∞ 𝑛 2𝑛+1 2𝑛−2 3 5 2 7 4
𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑧) (−1) 2 𝑧 2 2 2𝑧 2𝑧
Thus, 3 = ∑ (2𝑛+1)!
= 2 − 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+...
𝑧 𝑛=0 𝑧
𝑛+1 2𝑛+3 2𝑛
(−1) 2 𝑧 (2𝑛+1)!
By the ratio test this is convergent when | (2𝑛+3)!
* 𝑛 2𝑛+1 2𝑛−2 | has limit less than 1.
(−1) 2 𝑧
2
−1*4*𝑧
We note this equals | (2𝑛+3)(2𝑛+2)
|. It is clear this goes to 0. Thus, the series converges for
all 𝑧. We note the obvious exclusion of 𝑧 = 0. Thus, the series is convergent for |𝑧| > 0.