CHAPTER

THEHIGHWAY AND ITS

DEVELOPMENT

1-1 Brief History of Ro�ds

Early roads with hard surfaces were found in the land of

Mesopotamia. These roads were constructed as early as 3,500
B.C. Another stone surface roads were also found in the Medi­
terranean island of Crete, similarly constructed as those in the
Western Hemisphere by the Mayans, Aztecs and the Incas of
Central South America.

The early road systems were constructed primarily for the

following purposes:

1. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for de­

fense against invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between
neighboring towns and cities.

The Romans, who discovered cement, expanded their vast

empire through extensive road networks radiating in many di­
rections from the capital city of Rome. Many of the roads built
by the Romans still exist even after 2, 000 years.

Characteristically, Roman Roads were laid on three courses

1. A layer of small broken stones.

2. Followed by layer of small stones mixed with mortar and
then compacted firmly.
3. Wearing course of massive stone blocks properly set and
bedded with cement mortar.
 Elements of Roads and Highways The Highway and its Development

During the 17th century, under the re1gn of Napoleon the After the Norman Conquest of England, it was decreed that:
Great, France made a great stride on road buildings. Jerome
Tresaguet ( 1716-1796) the famous French Engineer introduced I. The king's Highway is sacred. Anybody who occupies
new methods of construction and maintenance of stone roads. any portion thereof, by exceeding the boundaries of his
He improved the crown, the drainage, and the grade of the road, land, is considered to have encroached on the king him­
including the stone foundation by reducing the depth of broken self. Roads are for public use. All persons who want to
stones to 25 centimeters. Tresaguct made it possible for Napo­ use them may do so.
leon to build the massive highways of France, He was accred­ 2. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to
ited the title "Father of modern road building. drain the road, clip any bordering hedges, and refrain
from plowing and planting trees, shrubs, or bushes closer
Thirty years later, a Scottish Engineer born in Westminster than the specified distan<;e from the center of the road.
Abbey, Thomas Telford (1757-1834), president and founder of
the Institute of Civil Engineer, introduced -some improvements It was made clear that the government concept towards the
in the construction methods of Jerome Tresaguet. The road use of roads includes upholding the right of the public to use
foundation course of Telford was made of stones having 3 them without interference. Since the road is intended for the
inches minimum thickness, 5 inches breadth and 7 inches benefit of the people, in return, it becomes their duty to protect
height. Smaller stones were driven by mauls on top voids and and maintain the roadway.
trued the surfaces by breaking the projecting points. Telford
employed a flat sub-grade, providing slight crown using stones
1-3 Highways in the Philippines
of varying sizes.

England followed the ongoing highway development started In the t!arly part of 1900, transportations in this country de­
by France. The Macadam road concept named after John pended largely on trails, waterways, railroad, earth roads and
Louden Mac Adam (1755- J 836), another famous Scottish En­ partially graveled roads. Highway in the Philippines at that time

gineer road builder and contemporary of Telford, was devel­ is nothing more than a dream to most Filipinos. The American
oped and widely accepted. The invention of road building government initiated the development of roadways in the Phil­
equipment enhances the development of roads in Europe. In ippines, connecting towns, cities and provinces. The popular

1858, Eli Blake invented the first stone crusher and at the same Macadam road type was introduced. It gained wide acceptance

period, a steam road roller weighing 30 tons was introduced in because of the abundant supply of stones and gravel.

France by its inventor, Aveling and Porter.

After the Second World War, the new independent Philip­
pine government, continued the rehabilitation and construction
1-2 Early Laws that Regulates Roadway of roads and bridges, through the reparations and war damages
paid by the Japanese government. Other financial grants and
The early Saxon Laws imposes three mandatory duties for
aids received from the U.S. government were used in the con­
the people to perform, namely:
struction and rehabilitation of roads and bridges.
1. To repair the roads and bridges.
2. To repair the castles and the garrisons Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were
3. To aid repel invasions. constructed through the financial assistance and loans from

.,
3
 Elements of Roads and Highways
The Highway and its Development

foreign banks. Alongside with the industrialization program of

The present economtc condition is related to the govern­
the govcnunent, vehicles of various types and sizes started
ment budgetary expenditures for payment of foreign debt amor­
flooding the roadways. Recent Land Transportation records re­
tization amounting to billions of pesos a month. Appropriations
vealed that, more than 80,000 brand new vehicles were added to
of funds for road constructions and maintenance, meet severe
their lists every year. At an average of 5.00 meters road occu­
difficulties that sometimes, highway development plans are
pancy by these vehicles, the DPWH must open 400 kilometers
shelves temporarily for lack of funds.
new roads every year. This data did not include yet the roadway
for second hand or surplus assembled cars. With this statistical
Comprehensive road development plans tl1at are carefully
report, solution to traffic problems is nowhere insight. Traffic
studied by technical experts are twisted, or flexed down by po­
problems are expected to worsen year after year.
litical muscles, to suit political interests. Roads and highways
plan were either; deferred, amended or realigned for political
The year 1960 to early part �f 1980 was considered an
reasons. As a consequence, different Jaws with conflicting pur­
automobile age. Cars were no longer regarded as luxury item
poses and procedures impede or obstruct implementations caus­
but a necessity in transporting people and JOods, a necessity for
ing delay or no action at all.
survival. Government new concept of development is to get the
fanners out of the mud. It was during this decade that road con­
Politicians now control DPWH projects as their source of
struction becomes a matter of priority of the government under
political funds. Highway district engineer's qualification is
the slogan: This nation is on Wheels".
simply subservience to the politician. "Do what I say or get out
"

of my district". Listing of projects given to the district engineer

1-4 Planning Difficulties has the corresponding name of favored contractors- the willing
victims giving SOP in cash advances.
Dcvelopwent and maintenance of roads and highways is a
continuing process alongside with the technological advance­ Rational Planning is no longer the objective process, based
ment. New equipment and management techniques revoluti�n­ on training, and expertise concerning the actual needs of the
ized the construction and maintenance methods. Advance people, but is rather, a political decision. Not even the Secretary
knowledge in the field of soils, highway materials, and designs of Public Works and Highways could say no because politics is
were adopted for reliability and economic considerations. the power that controls appropriations, budget and appoint­
ments of the president's cabinet members.
Engineers are conscious of the need for roadways to be safe,
useful, and attractive. This needs include improvement of the As a consequence, public confidence tremendously eroded,
roadside, erosion control, and noise abatement. They are aware not only ift the government's ability to abate these problems,
of the fact that highways are vital to the country's development. but also in the proficiency of the technical men to offer solu­
Unfortunately, highway planners are confronted with problems tions. Planners are now operating in a world of rapid change,
categorized as follows: and uncertainty, in the political atmosphere where decisions by
I. Financial magic, or oracles, carry more weight than those based on pro­
2. Political and fessional training, expertise and experiences. Indeed, our pro­
3. Tecluucal fessionals more particuJarly the technical men, seems to have
lost confidence in thyself, or even the solutions that they offer.

4
 Elements of Roads and Highways The Highway and its Development

Direct Effects of Hig h way Construction and its Use

There are three inseparable sets of inputs involved in high­ A. Quantifiable market value
way programming, they are:
I. Cost of highways as to:

I. Economic - Deals with the questions of resources. a. Planning cost.

2. Financial- The question of who pays and who spends, b. Right of way appropriations.
.
how much, and where? c. Construction costs.
3. Political and Administration- This involves decision d. Maintenance costs.
making. e. Operating costs.

In highway progranuning, projects are prioritized. Those 2. Cost benefits to highway users
that are most economically viable were selected, if they fit into
the financial capability and of course political criteria. Projects a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion
that failed on either financial or political criteria are abandoned, cost) net income or decrease in costs of vehicle
modified for substitute, or an alternative but shall passed rigor­ operation per year
ous tests. b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase
or decrease in travel time multiplied by the peso
value of commercial time.
Highway Programming Approaches
c. Motorist's safety (economic cost accident) Net
change in expected number of accidents times
1. Financial resources are either short or long ranged im­
the average cost per accident per year.
plementation by the agencies functions like construction,
operations, and maintenance.
B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire
and constraint.
1. Cost benefits to highway user:
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical
situations, present and future expected level of traffic, and a. Motorists safety - Accident cost of pain suffering
claims based on political subdivisions. and deprivation.
4. Providing continuity of route system _and coordination b. Comfort and conversion - Discomfort, inconven­
with other transportation mode. ience and strain of driving.
5. Selection of projects based on availability of labor and c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint - Benefit of
materials, including climatic conditions. pleasing views and scenery from road.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination
· with other agencies, acquiring right of way and making C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value
final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and 1. Cost benefits to highway users -Traveling savings time.
other natural disasters. (non-commercial) Minutes save per vehicle trip.

6 7
 Highways and its Development
Elements of Roads and Highways

4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials and

1-6 The Planner have the results documented. lf nothing goes wrong, this
step is considered final.
Before any project comes to reality, it has to undergo rigor­
ous and careful studies \vith participation of several line agen­ Good ethics demand that planners should understand that
cies involved. Where proposals may be opposed or questioned their role is to provide.knowledge and unbiased information. To
by other agencies, or in the political mill, the planner appoints be partisan and emotionally involved, will only jeopardize their
coordinators or catalysts, to work out in exchanging information credibility. This might give them the feeling of personal defeat
as to the needs, goals, and alternative solutions of those who are and disillusiomnent with their profession, if the solutions that
affected, and to incorporate them into the planning and decision they offered are only thrown into the trash can.
making.
Where planners act as coordinators, catalysts or to work as 1-7 Community Involvemen
community advocates, should not be either partisan or advocate
to a particular soiution. Their role is: In a democratic government, the public has the right to hear
and be heard. Much more to participate in public hearing where
I. To provide technical and organizational support. planning and decision making will be conducted before major
2. To receive mput or information on the needs and goals of decisions arc made.
affected persons group or agencies.
It is a common practice to call public hearing after all major
3. Incorporate th� above for planning and making decision.
decisions were made and approved. Indeed, public hearing is no
more than information forum for the public to know what the
The planner's role must be of a clarifier, expediters, con­
administration wants for them, rather than, what the people
ciliators and impartial negotiators. The myth of rationality must
wants from them. Public hearing should involved the public
be avoided because they might believe that as professionals,
from the start of planning to give them a chance to participate in
they are uniquely super qualified to judge what is best for the
the discussions and involved them in:
society in their field of expertise and competence. They must
accept that their personal values and goals are different from I. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials,
other participants. non-government organizations, influential p·ersons and
·
conservative group of the community .
The Functions of the Planners are: 2. Create special staff to carry out this function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continu­
I. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and ously in the planning stage.
the initial work program. Know the basic needs, 4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group
plan and objectives of affected persons. meeting, workshops, hearing and other related activities.

2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by contacting

the representatives of other agencies involved. 1-8 Highway Economy
3. Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plan for appropriate
A Country who will not avail of loans or grant from foreign
community interaction.

9
8
 Elements of Roads and Highw�y s The Highways and its Development

financing institutions will not feel the great impact of their in­ Legally, the appropriation and expenditures of taxes being
frastructure projects, if domestic income through taxes alone the people's contribution to the government must be prorated
will be depended on. Financing institution such as the World proportionally to the different provinces municipalities and cit­
Bank insists that projects to which they make grants or loans be ies in terms of infrastructure projects and not just be concen­
justified primarily on ·the economic basis. According to W. trated in specific place. Under that principle, progress of the
Gillespe, professor of Civil Engineering at the Union College: country would be very slow considering the meager amount
each province will get, and the infrastructure it will accomplish.
"A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the Hence, borrowing from foreign banks is the ultimate solutions
road which is truly the cheapest is not the one which has cost of the government to deliver impact infrastructure projects to
the least money, but the one which makes the most profitable boost the economy and move quickly forward.
returns in proportion to the amount expended upon it. "
Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are:
There are many designs and administrative dec1sions that
does not involve public policy, but these should be made by 1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures.
selecting the alternative that is cheapest in the long run. Mean­ 2. No impact project will be seen because the "pay as you
ing: the result from an economic study that is reasonably inter­ go, fund is scattered through out the entire road system
preted mu:!>l prevwl. where the situation is most critical.
3. Borrowings encourage investors because of fast progress.
The intent of expenditures for highways and public
transportations are enumerated as follows: Counter Arguments of those Against Financing Infra­
structures through Borrowing:
1. To augment the country's level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
1. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government
3. To facilitate public services� police, fire protection etc.
agencies obstructing other more important improvements.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of re­ 2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements,
lated basic services.
no more funds available to maintain the existing system.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase 3. With much amount available temptation is there to over
property assessment.
build and recklessly spend extravagantly.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of op-
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds.
erations and maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.

Most of the country's expenditures for highways and public

transport facilities are based on the principle of "Pay as you go"
Meaning, road appropriations and expenditures depend on tax
collections.

10 11