CHAPTER 7:

Waves Optics
 The study of
interference, diffraction
and polarization of
light. Light is treated as
waves rather than as
rays.

CHAPTER 7:
Waves Optics

2
 Overview:

7.1 Constructive and destructive interference

7.2 Stationary waves
7.3 Single slit diffraction and diffraction grating
7.4 Light interference – Young’s double slit experiment
7.5 Newton’s ring & interference in thin films
7.6 Polarisation – Malus’ law and Brewster’s law

3
 Huygen’s principle
7.1.1 Wavefronts
• is defined as a line or surface, in the path of a wave motion, on which the
disturbances at every point have the same phase.
• Figure 7.1 shows the wavefront of the sinusoidal waves.

wavefront
A D
B v
E
C F

Figure 7.1 λ

• Line joining all point of adjacent wave, e.g. A, B and C or D,E and F are in phase
• Wavefront always perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
4
 Type of wavefronts
• Circular wavefronts as shown in Figure 7.2 are produced by a
point source generates two-dimensional waves.
circular wavefront

ray

point source

Figure 7.2
5
 • Spherical wavefronts as shown in Figure 7.3 are produced by a
point source generates three-dimensional waves.

spherical wavefronts

point source

rays

6 Figure 7.3
 • Plane wavefronts as shown in Figures 7.4a and 7.4b are
produced by a point source generates three-dimensional waves at
large distance from the source.

plane wavefront

rays

plane wavefront Figure 7.4a : (3-D)

rays

7
Figure 7.4b : (2-D)
 Ray
• is defined as a line represents the direction of travel of a wave.
• It is at right angle to the wavefronts as shown in Figure 2.5.

ray

wavefront λ

Figure 7.5
Beam of light
• is a collection of rays or a column of light.
• parallel beam, e.g. a laser beam (shown in Figure 7.6a)
Source of light
from infinity
8
Figure 7.6a
 • divergent beam, e.g. a lamp near you (shown in Figure 7.6b)

Figure 7.6b
• convergent beam as shown in Figure 7.6c.

9 Figure 7.6c
 Huygen’s principle

• states that every point on a wavefront can be considered as a source of secondary

wavelets that spread out in the forward direction at the speed of the wave. The new
wavefront is the envelope of all the secondary wavelets - i.e. the tangent to all of them.

secondary wavefront

wavelets

10 Figure 7.7
 Application of Huygen’s principle
a. Construction of new wavefront for a plane wave
 If the wave speed is v, hence in
time t the distance travels by the
A wavelet is s = vt.
P A’ Q1
1  From Huygens’ Principle, points
P Q2 P1, P2, P3 and P4 on the
2 wavefront AB are the sources of
P Q3 secondary wavelets.
3  From the points, draw curves of
P s Q4 radius s.
4B B’
 Then draw a straight line A’B’
which is tangent to the curves at
points Q1,Q2,Q3 and Q4
Figure 7.8
 Hence, line A’B’ is the new
11 wavefront after t second.
 b. Construction of new wavefront for a circular wave

A’ Q1  Explanation as in the
construction of new wavefront
for a plane wavefront.
A Q2  But the wavefront A’B’ is a
P1 s
P2 curve touching points
source Q1,Q2,Q3 and Q4.
P3  The curve A’B’ is the new
P4 (circular) wavefront after t
B Q3 second.

B’ Q4

ray
Figure 7.9
12
 c. Diffraction of wave at a single slit
 Huygens’ principle can be used to explain the
diffraction of wave.
 Each of the point in Figure 7.10, acts as a
secondary source of wavelets (red circular
arc)
 The tangent to the wavelets from points 2, 3
and 4 is a plane wavefront.
 But at the edges, points 1 and 5 are the last
points that produce wavelets.
 Huygens’ principle suggest that in conforming
to the curved shape of the wavelets near the
edges, the new wavefront bends or diffracts
around the edges - applied to all kinds of
Figure 7.10 waves.

13
Constructive and destructive interference
Constructive interference and destructive interference

Interference of light
• Light wave is an electromagnet waves (emw).
• It consists of varying electric field E and varying magnetic
field B which are perpendicular to each other as shown in
Figure 2.11.

Figure 7.11

Electric field: E = E0 sin (ωt-kx)

Magnetic field: B = B0 sin (ωt-kx) 15
• Interference is defined as the effect of interaction between two or more
waves which overlaps or superposed at a point and at a particular
time from the sources.
• For light the Interference is occurred when two light waves meet at a point,
a bright or a dark region will be produced in accordance to the Principle
of superposition.
• Principle of superposition states the resultant displacement at any
point is the vector sum of the displacements due to the two light
waves.
• Constructive interference is defined as a reinforcement of amplitudes
of light waves that will produce a bright fringe (maximum).
• Destructive interference is defined as a total cancellation of amplitudes
of light waves that will produce a dark fringe (minimum).

16
Conditions for permanent interference

• Permanent interference between two sources of light only take place if they are
coherent sources. It means
• the sources must have the same wavelength or frequency
(monochromatic).
• the sources must have a constant phase difference between them.
• The light waves that are interfering must have the same or approximately of
amplitude to obtain total cancellation at minimum or to obtain a good
contrast at maximum.
• The distance between the coherent sources should be as small as possible
of the light wavelength ( ).

17
Path difference, L
• is defined as the difference in distance from each source to a particular point.

P
x1

S x2
1
Figure 7.12

S screen
2 L

Path difference, L = |S2P  S1P|

= |x2 –x1| 18
Interference of two coherent sources in phase
• Path difference for constructive interference
• S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in phase

S x1
1
P (maximum)

S x2
2

 

19
Figure 7.13
• A bright fringe is observed at P thus

Δ  2mπ where m  0,1,2,...

• At P, E1P  E0 sin(t  kx1 )
E2 P  E0 sin(t  kx2 )
then
Δ  (t  kx2 )  (t  kx1 )
Δ  k ( x1  x2 ) since k  2 and ( x1  x2 )  L
2 
Δ  L order
 2
therefore 2m  L L  m
• Note : 
When where m  0,1,2,.....
m=0 Central bright fringe  : wavelength
(zeroth order bright)
m = 1 1st bright fringe (1st order bright)
m = 2 2nd bright fringe (2nd order bright) 20
• Path difference for destructive interference
• S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in phase
Q (minimum)
x1
S
1
x2

S
2

 

Figure 7.14 21
• A dark fringe is observed at Q thus
 
Δ  2m  1 π where m  0,1,2,...
• At P,
E1P  E0 sin(t  kx1 )
then
E2 P  E0 sin(t  kx2 )
Δ  (t  kx2 )  (t  kx1 )
Δ  k ( x1  x2 )
2
Δ  L
 2  1
therefore 2m  1  L L   m  
• Note :
  2
When where m  0,1,2,.....
m=0 1st dark fringe (zeroth order dark)
m = 1 2nd dark fringe (1st order dark)
m = 2 3rd dark fringe (2nd order dark)
22
 • Interference pattern for two coherent sources in phase

Fringe  m L
2nd bright 4π 2 2
2nd dark 3π 1 3
2

1st bright 2π 1 
S1 1st dark π 0 1
2

Central bright 0 0 0
1st dark π 0 1
2

S2 1st bright 2π 1 
1 
3
2nd dark 3π 2
2nd bright 4π 2 2
screen
Figure 7.15

23
Interference of two coherent sources in antiphase
• Path difference for constructive interference
• S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in antiphase
P (maximum)
x1

S
1 x2

S
2

 

24
Figure 7.16
• A bright fringe is observed at P thus
Δ  2mπ where m  1,2,...
• At P, E  E sin(t  kx )
1P 0 1

then
E2 P  E0 sin(t  kx2   )
Δ  (t  kx2   )  (t  kx1 )
Δ  k ( x1  x2 )  
 2 
Δ   L   
  
 2   1
therefore 2m   L    L   m  
• Note :     2 
When where m  0,1,2,.....
m=0 1st bright fringe (zeroth order bright)
m = 1 2nd bright fringe (1st order bright)
m = 2 3rd bright fringe (2nd order bright)
25
• Path difference for destructive interference
• S1 and S2 are two coherent sources in antiphase
S x1
1
Q (minimum)

S x2
2

 

Figure 7.17
26
• A dark fringe is observed at Q thus
 
Δ  2m  1 π where m  0,1,2,...
• At P,
E1P  E0 sin(t  kx1 )
then
E2 P  E0 sin(t  kx2   )
Δ  (t  kx2   )  (t  kx1 )
Δ  k ( x1  x2 )  
 2 
Δ   L   
  
 2 
therefore 2m  1   L    L  m
• Note :   
where m  0,1,2,.....
When
m=0 Central dark fringe (zeroth order dark)
m = 1 1st dark fringe (1st order dark)
m = 2 2nd dark fringe (2nd order dark)
27
 • Interference pattern for two coherent sources in antiphase

Fringe  m L
2nd dark 5π 2 2
2nd bright 4π 1 3
2

1st dark 3π 1 
S1 1st bright 2π 0 1
2

Central dark  0 0
1st bright 2π 0 1
2

S2 1st dark 3π 1 
1 
3
2nd bright 4π 2
2nd dark 5π 2 2
screen
Figure 7.18

28
Two Coherent
Bright fringe Dark fringe
sources

L  m  1
L   m  
m  0,1,2,...  2
In phase
m  0,1,2,...
Δ  2mπ Δ  (2m  1)π
m  0,1,2,... m  0,1,2,...

 1 L  m
L   m  
 2 m  0,1,2,...
Antiphase
m  0,1,2,...
Δ  2mπ Δ  (2m  1)π
m  1,2,... m  0,1,2,...
Table 7.1 29
Light interference – Young’s double slit experiment
Interference of transmitted light through double-slits
7.3.1 Methods of obtaining two coherent sources
Division of wavefront
 A slit S is placed at equal
distance from slits S1 and S2 as
shown in figure.

S S1  Light waves from S that arrived

at S1 and S2 are in phase.
monochromatic S2
 Therefore, both slits S1 and S2
light source are two new coherent sources,
e.g. in Young’s double slit
single double
experiment
slit slits
Figure 7.19
31
 Division of amplitude

 The incident wavefront is divided

incident ray 1 2 into two waves by partial
reflection and partial
transmission.
partial reflection
air  Both reflected waves 1 and 2 are
coherent and will result in
partial interference when they
film t superpose.
transmission
 e.g. Newton’s ring, air wedge
air fringes and thin film interference.

Figure 7.20

32
 Young’s double-slit experiment
• Figure 7.21 shows the schematic diagram of Young’s double-slit
experiment. Intensity

Max m=2
Min
Max m=1
S1 Min
S Max m=0
monochromatic S2 Min
light beam Max m = 1
Min
single double
slit slits Max m = 2

Figure 7.21 interference

screen
pattern 33
Explanation of Young’s double-slit experiment by using
Huygens’ principle
• Wavefront from light source falls on a narrow slit S and diffraction occurs.
• Every point on the wavefront that falls on S acts as sources of secondary
wavelets that will produce a new wavefront that propagate to slits S1 and S2 .
• S1 and S2 are produced two new sources of coherent waves in phase because
they originate from the same wavefront and their distance from S are equal.
• An interference pattern consisting of bright and dark fringes is formed on the
screen as shown in Figure 7.21.
• The bright fringes are occurred when the light from slits S1 and S2 superposes
constructively.
• The dark fringes are occurred when the light from slits S1 and S2 superposes
destructively.

34
Derivation of Young’s double-slit equations
• Equation for separation between central bright fringe and mth bright fringe

M (m+1)th bright

P
y
mth bright

 ym ym1
S1


d Q
O
Central bright
N
S2 m

D
double-slit screen
Figure 7.22 35
• Suppose P in Figure 7.22 is the mth order bright fringe, thus
S2 P  S1P  m
• Let OP = ym = distance from P to O .
• In practice d is very small (<1mm) and D>>d, then S1N meets PQ at right
angle. Hence
• NP = S1P then S2N = S2P NP = m .
• angle PQO = angle S2S1N =
• From the figure,
ΔS2S1N S2 N m
sin   
S2S1 d
PO ym
ΔPQO tan  
Since θ is small, thus QO D
sin  tan
m ym

d D 36
• Therefore, the separation between central bright and mth
bright fringes, ym is given by

mD
ym  (7.1)
d
where m : order  0,1,2,...
 : wavelength
D : distance between double - slits and the screen
d : separation between double - slits
• Note: For bright fringes
m0 Central bright fringe (Zeroth order maximum)
m  1 1st bright fringe (1st order maximum)
m  2 2nd bright fringe (2nd order maximum)
m  3 3rd bright fringe (3rd order maximum)

37
• Equation for separation between central bright fringe and mth dark fringe

R mth order dark

y
(m1)th order
dark
 xm
S1


d Q
O
Central bright
N
 1
S2  m  
 2
D
double-slit screen
Figure 7.23
38
• Suppose R in Figure 2.23 is the mth order dark fringe, thus
 1
S2 R  S1R   m  
 2
• Let OR = xm = distance from R to O .
• In practice d is very small (<1mm) and D>>d, then S1N
meets RQ at right angle. Hence,
 1
• NR = S1R then S2 N  S2 R  NR   m  
• angle RQO = angle S2S1N =  2
• From the figure,
ΔS2S1N
S2 N  1
sin    m  
S2S1  2 d
ΔRQO RO xm
tan  
Since θ is small, thus
QO D
 1   xm
sin  tan m   
 2 d D 39
• Therefore, the separation between central bright and mth order dark fringes, xm is given by

 1  D
xm   m   (7.2)
 2 d

• Note: For dark fringes where m : order  0,1,2,...

m0 1st dark fringe (Zeroth order minimum)
m  1 2nd dark fringe (1st order minimum)
m  2 3rd dark fringe (2nd order minimum)
m  3 4th dark fringe (3rd order minimum)

40
• Equation for separation between successive (consecutive) bright or dark fringes, y
(Figure 7.22)
• is given by
mD D
y  ym1  ym where ym  d and ym1  m  1 d
D mD
y  m  1 
d d
D
y  (7.3)
d
where y : separation between consecutive bright
or dark fringes
 : wavelength
D : distance between double - slits and the screen
d : separation between double - slits
41
Appearance of Young’s double-slit experiment
• From the equation (7.3),
D
y 
d
• y depends on :
• the wavelength of light, 
• the distance apart, d of the double slits,
• distance between slits and the screen, D
• Explanation for the above factors:
• if  is short and thus Δy decreases for fixed D and d. The interference fringes are closer to
each other and vice-versa.
• if the distance apart d of the slits diminished, Δy increased for fixed D and  and vice-versa.
• if D increases Δy also increases for fixed  and vice-versa.

42
• if a source slit S (Figure 7.21) is widened the fringes gradually disappear. The
slit S then equivalent to large number of narrow slits, each producing its own
fringe system at different places. The bright and dark fringes of different systems
therefore overlap, giving rise to a different illumination.
• if one of the slit, S1 or S2 is covered up, the fringes disappear.
• if the source slit S is moved nearer the double slits, Δy is unaffected but their
intensity increases.
• if the experiment is carried out in a different medium, for example water, the
fringe separation Δy decreased or increased depending on the wavelength, λ
of the medium.
• if white light is used the central bright fringe is white, and the fringes on either
side are coloured. Violet is the colour nearer to the central fringe and red is
farther away as shown in Figure 7.24.

43
 Figure 7.24
• Table 7.2 shows the range of wavelength for colours of visible light.

Colour Range of λ/ nm
Violet 400 – 450
Blue 450 – 520
Green 520 – 560
Yellow 560 – 600
Orange 600 – 625
Red 625 - 700

Table 7.2 44
Tutorial Q1

A double-slits pattern is view on a screen

1.00 m from the slits. If the third order minima
are 25.0 cm apart, determine
a. the ratio of wavelength and separation
between the slits,
b. the distance between the first order
minimum and fourth order maximum on the
screen.

45
 Tutorial Q2 :

a) How would you expect the

interference pattern of a
double-slit experiment to
change if white light is used
instead of monochromatic
light?
b) Describe the changes that
would be observed in a
double-slit interference
pattern if the entire
experiment were submerged
in water.

46
Tutorial Q3 :
In a Young’s double-slit
experiment, when a
monochromatic light of
wavelength 600 nm shines on the
double slits, the fringe separation
of the interference pattern
produced is 7.0 mm. When
another monochromatic light
source is used, the fringe
separation is 5.0 mm. Calculate
the wavelength of the second
light.

47
 Tutorial Q4 :
A
S1
1.2 mm
S2
2.5 m

Figure 7.25 B

Figure 2.25 shows two coherent sources (S1 and S2) of light
in phase. The separation of S1 and S2 is 1.2 mm and the
screen is 2.5 m from the sources.
a) The frequency of the light is 5.77  1014 Hz. Calculate
i. the wavelength of the light used
ii. the separation between two consecutive bright fringes if
the experiment is carried out in air.
b) If the experiment is carried out in water of refractive
index 1.33, calculate the separation of two consecutive
dark fringes.
(The speed of light in vacuum, c = 3.00  108 m s1)

48
 Exercise 7.1 :

1. Young’s double-slit experiment is performed

with 589-nm light and a distance of 2.00 m
between the slits and the screen. The tenth
interference minimum is observed 7.26 mm
from the central maximum. Determine the
spacing of the slits.
ANS. : 1.54 mm

2. A Young’s interference experiment is

performed with monochromatic light. The
separation between the slits is 0.500 mm,
and the interference pattern on a screen 3.30
m away shows the first side maximum 3.40
mm from the centre of the pattern. What is
the wavelength?
49
ANS. : 515 nm
 Exercise 7.1 :
3. A coherent light that contains two
wavelength, 660 nm (red) and 470 nm (blue)
passes through two narrow slits separated by
0.3 mm and the interference pattern is
observed on a screen 5.00 m from the slits.
Determine the distance between the first
order bright fringes for each wavelength.
ANS. : 3.17 mm

4. A monochromatic light of wavelength 560 nm

passes through a Young’s double-slit system
of unknown slit separation. After that, the slits
is illuminated by a monochromatic light of
unknown wavelength. It was observed that
the 4th order minimum of the known
wavelength light overlapped with the 5th
order maximum of the unknown wavelength
light on a screen. Calculate the wavelength of
the unknown wavelength light.
50
ANS. : 504 nm
Newton’s ring & interference in thin films
 Interference of reflected light in thin films
• Interference due to reflected waves is observed in many everyday circumstances such as
bright colours reflected from oil film on water and soap bubble.
• The reflected waves can change their phase in two ways:
• The phase changes in proportion to the distance of the waves travel.
• The phase changes as a result of the reflection process itself.
• Optical path is defined as the product between a distance travelled by light and the
refractive index of the medium
OR
L  nl

where L : optical path

n : refractive index of a medium
l : distance travelled by light in the medium 52
 Phase changes due to reflection
• A light wave travelling in a medium of lower refractive index (n1) when reflected from
a medium’s surface of higher refractive index (n2) undergoes a  radian phase
change as shown in Figure 7.26a.

 radian phase change

incident wave incident pulse

n1 n2
transmitted pulse
reflected wave transmitted wave
Note:
   rad n1 n2 reflected pulse

L  Figure 7.26a Figure 7.26b: string analogous
2 53
• A light wave travelling in a medium of higher refractive index (n2) when reflected
from a medium’s surface of lower refractive index (n1) undergoes no phase
change as shown in Figure 7.27a.

no phase change
incident wave
incident pulse

n2 n1

reflected wave transmitted wave transmitted pulse

Note:
  0 n2 n1 reflected pulse
L  0 Figure 7.27a Figure 7.27b: string analogous
54
Interference from thin films on a denser medium
• Figure 7.28 shows the light waves reflected from the upper and
lower surfaces of a thin film (refractive index, n) on a denser
medium.
 rad phase  rad phase
change change
E F
A

1 2
n1  1.0
B D
n  1.5 t : thickness of
thin film
C
n2  3.5

Figure 7.28 55
• When an incident ray falls on a thin film surface almost normal to the surface (point B)
• division of amplitude occurs,
• part of ray are reflected (ray 1 ray ABE),
• part of ray are refracted and reflected (ray 2 ray ABCDF),
• point D very close to B (BC and CD become straight line).
• At B,
• the reflected ray (ray 1) undergoes  radian phase change.
• because the ray 1 reflected from a surface of higher refractive index (denser
medium).
• At C,
• the reflected ray (ray 2) undergoes  radian phase change.
• Therefore both rays 1 and 2 are two coherent sources in phase because the phase
difference,  is
      0
and meet at a point produces interference pattern.

56
• The optical path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by
L  ABCDF  ABE
L  BC  CD
L  nt  nt L  2nt
• Constructive interference: where
 : wavelength of light in vacuum
2nt  m m  0,1,2,...
• Destructive interference:
where
 1 m  0,1,2,...
2nt   m  
 2
• Example of thin film on a denser medium:
• Non-reflective (anti-reflective) coating
• Oil film on water and etc…
57
Interference from thin films on a less dense medium
• Figure 7.29 shows the light waves reflected from the upper and
lower surfaces of a thin film (refractive index, n) in a less dense
medium.
 rad phase no phase
change change
E F
A

1 2
nair  1.0
B D
n  1.33 t : thickness of
thin film
C
nair  1.0

Figure 7.29 58
• When an incident ray falls on a thin film surface almost normal to
the surface (point B)
• division of amplitude occurs,
• part of ray are reflected (ray 1 ray ABE),
• part of ray are refracted and reflected (ray 2 ray ABCDF),
• point D very close to B (BC and CD become straight line).
• At B,
• the reflected ray (ray 1) undergoes  radian phase change.
• because the ray 1 reflected from a surface of higher
refractive index (denser medium).
• At C,
• the reflected ray (ray 2) undergoes no phase change.
• Therefore both rays 1 and 2 are two coherent sources antiphase
because the phase difference,  is
    0   rad
59
and meet at a point produces interference pattern.
• The optical path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by
L  ABCDF  ABE

L  BC  CD 
 2 
L  nt  nt  L  2nt 
2 2
• Constructive interference: where
  1 m  0,1,2,...
2nt   m 2nt   m  
2  2
• Destructive interference: where
 1 2nt  m m  0,1,2,...
2nt    m  
2  2
• Example of a thin film on a less dense medium:
• Soap bubbles
• Reflective coating and etc…
60
Tutorial Q5 :
A non-reflective coating of magnesium
fluoride of refractive index 1.38 covers the
camera lens of refractive index 1.52. The
coating prevents reflection of yellow-green
light of wavelength in vacuum 565 nm.
Determine the minimum non zero
thickness of the magnesium fluoride.

61
Tutorial Q6 :
White light is incident on a soap film
of refractive index 1.30 in air. The
reflected light looks bluish because
the red light of wavelength 670 nm
is absent in the reflection.
a) State the condition for
destructive interference.
b) What is the minimum thickness
of the soap film?

62
Interference of reflected light in air wedge and
Newton’s ring
7.5.1 Air wedge S LQ

travelling
microscope air
O P t T
α
X B Y
l
L
monochromatic
glass plate Figure 7.31
light source
m= 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
glass slide
thin foil
1st dark
fringe
Figure 7.30: Apparatus setup
x Figure 7.32 63
• Ray S falls almost normal to the surface of a glass slide.
• At point O, Ray S is
• partially reflected (ray OL)
• partially refracted (OB) and then reflected at B (ray PQ)
• The two refracted rays (OL and PQ) are coherent since both have originated from the
same source O.
• OL and PQ produces interference pattern if it is brought together as shown in Figure 7.32.
• Since the incidence is nearly normal (point P very close to O), the path difference
between the rays at O (ray OL and ray OBPQ) is given by,
path difference, L = OB + BP = nt + nt = 2nt
where n is refractive index of air = 1.0
• At X, t = 0 and thus the path difference = 0 and a bright fringe is expected, but a dark
fringe is observed at X. This is due to the phase change of  radian for ray PQ (reflected
on a denser medium at B).

64
• Hence, ray PQ is in antiphase with ray OL and when brought together (by the retina or
lens) to interfere, a dark fringe is obtained.
• Constructive interference (bright fringe):
1
2t  m  
2
 1
2t   m   (7.4)
 2
where m  0,1,2,...
• Destructive interference (dark fringe):

2t  m (7.5)
Note: where m  0,1,2,...
A phase change of π radian is equivalent to a path
difference of ½ λ
65
• From equation (7.4),
When
m  0; t  14  1st bright fringe (Zeroth order maximum)

m  1; t  34  2nd bright fringe (1st order maximum)

m  2; t  54  3rd bright fringe (2nd order maximum)
i.e. bright fringes are formed when the thickness of
air film, t  14  , 34  , 54  ,.......
• From equation (7.5),
When
m  0; t  0 1st dark fringe (Zeroth order minimum)

m  1; t  12  2nd dark fringe (1st order minimum)

m  2; t   3rd dark fringe (2nd order minimum)
i.e. dark fringes are formed when the thickness of
air film, t  0, 12  ,  , 32  ,....... 66
• Equation for separation between the 1st dark fringe and the mth order dark fringe, l
• From Figure 7.31,

T t t
tan    l (7.6)
• Rearrange eq. (7.5): L l tan 
m
t substitute into eq. (7.6)
2
m
l (7.7)
2 tan 
where
m : order  0,1,2,...
 : wavelength of light in vacuum
α : angle of inclination of glass slide
67
• Equation for separation between the 1st dark fringe and the mth

m  12 
order bright fringe, l

• Rearrange eq. (2.4): t substitute into eq. (7.6)

2
l
m  12 
(7.8)
2 tan 
where m : order  0,1,2,...
• Equation for separation between adjacent dark fringes or bright
fringes, x

• Put m = 1 into eq. (7.7),


x  (7.9)
2 tan 
68
 Newton’s ring
C

Figure 7.34 L
Q
travelling
microscope R R t S

monochromatic
A Y
light source P
t O
glass plate X B
d
plano-convex
lens
glass block

Figure 7.33: Figure 7.35:

Apparatus setup Newton’s ring 69
• Ray S falls almost normal to the surface of a plano-convex.
• At point O, Ray S is
• partially reflected (ray OL)
• partially refracted (OB) and then reflected at B (ray PQ)
• The two refracted rays (OL and PQ) are coherent since both have originated from the same
source O.
• OL and PQ produces interference pattern if it is brought together as shown in Figure 7.35.
• The pattern is a series of circular interference fringes called Newton’s ring. This because of a
curved piece of glass with a spherical cross section.
• Since the incidence is nearly normal (point P very close to O), the path difference between
the rays at O (ray OL and ray OBPQ) is given by,
path difference, L = OB + BP = nt + nt = 2nt
where n is refractive index of air = 1.0

70
• At X, t = 0 and thus the path difference = 0 and a bright spot is
expected, but a dark spot is observed at X. This is due to the
phase change of  radian for ray PQ (reflected on a denser
medium at B).
• Hence, ray PQ is in antiphase with ray OL and when brought
together (by the retina or lens) to interfere, a dark spot is
obtained.
• Constructive interference (bright ring):
1
2t  m  
2
 1
2t   m   (7.8)
 2
where m  0,1,2,...

• Destructive interference (dark ring):

2t  m (7.9)

where m  0,1,2,... 71
• Relationship between diameter of ring, d and thickness of
air gap, t
• From Figure 7.34,

C  By using the Phytogorean theorem,

thus the distance AY is
AY 22  AC2  YC2
d 
   R  R  t 
2 2
R R t
 2 2
d
A
 2 Rt  t 2
Y 4
d Since t is very thin thus t  0
2

2
2 d
 2 Rt (7.10)
4
72
• Equation for diameter of dark ring
m
• Rearrange eq. (7.9): t substitute into eq. (7.10)
2
d2  m 
 2 R  d  4Rm
2 (7.11)
4  2 
where m : order  0,1,2,...
When

m  0; t  0 Central dark spot

(zeroth order minimum), d = 0
m  1; t  12  1st dark ring (1st order minimum)

m  2; t   2nd dark ring (2nd order minimum)

m  3; t  32  3rd dark ring (3rd order minimum)

73
• Equation for diameter of bright ring

• Rearrange eq. (2.9): t 

m  2  substitute into eq.
1

  2 (2.10)
d 2
 m  1

 2R  2

4  2 
d  4Rm  12 
2
(7.12)

Whenwhere m : order  0,1,2,...

m  0; t  14  1st bright ring (zeroth order
maximum)
m  1; t  34  2nd bright ring (1st order maximum)

m  2; t  54  3rd bright ring (2nd order maximum)

m  3; t  74  4th bright ring (3rd order maximum)

74
• From Figure 7.35,
• The rings become more closely spaced as one moves
farther from the centre of the Newton’s ring.
• The reason is that the convex surface of the lens moves
away from the lower glass block at a progressively
faster rate therefore the thickness of air film increases
rapidly.
• Newton’s ring can be used to test the accuracy with which a
lens has been ground.
• The rings are not circular if the surface is not spherical
(or the glass block is not flat).

75
Tutorial Q7 :
An air wedge is formed by placing a human hair
between two glass slides of length 44 mm on one
end, and allowing them to touch on the other end.
When this wedge is illuminated by a red light of
wavelength 771 nm, it is observed to have 265
bright fringes. Determine
a) the diameter of hair,

b) the angle of air wedge,

c) the thickness of the air film for 99th dark fringe

to be observed,
d) the separation between two consecutive bright
fringes.

d
α
76
265th bright fringe
L
Tutorial Q8 :
a) Explain why the central spot in Newton’s
ring is dark.
b) In a Newton’s ring experiment, the radius
of the qth bright ring is 0.32 cm and the
radius of the (q+19)th dark ring is 0.67 cm.
Determine the radius of curvature of the
plano-convex used in the experiment if
the wavelength of light used is 589 nm.

77
 Exercise 7.2 :

1. A thin film of gasoline floats on a puddle of water. Sunlight

falls almost perpendicularly on the film and reflects into
your eyes. Although the sunlight is white, since it contains
all colours, the film has a yellow hue, because destructive
interference has occurred eliminating the colour of blue
(=469 nm) from the reflected light. If the refractive indices
for gasoline and water are 1.40 and 1.33 respectively,
Calculate the minimum thickness of the film.
ANS. : 168 nm
2. White light is incident normally on a thin soap film (n =1.33)
suspended in air.
a) What are the two minimum thickness that willconstructively
reflect yellow light of wavelength 590 nm?
b) What are the two minimum thickness that will destructively
reflect yellow light of wavelength 590 nm?
ANS. : 110 nm, 330 nm ; 220 nm, 440 nm ;

78
3. Two plane glass plates which are in contact at one edge are
separated by a piece of metal foil 12.5 cm from that edge.
Interference fringes parallel to the line of contact are
observed in reflected light of wavelength 546 nm and are
found to be 1.50 mm apart. Determine the thickness of the
foil.
ANS. : 2.27105 m
4. Newton’s rings are formed by reflection between an biconvex
lens of focal length 100 cm made of glass of refractive index
1.50 and in contact with a glass block of refractive index
1.60. Calculate the diameter and thickness of air film for fifth
bright ring using light of wavelength 6000 Å .
Given 1 angstrom (Å) = 1010 m
ANS. : 3.28 mm; 1.35 m
5. Newton’s rings are formed with light of wavelength 589 nm
between the plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 100 cm
and a glass block, in perfect contact.
a) Determine the radius of the 20th dark ring from the centre
b) How will this ring move and what will its radius become if the
lens and the block are slowly separated to a distance apart
5.00  104 cm?
ANS. : 3.43 mm; inwards, 1.26 cm
79
Single slit diffraction and diffraction grating
Diffraction by a single slit
7.6.1 Diffraction of light
• is defined as the bending of light waves as they travel around
obstacles or pass through an aperture or slit comparable to
the wavelength of the light waves.
• Figures 7.36a, 7.36b and 7.36c show the bending of plane
wavefront. λ λ
λ

Figure 7.36a: Figure 7.36b: Figure 7.36c:

obstacle slit, a >  slit, a  
81
Diffraction by a single silt
• Figure7.37 shows an apparatus setup of diffraction by a single
slit.

3rd minimum
2nd maximum
2nd minimum
1 1st maximum
2 1st minimum
Central
S 2 maximum
1st minimum
1 1st maximum
2nd minimum
2nd maximum
3rd minimum
intensity
single slit
screen
Figure 7.37
where  : angle of diffraction 82
Explanation of single slit diffraction experiment
• Wavefront from light source falls on a narrow slit S and diffraction occurs.
• Every point on the wavefront that falls on S acts as sources of secondary
wavelets and superposed each another to form an interference pattern on the
screen as shown in Figure 7.37.
• The central fringe is bright (maximum) and widen compare to other bright
fringes.
• The central fringe has the highest intensity compare to the other bright fringes.
• The intensity of bright fringes reduce as the distance increase from the
central bright fringe.
• Other rays with angle θ2 and θ1 will produce minimum and maximum on both
sides of the central maximum.

83
 Derivation of single slit diffraction equations
• Equation for separation between central maximum (bright)
and nth minimum (dark) fringes
P nth minimum

yn

a A θ1
2 θ1
a a C
aEsin Central
Q maximum
2 2 1
B
a sin
2 1
D
where a : slit width screen
D : distance between single slit and screen
Figure 7.38 84
• A single slit is split into two equal parts, AC and CB. A,C and B are new sources
of secondary wavelets. (Huygen’s principle)
• When the wavelets from A, C and B superpose, interference will occur at P.
• As AB is very small, thus
• AE is perpendicular to CP and AP = EP,
• the outgoing rays are considered parallel,
• and therefore the path difference at P between ray AP and CP is :
a
L  CE  sin 1
2
• Consider two narrow strips as shown in Figure 2.38, for the two strips
superposed destructively thus both strip of light must in antiphase to each
another which is equivalence to a path difference of ½.
• If the 1st minimum (1st order minimum) is at P, hence :

a 
L  sin 1  a sin 1  
2 2 85
 • For the 2nd minimum and 3rd minimum, AB is split into 4
equal parts, 6 equal parts and so on as shown in Figures
7.39 and 7.40.

a a
4 6
a a
θ2 θ3
2 3
a  a 
2nd minimum
sin  2  3rd minimum sin  3 
(2nd order 4 2 (3rd order 6 2
minimum)
a sin  2  2 minimum) a sin 3  3

Figure 7.39 Figure 7.40

86
• In general, for minima (dark fringes)

a sin  n  n
where n : order  1,2,3,..
• If the distance of single slit to the screen is D, and D>>a
then: yn
sin  n  tan  n 
D
• Therefore the distance of nth minimum from central
maximum is:

 yn  nD
a   n yn 
• When  D  a
n  1 1st minimum fringe (1st order minimum)

n  2 2nd minimum fringe (2nd order minimum)

n  3 3rd minimum fringe (3rd order minimum)

87
• Equation for separation between central maximum (bright)
and nth maximum (bright) fringes

R nth maximum

yn

a A θ1
a3 C aE θ1
a sin1 Central
Q maximum
a3 D 3
3 B asin
1

D
screen
Figure 7.41 88
• A single slit is split into three equal parts, AC,CD and DB.
A,C,D and B are new sources of secondary wavelets.
(Huygen’s principle)
• When the wavelets from A,C,D and B superpose, interference
will occur at R.
• As AB is very small, thus
• AE is perpendicular to CP and AP = EP,
• the outgoing rays are considered parallel,
• and therefore the path difference at P between ray AP
and CP is : a
L  CE  sin 1
3
• Consider three narrow strips as shown in Figure 2.41, the first
two strips (pair) superposed destructively at which the path
difference is ½ and leave the third strip. The 3rd strip
produces the maximum (bright) fringe at R.
• If the 1st maximum (1st order maximum) is at R, hence :
a  3
L  sin 1  a sin 1 
3 2 2 89
• For the 2nd maximum and 3rd maximum, AB is split into 5 equal parts, 7 equal parts and so
on as shown in Figures 7.42 and 7.43.

a a
5 7
a a
θ2 θ3
5 7
2 2
a  a 
2nd maximum
sin  2  3rd maximum sin  3 
(2nd order 5 2 (3rd order 7 2
maximum) 5 minimum) 7
a sin  2  a sin  3 
2 2
Figure 7.42 Figure 7.43
90
• In general, for maxima (bright fringes)

 1  where
a sin  n   n   n  1,2,3,..
 2
• If the distance of single slit to the screen is D, and D>>a
then: yn
sin  n  tan  n 
• D
Therefore the distance of nth maximum from central
maximum is:

 yn   1

n  12 D
a     n   yn
• D 
When 2 a
n  1 1st maximum fringe (1st order maximum)

n  2 2nd maximum fringe (2nd order maximum)

n  3 3rd maximum fringe (3rd order maximum)

91
• Equation for central maximum (bright) fringe

D
1st minimum

θ1 y1
a θ1
Q Central
y1 maximum
1st minimum
single slit Figure 2.44

A
C
D screen
E
B
Figure 7.45 92
• Figure 7.45 shows five sources of Huygen’s wavelets and the
screen is to be so far from the slit (D>>a) thus the rays
from each source are nearly parallel.
• All the wavelets from each source travel the same distance
to the point Q (Figure 7.44) and arriving there in phase.
• Therefore, the constructive interference is occurred at the
central of the single slit diffraction pattern.
• The angular width of central maximum, w is given by

 w  21 and 1 : 1st minimum diffraction angle

1 
1  sin
a
 1  
 w  2 sin 
 a
93
 • The width of central maximum, w is given by
w  2 y1 and y1 : separation of 1st minimum and
central maximum
D
y1 
a
 D 
w  2 
 a 
• Note:
• To calculate the maximum number of orders observed,
take the diffraction angle, = 90.
• From both equations for minima and maxima, we obtain

sin  n   and yn  
• By using this two relations, the changes of single slit
diffraction pattern can be explained. 94
Tutorial Q9 :

A sodium light of wavelength 580 nm shines

through a slit and produces a diffraction
pattern on a screen 0.60 m away. The width of
the central maximum fringe on the screen is
5.0 cm. Determine
a) the width of the slit,
b) the angular width of the central maximum
fringe,
c) the number of minimum that can be
observed on the screen.

95
 Tutorial Q10 :
a) State the similarities and differences of
double-slit interference and single slit
diffraction patterns.
b) How many bright fringes will be produced
on the screen if a green light of wavelength
553 nm is incident on a slit of width 8.00
m?

96
Exercise 7.3 :
1. Monochromatic light of wavelength 689
nm falls on a slit. If the angle between first
bright fringes on either side of the central
maximum is 38, calculate the slit width.
ANS. : 3.2 m
2. Light of wavelength 633 nm from a distant
source is incident on a single slit 0.750
mm wide, and the resulting diffraction
pattern is observed on a screen 3.50 m
away. Determine the distance between the
two dark fringes on either side of the
central bright fringe.
ANS. : 5.91 mm
3. A screen is placed 1.00 m behind a single
slit. The central maximum in the resulting
diffraction pattern on the screen is 1.60 cm
wide. What is the distance between the
two second order minima?
ANS. : 3.20 cm
97
Diffraction grating
• is defined as a large number of equally spaced parallel slits.
• Diffraction grating can be made by ruling very fine parallel lines
on glass or metal by a very precise machine.
• The untouched spaces between the lines serve as the slits as
shown in Figure 7.46.
d
 Light passes through the slit because it is
transparent.
 The spaces between the lines are the slits,
for example : if there are four lines then we
have 3 slits.

lines slit
Figure 7.46
98
• If there N lines per unit length, then slit separation, d is given by:
1
d
N
e.g. if a diffraction grating has 5000 lines per cm, then

1 1
d  d  2 104 cm
N 5000 cm
• The light that passes through the slits are coherent .
• The Interference pattern is narrower and sharper than double-
slits.
• There are two type of diffraction grating which are
• transmission grating (usual diffraction grating)
• reflection grating e.g. CD and DVD
• Diffraction grating is used in spectrometer to determine the
wavelength of light and to study spectra.

99
Explanation of diffraction by using Huygen’s principle for diffraction grating

• Figure 7.47 shows an incident lights fall on the transmission

diffraction grating. C first order wavefront
A
source of secondary
wavelets
E
second order wavefront

incident lights
third order wavefront
D
F
grating
zeroth order wavefront

Figure 7.47 B 100

• Using Huygens’ principle, each maximum is located by taking the
tangent of the wavelets from the slits.
• If the wavelets from each of the slits are drawn and a tangent AB
is drawn, a plane wavefront parallel to the diffraction grating is
obtained. This represents the zeroth-order maximum (n = 0).
• If the wavelets are grouped such that the first wavelet from one
slit is combined with the second wavelet from the next slit, the
third wavelet from the third slit and so on, the tangent CD will
represent the first-order maximum (n =1).
• For the second-order maximum, the wavelets are grouped are
such that the second wavelet of one slit is combined with the
fourth wavelet of the next slit, the sixth wavelet from the third slit
and so on. (tangent EF)
• Similarly, the third-, fourth-,…. order maximum may be obtained.

101
Equation of diffraction grating
• Figure 7.48 illustrates light travels to a distant viewing screen
from five slits of the grating.
first order maximum
(n = 1)

incoming plane central or zeroth order

wavefront of light
maximum (n = 0)

first order maximum

(n = 1)
diffraction grating
Figure 2.48 d sin 
d θ
θ
Figure 2.49
102
• The maximum (bright) fringes are sometimes called the principal
maxima or principal fringes since they are placed where the light
intensity is a maximum.
• Since the screen is far so that the rays nearly parallel while the
light travels toward the screen as shown in Figure 2.49.
• In reaching the place on the screen while the 1st order maximum
is located, light from one slit travels a distance of one wavelength
farther than light from adjacent slit.
• Therefore the path difference for maximum fringe (constructive
interference) is given by

dsinn  n
where n : order  0,1,2,3,..
 n : n thorder of diffraction angle
• When
n0 Central maximum fringe (0th order maximum)
n  1 1st maximum fringe (1st order maximum)
n  2 2nd maximum fringe (2nd order maximum) 103
 • The maximum fringes produce by a grating are much narrower
and sharper than those from a double-slit as the intensity graph in
Figures 2.50a and 2.50b.

Figure 2.50a

n  2 1 0 1 2

Figure 2.50b

n  2 1 0 1 2
104
• Figures 2.51 shows the diffraction grating pattern.

second-order
n2 maximum
Parallel beam of
monochromatic light
first-order
θ2 n  1 maximum
θ1 zero-order
n0 maximum

n  1first-order
maximum
grating
n  2 second-order
maximum
Figure 2.51
105
• If the white light is falls on the grating, a rainbow colours would be
observed to either side of the central fringe on the screen which is
white as shown in Figure 7.51. This because the white light
contains wavelengths between violet and red.
n  2 1 0 1 2

Rainbow Rainbow white Rainbow Rainbow

White
light
Figure 7.51 106
• Note:
• To calculate the maximum number of orders for bright
fringes observed, take the diffraction angle, = 90.
Therefore
dsin90 nmax


nmax d

where nmax : maximum number of orders that can be
observed.
• From the equation for maxima, we obtain

sin  n   1
and sin  n 
d
• By using this two relations, the changes of diffraction grating
pattern can be explained.

107
Tutorial Q11 :
A monochromatic light of unknown
wavelength falls normally on a diffraction
grating. The diffraction grating has 3000 lines
per cm.
If the angular separation between the first
order maxima is 35. Calculate
a) the wavelength of the light,
b) the angular separation between the
second-order and third- order maxima.

108
Tutorial Q 12 :

The second-order maximum

produced by a diffraction grating with
560 lines per centimeter is at an
angle of 3.1.
a) What is the wavelength of the
light that illuminates the grating?
b) Determine the number of
maximum can be observed on a
screen.
c) State and giving reason, what
you would expect to observe if a
grating with a larger number of
lines per centimeter is used.

109
 Exercise 7.4 :

1. The first-order maximum line of 589 nm light

falling on a diffraction grating is observed at an
angle of 15.5. Determine
a. the slit separation on the grating.
b. the angle of diffraction for third-order
maximum line.
ANS. : 2.20 m; 53.4
2. A diffraction grating has 6000 lines per cm.
Calculate the angular separation between
wavelengths 589.6 nm and 546.1 nm
respectively after transmission through it at
normal incidence, in the first-order spectrum
(maximum line).
ANS. : 1.60
3. When blue light of wavelength 465 nm
illuminates a diffraction grating, it produces a
1st order maximum but no 2nd order maximum.
a. Explain the absence of 2nd order maximum.
b. What is the maximum spacing between lines
on this grating?
110
ANS. : 930 nm
Polarisation – Malus’ law and Brewster’s law
Polarization of Light
The direction of the electric field vector in
electromagnetic wave is called the polarization
direction

Most naturally produced light (e.g. thermal or

atomic radiation) has polarization vectors
oriented randomly in all directions (“unpolarized”)

A polaroid filter absorbs light polarized along one

axis and transmits light polarized along the other
Polaroid Filters and Unpolarized Light
When unpolarized light passes through a polaroid
filter, two things happen:
• Half the intensity is absorbed by the filter
• The transmitted light becomes linearly polarized
in the same direction as the filter’s polarizing axis

The polaroid filter has long molecules (polymers)

stretched perpendicular to the polarizing axis that
strongly absorb electric fields in that direction
(only)
Polaroid Filters and Linearly Polarized Light
When linearly polarized light passes
through a polaroid filter:
• The intensity is reduced depending
on the angle 𝜙 between the
polarization direction and the
polarizing axis (Malus’ Law):
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 2 𝜙
• The transmitted light becomes
linearly polarized in the same
direction as the filter’s polarizing axis

Malus’ Law only applies to light which is already linearly polarized!

Consequences
Light is always polarized in the
direction of the last polaroid filter
it passed through

If light (polarized or unpolarized)

is passed through two ideal
polaroid filters with perpendicular
polarizaration axes, it will be
completely absorbed
 Unpolarized Light from above

Weirdness
If initially unpolarized light passes through
two ideal polaroid filters with perpendicular
polarizing axes, it is completely absorbed

What happens if I put a third filter, oriented

at 45∘ , between the other two filters?

The transmitted intensity becomes non-zero!

I = 0?
 Unpolarized Light from above

Weirdness
After passing through the first filter, the intensity is
reduced by half (incident unpolarized light) and the
polarization direction becomes “horizontal”
1
𝐼1 = 𝐼0
2
After passing through the second filter, the intensity is
again reduced by half (Malus’ Law) and the polarization
direction becomes “diagonal”:
2 ∘
1
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 cos 45 = 𝐼1
2
After passing through the third filter, the intensity is
reduced by half a third time and the polarization becomes
“vertical”
2 ∘
1 1 1
𝐼3 = 𝐼2 cos 45 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼0
2 4 8
Polarization by Reflection
Polarizing (“Brewster’s”) Angle
(Side view of previous slide)

Light in a reflection will be completely

polarized when the reflected and
refracted rays make a 90∘ degree angle

The incident angle required to achieve

this is called the polarizing or Brewster’s
angle, and depends on the indices of
refraction of the media
Malus’ Law
Malus’ Law – Intensity Polarised Light
Malus’ Law
• This is the law of Malus named after Etienne Malus who published
this relationship in 1809.
• According to Malus, - when completely plane polarized light is
incident on the analyzer, the intensity (I ) of the light transmitted by
the analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of
angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the
polarizer.
• i.e I ∞ cos2θ
• A 'head-on' view of the analyser will help us to find the intensity of
the transmitted beam

• Suppose the angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and
the polarizer is θ.
• The completely plane polarized light form the polarizer is incident on
the analyzer.
A little Math
• If E0 is the amplitude of the
electric vector transmitted by
the polarizer, then intensity I0 of
the light incident on the analyzer
is
I0 ∞ E02
• (The intensity of a beam,
measured in W m-2, is
proportional to the square of the
amplitude.)
• The electric field vector E0 can be
resolved into two rectangular
components i.e E0 cosθ and E0 sinθ.
• The analyzer will transmit only the
component ( i.e E0 cosθ ) which is
parallel to its transmission axis.
• However, the component
E0sinθ will be absorbed by the
analyser. Therefore, the
intensity (I )of light transmitted
by the analyzer is,
• I ∞ ( E0 x cosθ )2
• I / I0 = ( E0 x cosθ )2 / E02 = cos2θ
• I = I0 x cos2θ
• Therefore, I ∞ cos2θ.
• This proves law of Malus.
• When θ = 0° ( or 180° ), I = I0 cos20° = I0 That is the intensity of light
transmitted by the analyzer is maximum when the transmission axes
of the analyzer and the polarizer are parallel.
• When θ = 90°, I = I0 cos290° = 0 That is the intensity of light
transmitted by the analyzer is minimum when the transmission axes
of the analyzer and polarizer are perpendicular to each other.
Example

• Problem: A sheet of • We will use Malus' law to solve

Polaroid is being used to this problem, with I 0 as the
reduce the intensity of a intensity of the incident beam
beam of polarised light. and I 0/2 as the intensity of the
transmitted beam.
• What angle should the
transmission axis of the
Polaroid make with the
plane of polarisation of
the beam in order to
reduce the intensity of
the beam by 50%?