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[WEEK 1] LESSON

ELECTRIC CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW

Electric Charge
o We can trace all electrical effects to electrons and protons inside every atom.
o This is because these particles have a property called electric charge.
o The electrons are negative and surround a dense, positive nucleus.
o Positive protons and neutrons reside in this nucleus
o Neutrons are neutral and do not participate in
o electrostatic interactions

o Just like mass, the charge is a fundamental property of subatomic particles.


o The smallest amount of charge is called the elementary charge, indicated universally by the symbol e.
o The elementary charge has a magnitude of:

Unit C
o stands for coulomb, named after French physicist Charles Agustin Coulomb.
o An atom normally contains the same number of electrons and protons
o So, the overall negative charge is just balanced by the overall positive charge.
o The resulting charge is zero, and thus, theatom is neutral.
o And just like mass, the charge is conserved.
o This means that charges are neither created nor destroyed.
o There is the same amount of charge in the universe now as there has always been.
Conductor And Insulator
CONDUCTORS
o In certain materials such as aluminum, copper, and other metals the outermost or valence electrons are free to
move around the entire material.
o Such materials are classified as conductors.

INSULATORS
o In other materials, such as glass and wood
o the electrons are more tightly bound to the atom
o that they do not easily move around

Note:
1. Good conductors are poor insulators
2. Poor conductors are good insulators.
3. Most metals are conductors while most nonmetals are insulators.

In a conductor, the outermost electrons are farther away from the nucleus than they are more weakly bound to it.

Free Electrons
o When atoms of a conductor form a bulk material, their outer electrons are no longer bound to the atoms but are
free to float over the material.

WHEN ENERGY IS APPLIED TO THESE ELECTRONS


• they can move in a more organized way, producing an electric current.

Charging
o Free electrons can also be moved from one material to another in a process
o Removing an electron from an atom creates a positive ion.
o In general, a material can be given a net charge by adding or removing an electron.
o There are several ways of doing this:

Using Frictions
o By rubbing things together, electrons can peel off one material and remain in the other. When you walk, your
shoes lose a little bit of material to the ground. Electrons can be transferred in this way.

A rubber rod is charged by rubbing it on a fur cloth. In the process, the cloth loses its electrons to
the rod resulting in both the rod and the cloth being charged. The same happens when you comb
your hair.
Note: In rubbing the wool cloth on a rubber rod, the rod acquires a negative charge. The wool
cloth becomes positively charge.
BY TOUCHING
o When a charged object comes into contact with another object, electrons are transferred,
thereby charging the second object.

Imagine you have an uncharged metal sphere from an insulated stand. We bring a negatively charged rubber rod to the
ball, and by simply touching it, electrons from the rod transfer to the ball. Now the ball and the rod are both negatively
charged so they repel each other. This is also called charging by conduction.
BY INDUCTION
o In this method, there is no actual contact between the charged object and that which is being charged. In this
way, the object does not lose its charge to the object that gets charged in the process.

COULUMBS LAW
TWO THINGS IN COULOMB’S LAW
DIRECTION OF ELECTROSTATIC
o The calculation we made in Example Problem # 3 does not tell us in any way whether the force is directed
toward the north, south, west, or east. The only way to find out is to sketch the problem out.
o Let us assume that we are given a positive charge Q1 and a negative charge Q2, separated by a
distance r on a horizontal line. We already know that the force between them is attractive. Also, the
attraction is mutual. This means that Q1 pulls on Q2, and at the same time, Q2 also pulls on Q1 with the
same amount (or magnitude) of force. This implies that there are two forces present.
Opposite charges attract each other (negative to positive). Like charges repel each other
GENERALIZATION
[WEEK 2] LESSON
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS

THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE


o Coulomb's law describes the interaction of two-point charges.
o If there are more than two charges, the force exerted on one charge as a result of all the other charges
must be calculated.
o Coulomb's law alone does not provide the solution.
o The principle of superposition explains how multiple charges interact with one another.

ACCORDING TO THIS SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE


o The total force acting on a given charge is equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the
other charges
The development of electric circuits is perhaps one of the most useful yet taken-
for-granted achievements of the recent centuries. The flow of charge through wires
enables us to cook our food, light our homes, air-condition our work and living spaces,
watch movies and listen to music, and even drive safely to work or school. We will
investigate why charge flows through wires in electric circuits, as well as the variables
that influence the rate at which it flows. The method by which moving charge delivers
electrical energy to appliances in order for them to operate will be thoroughly discussed.
ELECTRIC FIELD
o Electric field is a vector quantity whose direction is defined as the direction that a
positive test charge would be pushed when placed in the field. Thus, the electric
field direction about a positive source charge is always directed away from the
positive source. And the electric field direction about a negative source charge is
always directed toward the negative source.
REPRESENTING ELECTRIC FIELDS
o The strength and direction of an electric field at a point can be represented. Making
use of electric field lines. This is analogous to using magnetic field lines to
represent magnetic fields around magnets.

POSITIVE CHARGE ACTING ON A TEST CHARGE


o Coulomb's law governs the magnitude of the force experienced by a test charge
as a result of another charge. In the diagram below, we calculate the force that a
positive test charge, +q, would experience at each point around the positive
charge, +Q, and represent this force (a vector) with an arrow. The force vectors for
some points around +Q are depicted in the diagram, as is the positive test charge
+q (in red) located at one of the points.
o The positive test charge, +q, will be pushed away from
the charge +Q at every point around it. Because both
charges are positive, they repel each other. We can't draw
an arrow at every point, but we've included enough arrows to
show how the field would look. The arrows represent the
force experienced by the test charge at each point.
Coulomb's law is an inverse-square law, which means that
the force weakens as the distance between the two charges
increases. This is the reason why, as you move away from
+Q, the arrows become shorter.
NEGATIVE CHARGE ACTING ON A TEST CHARGE
For a negative charge, −Q, and a positive test charge, +q, the force vectors would look
like:

It is worth noting that it is nearly identical to the positive charge case.


Because the absolute magnitude of the charge and the magnitude of the
test charge are the same, the arrows are the same lengths as in the
previous diagram. As a result, the magnitude of the force is the same at
all points in space. The arrows, however, point in the opposite direction
because the charges now have opposite signs and are attracted to each
other.

ELECTRIC FIELDS AROUND ISOLATED CHARGES


o To make things easier, we draw continuous lines that are tangential to the force
experienced by a test charge at each point. Where the field is stronger, the field
lines are closer together. Look at the diagram below: the field lines are close
together near the central charges. The electric field is strongest here. The field
lines are more spread out from each other as one moves away from the central
charges, where the electric field is weaker.

Note:
o Arrows on the field lines indicate the field's direction, i.e. the direction a positive test charge would
move if placed in the field.
o Electric field lines point away from positive charges and toward negative charges (like charges repel)
(unlike charges attract).
o Where the field is stronger, field lines are drawn closer together.
o Field lines do not intersect or touch.
o Field lines are drawn perpendicular to a charged surface or charge.
o The stronger the electric field, the greater the magnitude of the charge. This is represented by drawing
more field lines around the larger charge than around the smaller charge.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:
o Every point in space that contains a charge has an electric field.
o Field lines are only a representation; they do not exist in reality. When we draw them, we simply choose
convenient locations in space to represent the field.
o Field lines exist in three dimensions, not just two, as we've drawn them.
o The number of field lines that pass through a surface is proportional to the charge contained within it.
ELECTRIC FIELDS AROUND DIFFERENT CHARGE CONFIGURATIONS
o We've seen what the electric fields look like around isolated positive and negative charges. Now we will study what
the electric fields look like around combinations of charges placed close together.

ELECTRIC FIELD AROUND TWO UNLIKE CHARGES


o We'll begin by examining the electric field created by a positive and negative charge placed next to each other. We
will sketch the electric field one step at a time using the rules for drawing electric field lines. The sum of the fields
from each charge yields the net resulting field. To begin, draw the electric fields for each of the charges separately.

A positive test charge (red dots) placed in different positions directly between the two charges would be
pushed away from the positive charge (orange force arrows) and pulled towards the negative charge (blue
force arrows) in a straight line. For clarity, the orange and blue force arrows have been drawn slightly offset
from the dots. In reality, they'd be piled on top of each other. Take note that the farther you are from the
positive charge, the smaller the repulsive force, F+ (shorter orange arrows), and the closer you are to the
negative charge, the greater the attractive force, F. (longer blue arrows). The resulting forces are depicted by
red arrows. The electric field line is the black line that is tangential to the resultant forces and is a straight line
connecting the positive and negative charges.

ELECTRIC FIELD AROUND TWO LIKE CHARGES (BOTH POSITIVE)

o Things look a little different in the case of two positive charges of the same magnitude, Q1 and
Q2. We can't just turn the arrows around like we used to. In this case, both charges repel the
positive test charge. In isolation, the electric fields around each charge look like this.
o When the charges are placed next to each other, we can now examine the resulting electric field. Let us
begin by sandwiching a positive test charge between the two charges. We can calculate the resultant
force by drawing the forces exerted on the test charge as a result of Q1Q1 and Q2Q2.

The force F1 (in orange) exerted on the test charge (red dot) by the charge Q1 is equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction to the force F2 (in blue) exerted on the test charge by Q2. As a result, they cancel each other out, and no
resultant force exists. This means that in the middle, the electric field directly between the charges cancels out. A test charge
placed at this point would not be subjected to any force.
ELECTRIC FIELD AROUND TWO LIKE CHARGES (BOTH NEGATIVE)
o We can take advantage of the fact that the direction of the force is reversed for a test charge if the sign of the charge
influencing it is changed. When we switch to a case where both charges are negative, we get the following result:

o When the magnitudes are not equal, the larger charge has a greater
influence on the direction of the field lines than when they are equal. Here's
an example of a configuration in which the positive charge is significantly
greater than the negative charge. As can be seen, the field lines resemble
those of an isolated charge, which produces a stronger field and thus
contributes a greater relative contribution to the force on a test charge than
the smaller charge.

A small test charge q placed near a charge Q will be subjected to a force as a result of the electric field
that surrounds Q. Coulomb's law describes the magnitude of the force, which is dependent on the magnitude of
the charge Q and the distance of the test charge from Q. The greater the force experienced by the test charge
q, the closer it is to the charge Q. Furthermore, the stronger the electric field is at points closer to the charge Q.
The electric field at a point is defined as the force per unit charge.
Electric fields are similar to gravitational fields- both involve action-at-a-distance forces. In the case of
gravitational fields, the source of the field is a massive object and the action-at-a-distance forces are exerted
upon masses.
The magnitude of the gravitational force on the mass is directly proportional to the gravitational field. It is
the same with electric fields and forces. The magnitude of the electrostatic force Fe is proportional to the
magnitude of the electric field E.
Fe = q E
From this, we can define the electric field as the force per unit charge placed within that field:
So given two charges in space, Q sets up an electric field E around it. Then, we place a
small charge q within this field, which experiences a force Fe due to Q. We can write the
force using Coulomb's law:

Substituting this to the definition of the electric field, we get:

This will cancel the q, which makes sense because the electric field of Q does not
depend on any charge placed in its field. Therefore, the magnitude of the electric field is
given by the equation:

From the definition of the electric field (force per unit charge), we get its units: newton
per coulomb (N/ C). In this equation, remember to use the absolute value of charge so
the answer is positive all the time.
Take note of the following terms:

E= electric field strength (N/C)


Q= charge producing the fields (C)
r = distance between charges (m)
Fe= electric force (N)
K= coulomb constant, 9x109 Nm2/C2
GENERALIZATION:
[WEEK 3] LESSON
ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSS’S LAW

o Last week you have learned about electric charge, you did know that same charges repel and opposite charges
attract,
o some materials were also classified as being insulator and conductor.
o More so, you also calculated the net electric force on a point charge exerted by a system of point charges and
had a surface definition on electric field.
o This week, we will discuss how is electric field being measured, how distance affect the electric potential and
its relationship with work, and some calculations that might be used in real life scenarios.
o We all know that electric fields are important in many areas of physics and are exploited practically in
electrical technology.
o IN ATOMIC PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY,
o the electric field is used to model the attractive force holding the atomic nucleus and electrons together in
atoms.
o In addition, electric fields are being measured through electric flux in a given surface.
o Meaning to say, electric flux is the number of electric field lines passing through a certain area.
o Some examples of electric flux calculations are given pictorially in Figure
[WEEK 4] LESSONS

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
o An object's electric potential energy is possessed by virtue of two elements:
o the charge possessed by the object itself
o the relative position of the object with respect to other electrically charged objects.

THE MAGNITUDE OF THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL


o determined by the amount of work done in moving the object from one point to another
in the presence of an electric field.
WHEN AN OBJECT MOVES AGAINST AN ELECTRIC FIELD,
o it gains energy, which is referred to as electric potential energy.

THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FOR ANY CHARGE IS CALCULATED BY:


o dividing the potential energy by the quantity of charge.

WHEN AN ELECTROSTATIC FORCE ACTS BETWEEN TWO OR MORE CHARGED


PARTICLES IN A PARTICLE SYSTEM
o we can assign the system an electric potential energy (U).
o The electrostatic force does work (W) on the particles
o when the system's configuration changes from
o an initial state (I) to a different final state (f).
o Then we know that the resulting change U in the system's potential energy

o The work done by the electrostatic force, like that of other conservative forces, is path
independent.
o Assume a charged particle in the system moves from point i to point f while being acted on
by an electrostatic force between it and the rest of the system.
o The work W done by the force on the particle is the same for all paths between points i
and f as long as the rest of the system remains constant.
[WEEK 5] LESSONS
CAPACITANCE

CAPACITORS
o are one of the most essential electric devices in modern times
o these are utilized in equipment used for communication, photography, and high-energy accelerators.
o It is a device made up of conductors that are separated by an insulator or a vacuum.
o A potential difference exists between the conductors (equal magnitude with opposite signs).

IN ADDITION TO THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE,


o an electric field forms between the conductors.
o Capacitors store energy in the same way that mechanical
o energy is stored in any physical body.
o WHEN A BATTERY DRAINS,
o the stored energy is supplied to a circuit. POLARIZATION is produced by the presence of an insulator,
which aids in charge dispersion inside the material. It also raises a device's capacitance.
o Capacitors are devices formed from two conductors separated by an insulator.
o Examples of insulators are plastic, liquid gel, paper, mica, ceramic, or even air.
o These materials are called dielectrics.

Both conductors have an equal magnitude of charges with opposite signs.


o Thus, the net charge of the device is zero.
o Their ability to store energy makes it useful when it produces potential differences across the plates.
o They act like rechargeable batteries.
o The insulating component of capacitors blocks the flow of direct current.
o The presence of the electric field found between the plates is directly proportional to the charge Q present
in the conductors.
o Therefore, the potential difference, V, is also directly proportional to charge Q.
o The more charges present, the intensity of the electric field between plates increases, and potential
difference increases. However, the ratio between charge and potential difference remains the same. This
ratio represents the constant for any capacitor known as the capacitance.

CAPACITANCE
o is a property of an electric conductor, or set of conductors,that is measured by the amount of separated
electric charge that can be stored on it per unit change in electrical potential.
If we are going to express, it mathematically the formula will be:
Capacitors are represented by the symbol:

o The most typical capacitor is made up of two parallel conducting plates.


o These are separated by a distance which is very small in contrast with their true dimensions.

PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITORS


o The region between them has a uniform field and charges are distributed uniformly.
o The formula for the capacitance of parallel plate capacitors:
[WEEK 6] LESSONS
ENERGY IN A CAPACITOR

ENERGY STORAGE IN A CAPACITOR

o When a capacitor stores charge, it also stores energy.


o In charging up a capacitor, for example a battery does work in transferring an increment of
charge from one plate of the capacitor to the other plate.
o The work done is equal to the product of the charge increment and the potential difference
between the plates.
o However, as each increment of charge is moved, the potential difference increase slightly,
and a larger amount of work is needed to move the next increment.

THE TOTAL WORK W DONE IN COMPLETELY CHARGING THE CAPACITOR


o is the product of the total charge q transferred and the average potential difference V; W=q
V.
o Since the average potential difference is one-half the final potential V, or V = 1/2V,
o thetotalworkdonebythebatteryisW=1⁄2qV.
o This work does not disappear but is stored as electric potential energy in the capacitor, so
that Energy = 1⁄2 q V.
o In our previous week, you have learned that q = CV or equivalently, that V=q/c.
o We can see, then, that our expression for the energy can be cast into two additional
equivalent forms by substituting for q or for V.
o Mathematically speaking, refer to this summary of results:
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
o If a dielectric is inserted between the plates of a capacitor, the capacitance can
increase markedly
o because the way in which the dielectric alters the electric field between the plates.
o This effect has implications for how our treatment of electric fields and potentials when
they occur in matter.
o To see how this works let's consider a simple toy model - putting some matter into a
constant electric field.
o The easiest way we know to generate a constant electric field is using two plates of
equal and opposite uniform electric charge as in our simple model of the capacitor.
o Let's consider this in 4 steps as in the figure below.

ELABORATION:
IN THE FIRST STEP (FIGURE A)
o we show the electric field (close to uniform) produced between uniformly charged sheet of
positive (left) and negative charges (right).

IN THE SECOND STEP,


o we introduce a block of insulating matter into the field.
o The positive charges on the left and the negative charges
o on the right polarize the matter
o pulling negative charges to the left and positive charges to the right.
o Since the matter is an insulator, the charges typically don't move very far.
o In the middle of the block, the shifting charges cancel out, but at the edges they don't.

IN FIGURE C
o we show the result of the charge distributions.
o In this figure we show the charge distributions on the outside plates as well, which are not
displayed in the other figures.)
o Since charges don't move very freely in the insulator, the amount of charge pulled to the
surface is less than the amount of charge creating the original field.
o These charge on the surface of the insulator act like two new parallel plates.
o They produce a uniform field between them.
o But because of the orientation of the charges, the field is
o in the opposite direction from the original field and not as
o strong.

THE RESULTING FIELD IS AS SHOWN IN FIGURE D.


o The resulting field is the sum of the two.
o Outside of the insulator the field is as before.
o Inside, it is reduced.
o (Remember that the field is 0 outside of two oppositely charged parallel plates.)
o The field has the same value outside the dielectric but becomes weaker inside the material.
o The ratio of these two fields depends on how easily charges move in the insulator, so it is a
property of the particular kind of matter the dielectric is made of.
o The dimensionless reduction factor is called the dielectric constant and is usually written with
the Greek letter kappa (k):
o
[WEEK 7] LESSON
CURRENT, RESISTANCE, AND ELECTRICMOTIVE FORCE
[WEEK 8] LESSONS
ENERGY AND POWER ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

POWER
• is associated by many people with electricity. Knowing that power is the rate of energy
use or energy conversion, what is the expression for electric power?
• Consider a lamp connected to a pair of batteries as shown in figure1, treat the connecting
wires as ideal conductors with no resistance and so virtually no potential difference across
them
o but full potential difference of the battery appears across the lamp.
o The magnitude of the current in the circuit is constant, the condition known as direct
current.

As the current passes through the lamp, charges are moving from a higher potential to a
lower one.

ENERGY
 is being lost from the battery and converted in the filament of the lamp into heat and
light.
 The amount of energy released by a charge q as it falls through the potential V
across the lamp is W = qV.
 Since the potential is constant, the rate at
 which energy is released, or the power P is

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