TEACHING & LEARNING OF CHEMISTRY

SUPPORT TEAM:
Norain Isa
Ainnie Rahayu Abdullah
Rohana Atan
2.1 Symbol, chemical formula and naming of
elements, molecules and compounds.
2.2 Definitions of atom, ion, molecule, compound,
atomic mass, formula mass.
2.3 Avogadro’s constant, mole concept, calculations of mass
- mole conversions.
2.4 Calculations on compositions, empirical and molecular
formulas.
2.5 Balancing chemical equations.
2.6 Stoichiometric calculations and Limiting reactants.
Lesson outcomes
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

1. Name and distinguish symbols and chemical formula:

element, molecules and compounds.
2. Define and distinguish atom, ion, molecule, formula
unit and compound,
3. Define and determine atomic mass, molecular mass,
formula mass and molar mass .
4. Define mole in terms of Avogadro’s number and relate with
mole concept and molar mass.
5. Solve problems involving conversion: mass in grams,
number of molecules, formula units, or ions in a given molar
amount of a chemical compound.
6. Determine and calculate the percent composition of
elements in compounds, empirical and molecular
formula.
Lesson outcomes (contd.)

7. Write and balance chemical equations.

8. Write a mole ratio relating to substances in a chemical
formula, or chemical equation.
9. Relate mole ratio to stoichiometric calculations.
10. Calculate the amount in moles or mass of a reactant
or product from the given amount of a reactant or product.
11. Determine the limiting reactant and calculate the
amount in moles or mass of excess reactant left and
product produced.
12. Distinguish and calculate using relationship between
percentage, theoretical and actual yield.
Symbol, chemical formula and naming of
elements, molecules and compounds
Element
• substance that cannot be decomposed into
simpler materials by any chemical reaction.

• chemical symbol consists of 1 or 2 alphabets to

represent the name of the element. The first
alphabet is capitalized. The elemental symbols
are typically shown in the periodic table.
• Example :
Sodium : Na ; Chlorine : Cl ; Kalium/Potassium : K
Compound
 substance that is formed by a chemical combination
of two or more elements in fixed or constant
proportions by mass.
 consist of at least two types of elements
Example : H2O , NH3 , BaCl2

Molecules
 the smallest, discrete units that retain the
composition and chemical characteristics of an
element or compound.
• same element / different element combined
chemically.
• Example : hydrogen gas (H2), ozone (O3),
hydrochloric acid (HCl), methane (CH4).
Atom
• smallest particle of an element that gives the
characteristic properties of that element.

• Example :
Iron (Fe), Aluminium (Al), Sulphur (S)

Atoms are made up of 3 fundamental particles:

electrons (-1), protons (+1) and neutrons
(neutral).
In an electrically neutral atom, the no of
protons equals the no of electrons.
Ions
• an electrically charged particle produced by
either removing electron(s) from a neutral atom to
produce a positive ion, or adding electron(s) to a
neutral atom to produce a negative ion.

Example:
Electrons < protons : cation (+ve charged ion)
Mg – 2e Mg 2+

Electrons > protons : anion (-ve charged ion)

S + 2e S2-
 Cation

* metallic ion that carries a net positive charge.

* net charge on the ion follows the group number of
the metal that forms the ion.
* ion is named after the atom.

Metal Group Charge Formula Name

Potassium IA +1 K+ potassium ion

Magnesium IIA +2 Mg2+ magnesium ion
Titanium (IV) transition +4 Ti4+ titanium(IV)
ion
elements
 Anion
* a nonmetallic ion which carries a net negative
charge.
* net charge on an anion is calculated by
substracting 8 from the group number of the atom.
charge = (group number – 8)
* anion is named by taking the first part of the
element’s name and adding –ide.

For e.g. chlorine chloride

oxygen oxide
Nonmetal Group Charge Formula Name

Nitrogen VA(15) (5-8)= -3 N3- nitride

Sulphur VIA(16) (6-8)= -2 S2- sulphide
-
Fluorine VIIA(17) (7-8)= -1 F fluoride
Polyatomic ion Monotomic (simple) ion
* contains 2 or more atoms. * contains one atom only

Name of ion Formula Charge Formula Charge

Ammonium NH4+ +1 Na+ +1

- -
Permanganate MnO4 -1 Cl -1
Hydronium H3O+ +1 Rb+ +1

Dichromate Cr2O72- -2 S2- -2

-
Nitrate NO3 -1
Sulphate SO42- -2
Exercise:
For each of the following species, identify which is
an atom, an ion or a molecule?

Rb Br- Mn2+ HCl H2 P4 Ni

 Naming Compounds:
IONIC COMPOUNDS
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds:
Forming chemical formulas from ions
Example
Write the chemical formulae of the substances below:
a) Sodium carbonate: sodium ion carbonate ion
Na+ CO32-

Charges on ion +1 -2
Number of ions 2 1
Formula Na2CO3

b) Aluminium oxide
aluminium ion oxide ion
Al3+ O2-
Charges on ion +3 -2
Number of ions 2 3
Formula Al2O3
 Ionic compounds:
Forming chemical formulas from valency
 By knowing the valency of elements we can determine the
formula of compounds.

 E.g. what compound would be formed from C + S?

Step 1 - write valences: C4+S2-
Step 2 - cross down valences: C2S4
Step 3 - simplify formula: CS2

a) Al,Br b) K,S c) Ca,O d) Mg,N e) Na, P

 Ionic compounds (metal with 1 valency)

Rules for Naming

 Names end with ‘-ide’. Example: sodium chloride
 Metal (+ve ion) comes first followed by the nonmetal.
 Use the group valence for nonmetals

Example:
Give formulas & names: Ca & I, O & Mg, Na & S

 Ca2+ I1- = CaI2 = calcium iodide

 Mg2+ O2- = MgO = magnesium oxide
 Na1+ S2- = Na2S = sodium sulfide
SOME EXAMPLES OF LATIN/ENGLISH
ROOT NAMING OF METALS

Element English Latin Name Higher Lower

(valence) name valence valence
Metals that have and use latin names
Cu (1,2) Copper Cuprum Cupric Cuprous
Fe (2,3) Iron Ferrum Ferric Ferrous
Pb (2,4) Lead Plumbum Plumbic Plumbous
Sn (2,4) Tin Stannum Stannic Stannous
Metals that do not have latin names
Co (2,3) Cobalt - Cobaltic Cobaltous
Cr (2,3) Chromium - Chromic Chromous
Mn (2,3) Manganese - Manganic Manganous
Metals that have latin names but use english root
Hg (1,2) Mercury Hydrargyrum Mercuric Mercurous
 Multiple valency: IUPAC Naming
 Name ends with ‘-ide’, positive/metal comes first.
 The valency of the metal is indicated in brackets
using roman numerals.
 E.g. Cu1+ is copper(I), Cu2+ is copper(II)
 Try: Cu2+ + Cl, Zn2+ + Cl, Co2+ + Cl, Hg + S (do both)
 Cu2+ + Cl = CuCl2 = copper(II) chloride
 Zn2+ + Cl = ZnCl2 = zinc chloride
 Co2+ + Cl = CoCl2 = cobalt(II) chloride
 Hg+ + S = Hg2S = mercury(I) sulfide
 Hg2+ + S = Hg2S2 = HgS = mercury(II) sulfide
Compounds containing polyatomic ions
 “Polyatomic ions” are groups of atoms that interact as a
single unit.
 E.g. OH1-, (SO4)2- ; Ba3(PO4)2 = barium phosphate
• Naming compounds with polyatomic ions is similar to
naming other ionic compounds.

• Compounds with polyatomic ions have names ending

in ‘-ate’ or ‘-ite’ not ‘-ide’.

• Note that most are negative, except ammonium.

Example: Name the compounds:

Ca(OH)2, CuSO4, NH4NO3, Co2(CO3)3
Compounds containing polyatomic ions

Ca(OH)2
CuSO4
NH4NO3
Co2(CO3)3
 Naming covalent compounds
1 mono  -ide ending, each element has “prefix”
2 di • prefix refers to # of atoms - not valency
3 tri N2O4 = dinitrogen tetroxide
4 tetra • Exception: drop mono for first element
CO2 = carbon dioxide
5 penta
• The first vowel is often dropped to
6 hexa avoid the combination of “ao” or “oo”.
7 hepta CO = carbon monoxide (monooxide)
8 octa P4O10= tetraphosphorus decoxide
SO2= sulfur dioxide (doxide)
9 nona
• Example: Name the compounds:
10 deca CCl4, P2O3, IF7
Naming covalent compounds (contd):
further examples

Name of molecule Formula Common name

(IUPAC)
Nitrogen trioxide NH3 Ammonia
Hydrogen nitrate HNO3 Nitric acid
Hydrogen oxide H 2O Water
Hydrogen sulphate H2SO4 Sulphuric acid
Hydrogen chloride HCl Hydrochloric acid

Sulfur trioxide SO3 -

Write and name the following covalent
compounds (IUPAC)

CCl4

P2O3

IF7
 Name these compounds:
 Al2O3
 CsF
 K2O
 Fe2O3
 CuBr
 SnO2
 PbSO4
 Mg3(PO4)2
 KClO
 Na2CrO4
 N2O
 SeBr4
 B2O3
Atomic mass, molecular mass, molar
mass and formula mass

Relative atomic mass (RAM) of an element is

its average mass relative to the mass of an
atom of 12C isotope (mass of 12.000 a.m.u)

1 a.m.u = 1.67 x 10-24 g

RAM = mass of one atom of the element

1/12 mass of one atom carbon-12
Relative Molecular Mass (RMM)
- The sum of the atomic mass of the atoms in the
molecules that form these compounds

RMM =
Mass of 1 molecule/ formula unit of a compound
1/12 mass of one atom of carbon -12
Molar Mass (MM)
- The mass of 1 mole of substance in grams.
- The MM is always numerically equal to its formula
weight.
- MM CO2 = 44 g / mol

Formula Mass (FM)/ F. Weight

• The sum of the atomic masses of the atoms or ions
in the chemical formula of the compound.
• FM NaCl = 58.5 amu
 Example
Calculate the relative molecular mass or formula
weight of the substance given below :

(a) Na2B4O7.10H2O

= 2(RAM Na) +4(RAM B) +7(RAM O) +10[2(RAM H) +RAM O]

= (2 X 23) + (4 X 11) + (7 X 16) + 10[2+16]

= 46 + 44 + 112 + 180 = 382 a.m.u

Exercise:
Calculate the molar masses of these compounds:

a) Caffeine (C8H10N4O2) (Ans: 194.20 g/mol)

b) C12H22O11 (Ans: 342.296 g/mol)
Exercise
Find the relative atomic mass or relative
molecular mass of the following
substances:
a) S
b) Na
c) NaCl
d) Ba(OH)2
e) SO3
f) P2O5
g) FeSO4.5H2O
 Mole Concept
Mole(mol)
• the amount of a substance that contains as
many elementary units (atoms, molecules and
formula units) as there are atoms in exactly 12
gram of the 12C isotope.

Avogadro’s Number / Avogadro Constant, NA

• the actual number of elementary units in a mole
of any substance = 6.022 x 1023 units
• A mol of any substance contains Avogadro’s
number of elementary particles.
Example
Calculate the number of Cu atoms in ½ mol of Cu.

1 mol of Cu atom = 6.02 x 1023 Cu atoms

½ mol of Cu atom = ½ x 6.02 x 1023
= 3.01 x 1023 Cu atoms
Calculate the number of (a) H2O molecules
(b) H atoms (c) all the atoms in ¼ mol of water.

(a) 1 mol of H2O = 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules

1/4 mol of H2O = 1/4 x 6.02 x 1023
= 1.51 x 1023 H2O molecules

(b) 1 molecule of H2O has 2H atoms

1.51 x 1023 molecules of H2O x 2
= 3.01 x 1023 H atoms

(c) 1 molecule of H2O has 2H and 1 O atoms (3 atoms)

1.51 x 1023 molecules of H2O x 3
= 4.53 x 1023 atoms
Exercise
State the number of particles for

i) 1 mol of hydrogen gas

ii) 1 mol of CO2
iii) 0.325 mol of CO3-
iv) Oxygen atoms in 0.5 mol of ClO4-
 Molar Mass
• Mass of 1 mole of a substance.
• Numerically equal to the atomic mass, molecular mass or
formula mass.
• Is expressed in the units g/mol.

FORMULAS:
• Mol substance = Mass (gram) of substance
Molar mass of substance (g mol-1)

• Number of elementary units = mol x Avogadro’s

number, NA
(atoms/molecules/formula units)
Converting Grams and Number of particles
into Moles

Mol = Grams Mol = No. of particles

Molar Mass Avogadro’s No.

Grams Mol No. of particles

Example 1:
Calculate the number of C12H22O11 molecules in
453.6 grams of cane sugar.

Answer: 7.98 x 1023 molecules.

Example 2
Calculate the number of moles present in each of
the samples given below:
a) 10.5 g Ca(OH)2
b) 0.2 x 1023 Fe atom
c) 1.5 x 1024 CH4 molecules
 Exercise
1.Calculate the number of mol of :

i) 13.5 g NH3
ii) 3.01 x 1023 molecules of S8
iii) 5.72 g oxygen gas

2. There are 9.03 x 1023 Na atoms in Na2O.

Calculate the number of moles of Na2O.
Percent Composition of compounds

Percent composition/mass percent of a compound

is the percent by mass of each element the
compound contains.

% Composition =
mass of the element in 1 mol of compound x 100
molar mass of compound

The sum of all the percentages of each element in

a compound is equal to 100%.
Example:
Calculate the mass percent of each element in
hydrated magnesium sulphate, MgSO4.7H2O.

Molar mass of MgSO4.7H2O

=24 + 32 + (4 x 16) + 7(2x1 + 16)= 246 g/mol.

Mass % of Mg = 24/246 x 100 = 9.76%

Mass % of S = 32/246 X 100 = 13.0%
Mass % of O = 64/246 X 100 = 26.02%
Mass % of H2O = 126/246 X 100 = 51.22%
EXERCISE

Calculate the percent composition by

mass of each element in:

a) NaHCO3
b) P4O10
Chemical Formulas: Empirical & Molecular
Formulas
Chemical Formula
chemical composition that contains symbols of
elements in certain ratios.
Eg.
Empirical formula – formula which shows the
simplest possible whole number ratios of all
the atoms in a compound.

Molecular formula – formula which shows the

exact number of atoms of each elements in a
moleculeof a compound.
General flowchart for solving empirical formulas and
molecular formulas from known mass percentages

MASS PERCENT
OF ELEMENT
Assume 100g sample

CALCULATE THE
MASS OF EACH

Use molar mass

CALCULATE THE
MOLES OF EACH
Calculate molar ratio
for each

ASSIGN EMPIRICAL ASSIGN MOLECULAR

FORMULA 45
X coefficient (n) FORMULA
Example

Vitamin C contains 40.92% C, 4.58%H,

and 54.50% O by mass. The
experimentally determined molecular
mass is 176 amu.

What is the empirical and molecular

formula for vitamin C.
Element C H O

Mass (g) 40.92 4.58 54.5

Mol 40.92 / 12 4.58/1 54.5/16

= 3.41 =4.58 =3.41
Simplest 3.41/3.41 4.58/3.41 3.41/3.41
Ratio =1 =1.34 =1

Round 1(3)=3 1.34(3)= 1(3)=3

number 4

EMPIRICAL FORMULA : C3H4O3

Molecular mass = 176 a.m.u

Empirical formula = C3H4O3

n(molar mass of empirical formula) = 176 a.m.u

 n [( 3 x 12) + (4 x 1) +( 3 x 16)] = 176 a.m.u

 n (88 a.m.u) = 176 a.m.u
 n=2

Multiply the empirical formula by ‘2’ (integer n)

Molecular formula = C6H8O6
Exercise
The mass percent composition of an
organic compound is given as 62.58% C,
9.63% H and the remainder O. Calculate:

a) the empirical formula of this compound.

b) given that the relative molecular mass

of the compound is 230, what is its
molecular formula?
Answer : C6H11O2 ; C12H22O4
 Chemical Equation
• description of a chemical reaction that uses symbols
and formulas to represent the elements and
compounds involved in the reaction.

• Numerical coefficients preceding each symbol or

formula and indicating molar proportions may be
needed to balance a chemical equation.

Chemical reaction
• chemical changes whereby materials change from a
beginning mass to resulting substances. New
material(s) are made, along with the disappearance
of the mass that changed to make the new.
E.g. 4Fe + 3O2  2Fe2O3
Balancing chemical equations
1. Identify all reactants and products and write their
correct formula on the left side and right side of
equation.
2. Begin balancing the equation by trying suitable
coefficients that will give the same number of each
element on both sides of the equation.
3. Look for the elements that appear only once on each side
of the equation and with equal number of atoms on each
side – the formula containing these elements must have
the same coefficient.
4. Look for elements that appear only once on each side of
the equation but in unequal no of atoms. Balance these
elements. Next, balance elements that appear in two or
more formula on the same side of the equation. If a
reactant or product exists as a free elements, try
balancing that element last.
5. Check your balanced equation to be sure that you have
the same total number of each type of atom on both
sides of the equation.
Example
Balance the equations below:
a) Na + H2O  NaOH + H2

1) Balance each atom

Na + H2O  NaOH + 1/2H2

2) Multiply by 2 to obtain whole number

coefficients
b) NH4OH + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4 + H2O

1) balance the polyatomic ion first.

The polyatomic ions remain intact before and after
the reaction – can be treated as single ions
2NH4OH + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4 + H2O

2) balance the H and O atoms.

There are 4 H and 2 O on the left side , but only 2 H
and 1 O on the right side. Add 2 to H2O –equation is
balanced.

2NH4OH + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4 + 2H2O

Exercise
Balance the equations below:

1. K2O + H2O  KOH

2. I2 + Na2S2O3  NaI + Na2S4O6
3. Al + CuO  Al2O3 + Cu
4. C3H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O.
Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations: Stoichiometric calculations

 Coefficients in a balanced chemical equation

are relative no. of molecules involved in
reaction (relative no. of moles).

 Stoichiometric equivalent quantities are

used to determine expected amounts of
products given amount of reactants (or the
other way round).
MOLES IN SOLUTION : CONCENTRATION
AND MOLARITY

SOLUTION : A homogeneous mixture of 2 or

more substances.

SOLUTE : Substance dissolved in a solvent.

Present in lower quantity. Most commonly in
solid form.

SOLVENT : Substance in which solute

dissolves. Present in greater quantity and
commonly in liquid form.
Concentration
ratio of the amount of solute to the amount of
either solvent or solution
Concentration = amount of solute (g)
amount of solvent or solution (L)

-3
Concentration (g dm ) =
molarity (mol dm-3) x molar mass (g mol-1)

CONCENTRATION = MOLARITY x MOLAR MASS

Molarity or molar concentration

- The amount of solute in moles dissolved in 1

litre or 1 dm3 of solution.
- Units : M or mol dm-3 or molL-1

MOLARITY, M = MOLES OF SOLUTE, mole

VOLUME OF SOLUTION, dm3
Example
A solution is prepared from 12g of NaOH
dissolved in enough water to give 500cm3 of
solution, calculate the molarity of the solution.

Answer: 0.6 M.
 Example
How many grams of Mg(NO3)2 are required to prepare 50 cm3
of 0.55 M Mg(NO3)2 solution?

Answer: 4.07 g
Example

What mass of Sr(NO3)2 would a chemist

need to prepare 250 mL of a 0.1 M
Sr(NO3)2 solution?
DILUTION OF SOLUTION

concentrated solution (stock) are usually stored

and diluted to the desired concentrations when
required.
Dilution :
 a procedure for preparing a less
concentrated solution from a more concentrated
one by adding a solvent.

 does not change the amount of solute in a

solution but does change the molar
concentration
 M 1 V 1 = M 2V 2

where:
M1 = Molarity (M) of the concentrated solution
M2 = Molarity (M) of the diluted solution
V1 = Volume (cm3 or dm3) of concentrated solution
V2 = Volume (cm3 or dm3) of diluted solution
Example

Suppose that 25mL of the 1.83M NaCl solution is diluted

to 100mL. What is the final molar concentration of NaCl?
Solution Stoichiometry
: Reaction involving only one solution

Apply the mole-mole relationship in a

balanced chemical equation to solve
problems involving only one solution.
Example
In an experiment represented by the equation below, x gram of
Cu reacted completely with 40 cm3 of 0.5M HNO3.
3Cu (s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)

(a) Calculate the value of x.

X = 0.48g
(b) How many moles of NO will be formed in
the above reaction?

Mol NO produced = 0.005 mol

Titration (Reaction involving two solutions)

Titration
procedure in which two reactants in a solution are made to
react in their stoichiometric proportions as indicated in a
balanced chemical equation.
Example:
VA cm3 of solution A of unknown concentration is transferred to a flask. A
solution B of known concentration, MB, is added carefully from a burette until
the reaction of A with B is just complete. This is called the equivalence point of
the titration.

The volume, VB , of solution B needed to complete the reaction is recorded.

The equation for the reaction :
aA + bB  cC +dD

The molarity of solution A, MA, is calculated from the relationship below :

MAVA = a
MBVB b
Limiting Reactant / Reagent
Limiting reactant
• reagent which is used up first in a chemical reaction.
• the reaction stops as soon as it is completely consumed.
• it thus limits the quantities of the products formed.

The maximum amount of products formed (theoretical yield)

in the reaction depends on the amount of limiting reactant
consumed in the reaction.

Excess reagent
• other reactants, present in quantities greater than that
needed to react with the quantity of the limiting reagent
present in the reaction.
 Percent Yield
Theoretical Yield
maximum amount of product that can be formed from calculated
stoichiometric relations in a chemical reaction.

Actual Yield
actual amount of product that can be obtained from a chemical
reaction.

Actual yield produced is usually lesser than the expected

theoretical yield due to processes such as isolation, purification.

Percent Yield = Actual Yield x 100 %

Theoretical Yield
Example 1

Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid according to

the equation:
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq)  ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)

If 0.05 mole of zinc was added to 0.075 mole of

hydrochloric acid,
a) Determine the limiting reagent,
b) Calculate the amount (in moles) of zinc
chloride formed.
Example 2
Aluminium reacts with sulphuric acid to produce
hydrogen gas and aluminium sulphate.

2Al + 3H2SO4  Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2

If a reaction vessel contains 2.4 g of Al and 200cm3

of 0.5 M H2SO4 ,
a) Which compound is the limiting reagent?
b) How many moles of H2 can be produced?
c) How much of the excess reagent is left at the end
of the reaction?
Notes:

A + B  product

To determine limiting reactant;

Mol A Mol
X Mol ratio of product / A = product The smallest
mol of product,
means, A or B
is the limiting
reactant.
Mol
Mol B X Mol ratio of product / B = product
Exercise
1) 15.00g aluminum sulfide and 10.00g water react
until the limiting reagent is used up. The balanced
equation for the reaction:

Al2S3 + 6H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2S

a) Which is the limiting reagent?

b) What is the maximum mass of H2S which can be
formed from these reagents?
c) How much excess reagent remains after the
reaction is complete?
Exercise
2) Fermentation of glucose, C6H12O6 yields ethanol,
C2H5OH and CO2 gas.

a) Write a balanced equation for the fermentation

process.
b) In a fermentation process, 191.7g of ethanol is
formed. Calculate the mass of glucose reacted if
the percent yield is 75.0%.

b) 500g
SUMMARY

Q & A SESSION

Thank you