LITE Matters

AN INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN MST 101D* [LIVING IN

THE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ERA]

DEO STEPHANIE R. ANGELES

Engr. MICHAEL R. BALAGTAS
CHRISTIAN A. CARACTA
AGAPE A. EUSEBIO
ARCEL F. GALVEZ
AUBREY ROSE T. GAN
ROSALIE S. VILLAFUERTE
AUTHORS

SECOND EDITION
2021
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LESSON 1.4
COMPUTER NETWORKS AND
THE INTERNET

COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer networks are the basis of communication in IT. They are used in a wide
variety of ways and can include many different types of networks. A computer network is a
set of computers that are connected so that they can share information. The earliest
examples of computer networks are from the 1960s, but they have come a long way in the
half-century since then. Besides physically connecting computer and communication
devices, a network system serves the essential function of establishing a cohesive
architecture that allows various equipment types to transfer information in a near-seamless
fashion. Two popular architectures are ISO Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) and IBM's
Systems Network Architecture (SNA). Some of the things that networks are used for include:

 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, and other methods

 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, and photocopiers
 Sharing files
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems
 Allowing network users to access and maintain information easily.

CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS

Computer networks can be classified based on different factors. These factors

include geographical span, interconnectivity, administration, and architecture.

Geographical Span

Geographically, a network can be seen in one of the following categories:

 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices, Ranging not
more than few meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect
all floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering the whole world.

Interconnectivity

Components of a network can be connected differently in some fashion. By

connectedness, we mean either logically, physically, or both ways.

 Every single device can be connected to every other device on the network, making
the network mesh.
 All devices can be connected to a single medium but are geographically
disconnected, created a bus-like structure.
 Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating a linear structure.

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Administration

From an administrator's perspective, a network can be a private network that belongs

to a single autonomous system. It cannot be accessed outside its physical or logical domain.
A network can be public, which is accessed by all.

Network Architecture

Computer networks can be discriminated against into various types such as Client-
Server, peer-to-peer, or hybrid, depending upon their architecture.

 There can be one or more systems acting as servers. Another being client requests
the server to serve requests. The server takes and processes the request on behalf
of Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in a back-to-back fashion. They
both reside at the same level and are called peers.
 There can be a hybrid network that involves network architecture of both the above
types.

How does a computer network work?

Specialized devices such as switches, routers, and access points form the foundation of
computer networks.

 Switches connect and help to internally secure computers, printers, servers, and
other devices to networks in homes or organizations. Access points are switches that
connect devices to networks without the use of cables.
 Routers connect networks to other networks and act as dispatchers. They analyze
data to be sent across a network, choose the best routes for it, and send it on its
way. Routers connect your home and business to the world and help protect
information from outside security threats.

While switches and routers differ in several ways, one key difference is how they identify
end devices. A Layer 2 switch uniquely identifies a device by its "burned-in" MAC address. A
Layer 3 router uniquely identifies a device's network connection with a network-assigned IP
address. Today, most switches include some level of routing functionality. MAC and IP
address uniquely define devices and network connections, respectively, in a network.

 A MAC address pertains to a device's manufacturer's number assigned to a network

interface card (NIC).
 An IP address refers to a number assigned to a network connection.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

There are many different types of networks, which can be used for various purposes
and by different people and organizations. We can categorize them according to their size as
well as their purpose. The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area,
and number of computers, which are a part of their networks. It includes devices housed in a
single room to millions of devices spread across the world.

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Figure 1 - Computer Networks and Its Coverage

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network, abbreviated as PAN, is a network concerned with exchanging

information in a person's vicinity. Typically, these systems are wireless and involve data
transmission between devices such as smartphones, personal computers, tablet computers,
etc. The difference between PANs and other network types is that they transmit information
between nearby devices instead of sending that same data through a LAN or WAN before
reaching something that's already within reach. PANs are for personal use, so the benefits
might be more easily understood than wide-area networks, for example, that describe the
Internet. With a personal area network, your devices interconnect for more accessible
communication.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 PAN networks are relatively secure and  It may establish a bad connection to
safe other networks at the same radio
 It offers only short-range solution up to bands.
ten meters  Distance limits.
 Strictly restricted to a small area

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2. Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a
widely helpful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other
applications. The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer to
someone's home or office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium.
It is a network that consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several
buildings. A LAN comprises cables, access points, switches, routers, and other components
that enable devices to connect to internal servers, web servers, and other LANs via wide
area networks.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 Computer resources like hard-disks,  LAN will save costs because of shared
DVD-ROM, and printers can share local computer resources, but the initial cost
area networks. This significantly of installing Local Area Networks is
reduces the cost of hardware relatively high.
purchases.  The LAN admin can check every LAN
 You can use the same software over user's data files, so it does not offer
the network instead of purchasing the good privacy.
licensed software for each client in the  Unauthorized users can access an
network. organization's critical data if LAN admin
 Data of all network users can be stored cannot secure a centralized data
on a single hard disk of the server repository.
computer.  Local Area Network requires a constant
 You can easily transfer data and LAN administration as there are issues
messages over networked computers. related to software setup and hardware
 It will be easy to manage data in only failures.
one place, which makes data more
secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to
share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users.

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3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide-area network is another vital computer network that is spread across a large
geographical area. WAN system could connect a LAN that connects with other LAN's using
telephone lines and radio waves. It is mainly limited to an enterprise or an organization.

WANs connect computers and smaller networks to more extensive networks over
greater geographic areas, including different continents. They may link the computers
utilizing cables, optical fibers, or satellites. Still, their users commonly access the networks
via a modem (a device that allows computers to communicate over telephone lines). The
largest WAN is the Internet, a collection of networks and gateways linking billions of
computer users on every continent.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 WAN helps you to cover a larger  The initial setup cost of investment is
geographical area. Therefore, very high.
business offices situated at longer  It is difficult to maintain the WAN
distances can easily communicate. network. You need skilled technicians
 It contains devices like mobile and network administrators.
phones, laptops, tablet PCs,  There are more errors and issues
computers, gaming consoles, etc. because of the wide coverage and
 WLAN connections work using radio the use of different technologies.
transmitters and receivers built into  It requires more time to resolve
client devices. issues because of the involvement of
multiple wired and wireless
technologies.
 It offers lower security compared to
other types of networks.

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4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network is consisting of a computer network across an entire city,

college campus, or a small region. This network type is larger than a LAN, mainly limited to a
single building or site. MANs are formed by connecting multiple LANs. Thus, MANs are more
massive than LANs but smaller than wide-area networks (WAN). Depending upon the type
of configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens
of miles. MANs often act as a high-speed network that enables the sharing of regional
resources and provides a shared connection to other systems. MANs can also mean the
interconnection of several LANs by bridging them with backbone lines. MANs are incredibly
efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fiber optic cables.
The network is established using routers and switches. A switch is a port that is active in
handling the filtration of data usually coming in frames. Any switch acts as a dual-port; at one
end, it is taking filtration of data and, at the other end, managing connections.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 It offers fast communication using  You need more cable to establish a

high-speed carriers, like fiber optic MAN connection from one place to
cables. another.
 It provides excellent support for an  In MAN, it is tough to make the
extensive size network and greater system secure from hackers
access to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN provides
support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
 A MAN network primarily includes
some areas of a city or an entire city.

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Other Types of Networks

1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

A wireless local area network (abbreviated as WLAN, sometimes called a local area
wireless network or LAWN) is a wireless distribution method for two or more devices that use
high-frequency radio waves and often include an access point to the Internet. A WLAN
allows users to move around the coverage area, usually a home or small office, while
maintaining a network connection. A WLAN can be built using several wireless network
protocols, most commonly Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. Network security remains an essential issue
for WLANs. Wireless clients usually have their identity verified (a process called
authentication) when joining a wireless LAN. Technologies such as WPA raise the security
level on wireless networks to rival that of traditional wired networks.

2. Storage Area Network (SAN)

A Storage Area Network is a type of network that allows consolidated, block-level data
storage. It is mainly used to make storage devices, like disk arrays, optical jukeboxes, and
tape libraries.

3. System Area Network

System Area Network is used for a local network. It offers high-speed connection in
server-to-server and processor-to-processor applications. The computers connected on a
SAN network operate as a single system at relatively high speed.

4. Home Area Network

A Home Area Network is always built using two or more interconnected computers to
form a local area network (LAN) within the home. For example, in the United States, about
15 million homes have more than one computer. This type of network helps computer
owners to interconnect with multiple computers. This network allows sharing files, programs,
printers, and other peripherals.

5. Passive Optical LAN (POLAN)

POLAN is a networking technology that helps you to integrate into structured cabling. It
allows you to resolve the issues of supporting Ethernet protocols and network apps. POLAN
enables you to use an optical splitter to separate an optical signal from a single-mode optical
fiber. It converts this single signal into multiple signals.

6. Enterprise private network (EPN)

An enterprise private network is a computer network that helps enterprise companies

with several disparate offices connect those offices to each in a secure way over a network.
It is mainly set up to share computer resources. Network diagrams visualize the computer
network's topology, equipment nodes, and different types of logical and physical
connections. They are used by IT professionals to visually document the topology and
design of computer and telecommunication networks.

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7. Campus Area Network

A campus area network (or simply CAN, also known as corporate area network) is a
computer network that links the buildings and consists of two or more local area networks
(LANs) within the limited geographical area. It can be the college campus, enterprise
campus, office buildings, military base, industrial complex. CAN is one of the MAN
(Metropolitan Area Network) types on the area smaller than MAN. They can be spread
across several buildings that are relatively close to each other so users can share resources.
Thus, they are used in universities.

8. Virtual Area Network

A VPN is a private network that uses a public network to connect remote sites or users.
The VPN network uses "virtual" connections routed through the Internet from the enterprise's
private network or a third-party VPN service to the remote site. It is a free or paid service that
keeps your web browsing secure and private over public Wi-Fi hotspots.

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THE INTERNET

Every day, masses of people worldwide use the Internet to search and retrieve
information on all sorts of matter in a wide selection of areas. The information can appear in
several digital formats, such as texts, images, or videos. Individuals, companies,
governments, and other organizations make resources available. People communicate with
each other by sharing information and constructing commercial and business
communications using electronic mail. All this activity is possible because of the tens of
thousands of networks connected to the Internet and exchange information in the same
fundamental way. Never before has so much information from such a wide variety of sources
and in so many formats been available to the public.

The Internet is defined as a global wide area network (WAN) that connects billions of
computers and other electronic devices via servers and routers. With the Internet, everyone
can access information, communicate with anyone, and do other related stuff. At least 190
countries worldwide are linked into an exchange of data, news, opinions, and entertainment.
This information that travels over the Internet does so via a variety of languages called
protocols.

It is often used interchangeably with the term world wide Web (or simply WWW);
however, they're not the same. To differentiate the two terms: Internet denotes the global
communication system that involves the hardware and infrastructure. On the other hand, the
world wide Web (or simply the Web) pertains to one of the services that are communicated
over the Internet.

Preparing for a
The Modern
Precursors Global Network
Internet (1970's)
(1960's)

The Internet
Internet and Web The Web Takes
Gives Birth to the
for All (2000's) Off (1990's)
Web (1980's)

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Precursors

1844 The transmission of first telegraph message.

In 1844, Samuel Finley Breese Morse, an American painter, and inventor, transmits
the first electric telegraph message, eventually making it possible for people to send
messages around the world in minutes. The first telegraph message was done by
transmitting electric signals over a wire between stations, from Washington DC to Baltimore,
Maryland. Also, Morse developed the code (called Morse Code) that assigns a letter on the
English alphabet by a set of dots and dashes that allowed the simple transmission of
complex messages across telegraph lines.

FUN FACT

Wondered who developed the Morse Code? Obviously, it came from

Samuel Morse (as seen in the name). Morse Code assigns a letter on
the English alphabet by a set of dots and dashes that allowed the simple
transmission of complex messages across telegraph lines. With this, it
helped him to transmit the first telegraph message.

1876 The invention of the telephone and the refinement of the phonograph (1886)

Fast forward to 1876, Alexander Graham Bell, a Scottish-born American inventor,

scientist, and a teacher of the deaf developed the telephone and the refinement of the
phonograph (1886). Before this, he started working on a harmonic telegraph in 1871 – an
improvement on the first telegram that allowed simultaneous transmission of multiple
messages over a wire. Trying to make his invention perfect, Bell was thinking of how to
transmit human voices over the wires until Thomas Watson came up with a simple receiver
that turns electricity into sound in 1875. In 1915, the first transcontinental phone call was
made by Bell. He made that call from New York to San Francisco.

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FUN FACT

The patent for the invented telephone was given to Bell on March 7,
1876. In 1877, he created the Bell Telephone Company (presently
known as the AT&T.

George Stibitz accesses a computer in New York using a teletype (remote

1940 terminal) in New Hampshire, connected over a telephone line.

In 1940, George Robert Stibitz, a US mathematician and inventor, accessed a

computer in New York remotely in New Hampshire. This was connected over a telephone
line. He accomplished that by inputting problems via a teleprinter.

FUN FACT

The patent for the invented telephone was given to Bell on

March 7, 1876. In 1877, he created the Bell Telephone
Company (presently known as the AT&T.

Published the paper "As We May Think", which anticipates the development of
1945 the World Wide Web by half a century

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Meanwhile, in 1945, Vannevar Bush, a US government

scientist, publishes a paper called As We May Think, anticipating
the World Wide Web development by half a century. This was
published in the Atlantic Monthly. In this paper, he proposed the
Memex – an indexed, archival microfilm machine that is used for
cross-referencing and retrieval of information. Also, this paper
was an extension of his research work in analog computing and
microfilm technology.

1958 AT&T and Bell commercially sold the developed modern modems.

In 1958, Bell Labs developed the modern modems, which begin selling commercially
by AT&T and Bell, aiming that it will be for the use on the public telephone system.

Preparing for a Global Network (the 1960s)

J.C.R. Licklider envisages a network that can link people and user-friendly
1963 computers together.

Introduced the concept of communication between computers thru sending

"message blocks," which gave a similar idea and coined the term "packet
switching."
1964
Larry Roberts, a US computer scientist, experiments with connecting
computers over long distances.

Ted Nelson invents hypertext, a way of linking together separate documents

1965 that eventually becomes a key part of the World Wide Web.

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The start of development of a national computer network, inspired by the work

1966 of Licklider.

1969 The launching of ARPANET computer network.

The Appearance of the Modern Internet (the 1970s)

Sent the first email introducing the "@" as one way to separate a user's name
1971 from the computer name where the mail is stored.

The invention of Ethernet, linking computers and other devices in a single local
1973 network.

An influential paper was written to describe how the computers linked on a

1974 network could send messages thru packet switching using TCP..

Introduced the improved TCP that laid the foundation of the basis of the
modern Internet.

1978
A computer bulletin board system was set up for computer hobbyists to swap
information.

The Internet Gives Birth to the Web (1980s)

Official adoption of TCP/IP as the standard way which Internet computers will
1983 communicate.

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1982-
The development of a Domain Name System (DNS)
1984

NSFnet is created that allows the universities to be linked in ARPAnet's

1986 growing infrastructure.

1988 Internet Relay Chat was invented, allowing users to create virtual "rooms".

A grocery store, named Peapod that introduced online grocery shopping and
e-commerce.

1989
The same year, Tim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web at CERN, the
European particle physics laboratory in Switzerland. It owes a considerable
debt to the earlier work of Ted Nelson and Vannevar Bush.

The Web Takes Off (1990s)

Mosaic, the first user-friendly web-browser, was introduced.

1993
Also, World Wide Web Worm, one of the first search engines, was developed.

Brian Pinkerton writes WebCrawler, a more sophisticated search engine, and

1994 Jerry Yang and David Filo launch Yahoo!, a directory of websites organized in
an easy-to-use, tree-like hierarchy.

E-commerce properly begins when Jeff Bezos founds Amazon.com, and

1995 Pierre Omidyar sets up eBay.

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1996 ICQ was considered the first user-friendly instant messaging on the Internet.

1997 Published the first blog (weblog).

1998 The Backrub search engine was developed, which was later renamed Google.

The idea of the Internet of Things (IoT) emerged, citing that computers and
1999 everyday objects could be part of the Internet.

Internet and Web for All (2000s)

2003 Virtually every country in the world is now connected to the Internet.

Harvard student Mark Zuckerberg revolutionizes social networking with

2004 Facebook, an easy-to-use website that connects people with their friends.

Jack Dorsey and Evan Williams found Twitter, an even simpler "microblogging"
2016 site where people share their thoughts and observations in off-the-cuff, 140-
character status messages.

Russian President Vladimir Putin approves a plan to create a private

2017 alternative to the Internet to counter the (traditional) Internet's historical
dominance by the United States.

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Types of Internet Connection

As we see, technology is fast pacing. If we look at the technology trends lately, we can
say that what is hardly done before can be accessed today with a simple swipe or click of a
button. Nowadays, there are numerous ways on how an electronic device can be connected
to the Internet. From there, you can instantly connect with people virtually whenever and
wherever you are located. Plus, the options you may choose also grows as the days go by.
One of those evolving industries worldwide is internet services. With that, it can be pretty
hard to determine the kind of service available to your location, preference, and hardware
availability. Enumerated below are some of the types of internet connections.

1. Dial-up Connection

A dial-up connection requires the user to link a phone line to a computer before
accessing the Internet. This type of internet connection is typically the slowest type among
all Internet connections. It should probably avoid availing unless that this service is the last
connection available in your area. Also, with this type of connection, you can't use the
landline and the Internet simultaneously, which is a big downside.

2. Broadband

A broadband (short for "broad bandwidth") internet service offers better high-speed
connections than dial-up service. Generally, it can be categorized as follows.

 Digital Subscriber Line

A digital subscriber line (or DSL) service uses a broadband connection, making it
faster than a dial-up connection. DSL connects to the Internet via an existing 2-wire
copper phone line. In contrast to a dial-up connection, users using a DSL connection can
simultaneously use the Internet and your phone line.

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 Cable Internet

A cable internet service operates via cable TV lines, although you do not necessarily
need to have cable TV to get it. It uses a broadband connection that greater bandwidth
than DSL – meaning faster access than a DSL and a dial-up service. On the other hand,
it is only available where cable TV is available. Also, its speed can depend on the usage
of the access and whether you upload or download any file.

 Wireless

Unlike DSL and cable services, wireless is a kind of internet connection that uses
radio frequencies to access the Internet. It is commonly termed as "WiFi" (which some
people say it stands for "wireless fidelity"), an abbreviation that has almost become
synonymous with "Internet". This type of connection is always on and accessible
anywhere if the user is in the network range. Nowadays, it is one of the fastest options to
avail.

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 Fiber Optics

Fiber optic internet is one of the latest trends in the broadband world. With this
technology, it offers an incredibly fast internet speed. Given this speed, it is an excellent
option for a household to use multiple devices all at the same time without affecting the
speed of the Internet. In addition to this, a fiber optic internet connection is the right
Internet connection for small businesses that can rely on for their day-to-day activities.

3. Satellite

A satellite connection uses broadband but does not require cable or phone lines to
access the Internet. It connects to the Internet through satellites orbiting the Earth. As a
result, it can be used almost anywhere globally, but the connection may be affected by
weather patterns. Satellite connections are also usually slower than DSL or cable.

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4. Cellular Technology

It provides wireless Internet access through mobile phones, where speeds vary depending
on the internet service provider (ISP). Commonly used cellular connections are 3G and 4G
services.

 3G is a term that describes a 3rd generation cellular network obtaining mobile

speeds of around 2.0 Mbps.
 4G is the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. The goal of 4G is to
achieve peak mobile speeds of 100 Mbps, but the reality is about 21 Mbps currently.
 5G is the 5th generation mobile network that enables a new kind of network that is
designed to connect virtually everyone and everything, including machines, objects,
and devices. It is meant to deliver higher and faster speeds compared to 4G with
more reliability and ultra-low latency.

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LESSON 1.5

INTERNET APPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION

Now that you know that internet is everywhere, we will now go to its services and
applications to us. But first, have you ever wondered why is the Internet and the underlying
technology so successful and why it works extremely well? How could a technology from a
research project become the foundation of the world’s largest communication system?

• Flexibility to Accommodate Arbitrary Networks – the Internet designers assumed

that many types of networks would be used and provided a flexible system that can
interconnect a wide range of underlying network hardware. Because it makes very
few demands of the underlying hardware, the Internet accommodates any type of
network.
• Flexibility to Accommodate New Apps Quickly – the Internet took a new approach
to building a communication system by placing all services outside the network.
Placing all services in computers attached to the Internet was a brilliant idea that
makes new services trivial to deploy and encourages innovation.
• The Advantage of Being Open and Vendor Independent – unlike earlier
networking technologies that were designed for one vendor’s computers, the Internet
was designed to provide communication among arbitrary types of computing devices.
To ensure compatibility among arbitrary devices, the technical specifications for the
Internet were written to be completely independent of any specific devices, and were
open, meaning anyone could use the specifications to build Internet products and
services without paying a fee.
• An Extremely Efficient Design – because they are designed to be efficient, Internet
protocols can run on small, inexpensive devices like lighting and heating system
controls used in a smart home.
• Packet Switching Is A Fundamentally Better Idea – the Internet’s use of packet
switching resulted in a communication technology that is much less expensive than
the approach used in the original telephone systems. By 2000, Internet technology
had edged out the competition, and even the telephone companies — some of the
staunchest critics — had switched to using IP routers.
5.1. INTERNET APPLICATION EXPLAINED

Internet Applications can be described as the type of applications which use the internet for
operating successfully, that is, by using the internet for fetching, sharing, and displaying the
information from the respective server systems. It can be accessed only with the help of the
internet facility, and it cannot be functional without internet.

In addition, it is also an interactive, compiled application which can perform complex

business processes on either the client or the server.

These applications use the Internet protocol to receive requests from a client, typically a
Web browser, process associated code, and return data to the browser.

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5.2 INTERNET APPLICATIONS IN THE FLESH

5.2.1 ELECTRONIC MAIL (EMAIL)

Electronic mail (email) was originally designed to allow a pair of individuals to communicate
via computer. The first electronic mail software provided only a basic facility: it allowed a
person using one computer to type a message and send it across the Internet. Later, the
person to whom the mail addressed could access the message.

Current email systems provide services that permit complex communication and interaction.
For example, email can be used to:

• Send a single message to many recipients (i.e., a mailing list).

• Send a message that includes text, audio, video, or graphics.
• Have a computer program generate and send a message.
• Have a computer program respond to an incoming message.
The significance of email arises from its widespread use in the business community.
Although text messages and social media have become popular forms of communication,
most businesses still use email as the primary communication platform.

The email address has three essential parts: (1) a username, (2) an "at" sign (@) and (3) the
address of the user's mail server. Example: [email protected]

Email Client vs Web-based Mail (Webmail)

An email client is a program that lives on your computer and lets you send or receive emails.
With an email client, the emails themselves are stored on your computer’s hard drive as
small files. You will not be able to check all your emails from a different computer if you use
an email client. Example email clients include Microsoft Outlook, eM Client, Mozilla's
Thunderbird, macOS Mail, Mailbird, Mailbox, Hiri and iOS Mail.

On the other hand, webmail is an email service intended to be primarily accessed via a web
browser. The emails live online in the cloud which makes it popular as it allows you to send
or receive email from anywhere – you simply need to log in to your account to access them.

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Popular webmail providers are AOL Mail, Mailfence, Google’s Gmail, Microsoft’s
Outlook.com (formerly called Hotmail), and Yahoo! Mail.

An example will help explain how an email transfer occurs when a provider is used. Assume
Bob is a customer of Provider 1 and has an email address [email protected]. Also
assume Alice is a customer of Provider 2 and has an email address [email protected].
Suppose Bob sends an email message to Alice.

Figure 5.1 Illustration of the steps taken when Bob, who uses Provider 1,
sends an email message to Alice, who uses Provider 2.

The three steps shown in the figure are:

1. Bob creates a message. To send the message, Bob contacts his provider, either by
using an email app or a web browser. Bob types a message and specifies
[email protected] as the recipient.
2. The message is transferred. When Bob clicks Send, the email software running on
provider1.com contacts the email server on provider2.com, specifies aliceb as the
recipient, and transfers the message.
3. Alice reads the message. Later, Alice launches an email app or uses her browser to
contact her provider. Alice finds the message from Bob in her mailbox and reads it.
To summarize, modern email systems arrange for a user’s mailbox to be located on a
computer run by an email provider. Because providers run their computers continuously, a
provider can accept incoming email at any time, and a user can access their mailbox at any
time.

Undisclosed Recipients

Each mail message begins with header lines that specify the sender, recipient(s), and a
subject. A From: header specifies the sender’s email address. Three email headers identify
recipients: To:, Cc:, and Bcc:. The names are taken from headers used on office memos
before email was invented, when Cc: abbreviated Carbon copy, and Bcc: abbreviate Blind
carbon copy. The interpretation is:

• To: lists the email addresses of the main recipients

• Cc: lists email addresses of recipients who should receive a copy
• Bcc: lists email addresses of recipients who should receive a copy, but whose
identity should be hidden from other recipients

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Email software treats addresses in the To: and Cc: lists the same; the two headers are
merely meant to help recipients understand the intent of the sender. However, the Bcc: list is
hidden from other recipients. That is, when it sends a copy of the email message to a user,
the email software omits the Bcc: list. Thus, if a user receives a copy of an email message
that does not list their email address in either the To: or Cc: lists, the user can deduce that
other recipients will not know they received a copy.

If a sender wants to hide all recipients from one another, the sender can specify all recipients
in a Bcc: header, leaving the To: and Cc: headers blank. Each recipient will receive an email
message that lists no recipients. To prevent confusion, some email software is configured to
fill in the To: header of such messages with a phrase, such as “Undisclosed Recipients”. The
phrase often appears in spam messages. For example, suppose a spammer sends the
following message:

Each of the three recipients would receive a message of the form:

From a spammer’s point of view, the use of Bcc: means that a given recipient will not know
how to contact other recipients, so it will not be as easy for them to deduce the message is a
fraud.

5.2.2 THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

Like all Internet services, the World Wide Web is not built into the Internet. Instead, the
service runs on computers attached to the Internet, and follows the client-server form of
interaction. Many web servers attached to the Internet store information. To access the
information, a user launches a web browser. The browser acts as a client that contacts one
or more servers to obtain the requested information that may contain text, images, videos,
and other multimedia and navigate between them via hyperlinks, which it then displays for
the user.

The information on a web server is divided into web pages, and a browser fetches one page
at a time. In most cases, a given web server stores a set of related pages, and we use the
term web site to refer to the entire collection of pages on a server.

URLs And Their Meaning

How does a browser know where to find information? A user must specify the correct web
server and a web page on the server. To do so, a user enters a Uniform Resource Locator
(URL). A URL is a string of characters divided into several parts by punctuation characters.

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Below illustrates how a URL is divided and gives the meaning of the three most important
parts.

Figure 5.2 The three primary parts of a URL and their meaning

As the figure shows, the first part of a URL specifies a protocol to use when contacting the
web server, the second part specifies the domain name of the server to contact, and the
third tells which web page on the server to request. The string :// separates the protocol from
the server name, and a slash separates the server name from the name of a specific web
page.

Inside A Web Browser

A browser is a complex piece of software that has many capabilities. For example, a browser
understands how to download and display information from a local file on your computer, a
remote web server, or a remote file storage server. A browser also understands how to
launch an email app that can send email. The first item in a URL tells the browser what to
do. For example, http specifies that the browser should use the HyperText Transfer Protocol
to download a web page, https specifies that the browser should use a secure version of http
to download a web page, and ftp specifies that the browser should use the File Transfer
Protocol to download a file.

The figure below illustrates that a browser contains the software needed to handle a request.

Figure 5.2 The internal structure of a browser with a software module for each type of request.

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Internet vs World Wide Web (WWW)

Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web, or just the Web, interchangeably,
but the two terms are not synonymous, and they are quite different. The World Wide Web, or
web for short, are the pages you see when you're at a device and you're online.

But the internet is the network of connected computers that the web works on, as well as
what emails and files travel across.

Think of the internet as the roads that connect towns and cities together. The world wide
web contains the things you see on the roads like houses and shops. And the vehicles are
the data moving around - some go between websites and others will be transferring your
emails or files across the internet, separately from the web.

Types of Website

Conventional or Static – A static website is one that has web pages stored on the server in
the format that is sent to a client web browser, and mainly its contents do not change. It is
primarily coded in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Because a browser hides the
specification completely when displaying a web page, most users never encounter HTML.
Instead, when a user gives a browser a URL, the browser contacts the specified server,
obtains a copy of the web page, interprets the HTML, and displays the result.

Dynamic – A dynamic website is one that changes or customizes itself frequently and
automatically, based on certain criteria. Example of these are online shopping and social
networking sites wherein the contents depend on the inputs of the user itself.

5.2.3 SOCIAL NETWORKING AND PERSONAL PUBLISHING

Until the twentieth century, information dissemination followed a publish-subscribe paradigm

in which a small set of publishers selected, reviewed, and edited information, and then
published the results. A large set of subscribers then paid for access to the published
results. For example, a local newspaper selected stories of interest in the town and
published them each day. Magazines were published monthly, and book publishers focused
on information that lasted years. Because publication and dissemination of information was
expensive, an average person could not afford to become a publisher.

The Internet triggered a shift away from the said traditional publish-subscribe paradigm that
had been used to disseminate information. A variety of new publication mechanisms have
been invented, including moderated and unmoderated discussion forums (also called
electronic bulletin boards or newsgroups), blogs, cooperative publishing systems (wikis), and
social networking sites (i.e., Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, Instagram, and YouTube).

The driving force for much of the change arises from the low cost of equipment needed to
supply information on the Internet. Some mechanisms employ a pay-to-publish paradigm in
which a user pays the entire cost of making their information available. Social networking
uses the interesting twist of a pay-to-publish model in which a user gives up privacy and
agrees to read ads in exchange for having their personal information hosted on a web page.

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5.2.4 THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

We use the term Internet of Things (IoT) to refer to devices – sensors (devices that
measure or sense their surroundings) and actuators (devices that change or control their
surroundings) that can be accessed and controlled over the Internet. In addition to wearable
medical and health monitoring systems, IoT encompasses point-of-sale terminals, such as
cash registers, ATMs, and vending machines; household appliances and gadgets; building
infrastructure components, such as lighting, security, and HVAC systems; and civil
infrastructure monitoring, such as bridges and tunnels.

Many IoT devices use wireless networking, especially consumer products designed for use
in a home (smart home). The IoT industry has taken two approaches to wireless networking.
In one approach, a centralized wireless router (possibly with a repeater) connects all IoT
devices in the home to the Internet. In the other approach, a centralized wireless router
connects to nearby IoT devices, and remaining devices form a mesh in which a device
agrees to forward packets on behalf of devices that are farther away from the wireless
router.

More of this will be discussed in the upcoming chapters.

Figure 5.4 Steps used with a temperature sensing

system: 1) the system reads the temperature and
contacts a server, 2) the server saves the value on
storage, 3) a user requests the temperature, 4) the web
server fetches the value from storage, and 5) the value
is returned to the user.

5.2.5 INTERNET SEARCH (SEARCH ENGINES)

Internet search is among the most popular services available. To achieve accurate results, a
search engine uses indexing in which a set of keywords are extracted from a page that
distinguish the page from others.

To return results without delay, a search engine uses a web crawler that runs before a user
requests a search. The crawler indexes as many pages as possible and stores the
information; a search server uses the stored information to find a list of pages pertinent to a
given request.

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Search engines use a variety of techniques to gather information about users. The engine
uses the information in two ways: to provide personalized answers to search queries and to
sell ads that are delivered along with search results.

Figure 5.5 Illustration of a search engine

where (1) a web crawler searches web pages
on all web sites, (2) the crawler places indexing
information on storage, (3) a user sends a
search query, (4) the search engine server
consults the indexing information, and (5) the
server returns an answer.

5.2.6 VOICE AND VIDEO COMMUNICATION (VoIP)

Because it uses packet switching (a method of grouping data that is transmitted over a
digital network into packets), the Internet introduces jitter, which impacts the streaming of
real-time information. A technology known as a playback buffer solves both the problem of
jitter and the problem of a low-throughput connection. An app that uses a playback buffer
accumulates information before playback begins. If all goes well, the playback buffer allows
a user to experience uninterrupted playback.

Figure 5.6 Illustration of a playback buffer in a device’s memory. By keeping a supply

of data, an app can play a movie at a steady rate even though packets arrive in bursts.

One example of this is video conferencing which permits a group of users to hold a group
discussion that optionally includes video. Each user runs software on their device that
connects to the discussion. The software provides two-way communication, sending video
and audio from the user to the rest of the group, and playing audio and video from other
users in the group.

Telephone companies are switching from analog technologies to Voice over IP (VoIP), and
most phone calls now use the Internet Protocol for some part of the path. It is possible to
obtain a VoIP telephone; a VoIP phone has a conventional phone number, and can
communicate with an analog phone, a cell phone, or another VoIP phone.

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5.2.7 FILE TRANSFER AND DATA SHARING

Although email and messaging systems can be used to transfer small data items, a file
transfer mechanism is needed to transfer arbitrarily large files. One of the oldest file transfer
services uses the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP allows a user to download files, upload
files, and list the contents of folders on a remote computer. Users access FTP through a web
browser — when the user supplies a URL that begins with the string ftp:/ /, the browser
becomes an FTP client and accesses an FTP server.

Figure 5.7 Illustration of file transfer in which (1) a browser uses FTP to request a file,
(2) the FTP server reads the file from its local storage, and (3) the server returns a
copy to the browser.

A variety of data sharing services exist, including file sharing, photo sharing, video sharing,
and document sharing. The services permit users to share items without requiring any of the
users to own and operate a server. In most services, a user uploads a data item, and other
users can then download a copy. Some services permit collaboration in which users can
modify an item.

Figure 5.8 The steps taken to share a data item: (1) a user uploads an item, that (2)
the server places on storage, (3) another user requests the item, (4) the server obtains
a copy from storage, and (5) downloads the item to the user. (6,7,8) Other users also
obtain a copy.

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Illegal file sharing was once popular as a way for users to exchange copyrighted materials,
such as music, movies, and books. The mechanism is classified as a peer-to-peer
application (P2P) because each participating user agrees to make copies of files available to
others in exchange for the right to access the files others have.

5.2.8 REMOTE DESKTOP

Figure 5.9 Illustration of a remote desktop session in which (1) mouse input and
keystrokes are sent to a remote computer, and (2) after the remote display changes, a
copy is sent back and shown on the user’s display.

A remote access facility permits a user who is using one device to access and control
another device. Because early computers used textual interfaces, the first remote access
mechanisms, known as remote login mechanisms, sent keystrokes to a remote system and
displayed the text that the system returned. More recent services offer a remote desktop
capability that shows the user a graphical interface. Client software running on a user’s local
system sends mouse events and keystrokes to a remote system. When the display on the
remote system changes, including cursor motion, the remote desktop server returns a copy
of the updated screen, which is displayed for the user to see.

The goal of all remote access systems is straightforward: provide a user with the illusion of
working directly on a remote computer. Remote access software does an excellent job of
meeting the goal; the illusion is only broken when congestion along the path through the
Internet introduces high delay. The next chapter explains that remote access is important for
cloud computing.

Remote desktop services have several advantages, including allowing a mobile user to
access a powerful computer without carrying heavy hardware or a heavy battery. However,
remote access technologies have unexpected consequences: although apps appear on a
user’s display as if they are running locally, such apps can only access files, printers, and
other facilities on the remote system. Thus, a file saved to the desktop will only be saved on
the remote system.

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5.2.9 CLOUD SERVICES AND CLOUD COMPUTING

Directly connected to how file transfer and data sharing (5.3.7) works, the cloud paradigm
represents a major shift in the way individuals and corporations use computing, and if the
trend continues, the new paradigm will affect just about everyone. It is required for the
Internet of Things (IoT) devices to run and operate. Remote access (described in the 5.3.8)
forms one of the foundations of this technology.

The computing industry has moved from a centralized form of computing, in which an entire
organization shared a single, large computer, to a distributed form in which each user has
one or more devices. When a user has multiple devices, synchronizing data among them
becomes tedious and time-consuming. Vendors offer a variety of cloud services, including
data storage and data synchronization services.

Companies have started to move to a generalized cloud computing paradigm in which the
company moves its computing to facilities leased from a public cloud provider. The
motivation for adopting cloud computing is lower cost; moving to the cloud can lower both
operational expenditures (opex) and capital expenditures (capex). If a company has special
requirements for data, the company can choose to run a private cloud facility internally; it is
also possible to use a hybrid cloud approach in which some of the company’s data and
processing is moved to a public cloud, and more sensitive data is kept in the company’s
private cloud.

More of this will be discussed in the upcoming chapters.

5.2.10 ELECTRONIC COMMERCE (E-COMMERCE)

Electronic commerce or E-Commerce consists of the buying and selling of products or

services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks.

It includes the entire online process of developing, marketing, selling, delivering, servicing,
and paying for products and services.

Some common applications related to electronic commerce are the following:

• Domestic and international payment systems

• Group buying
• Automated online assistants
• Online shopping and order tracking
• Online banking
• Shopping cart software
• Electronic tickets

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5.2.11 BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY

A blockchain is a decentralized (i.e., no one is regulating or controlling it), distributed, and

oftentimes public, digital ledger consisting of records called blocks that is used to record
transactions across many computers so that any involved block cannot be altered
retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks. It is a system of recording
information in a way that makes it difficult or impossible to change, hack, or cheat the
system.

Each block in the chain contains a number of transactions, and every time a new transaction
occurs on the blockchain, a record of that transaction is added to every participant’s ledger.
The decentralized database managed by multiple participants is known as Distributed
Ledger Technology (DLT).

Blockchain is a type of DLT in which transactions are recorded with an immutable

cryptographic signature called a hash.

Some of its uses include:

• Banking and Financial Services

• Currency/Cryptocurrencies (i.e., BTC, ETH, XRP)
• Smart Contracts
• Healthcare
• Records of Property
• Supply Chains
• Voting
• Video Games
• Anti-counterfeiting
• Domain names
More of this will be discussed in the upcoming chapters.

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