21 — Revolution in Energy and Industry

While the revolution in France was opening a new era, the IR began in Great Britain in the
1780s.

—Started to influence the continent around the 1815s.

It was rapid and brought lots of changes.

—Only the ag rev during the neolithic era had the same amount of change.

The IR changed human experience and patterns of work as well as the social class structure.

It also helped regular people gain a better standard of living as poverty of the preindustrial
world reduced.

It was limited to about 1850 for 2 reasons.

1 — only a few industries got the rev and most didn’t change which effected production.

2 — the increase in pop continued across Europe and it threatened to eat up growth in
production.
 The Industrial Revolution in Britain
What were the origins of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, and how did it develop between
1780 and 1850.

The IR began in Great Britain that historic union of Scotland and Wales with England—

—the wealthiest and dominant part of the country.

The transformation was quite unplanned.

Britain had to pioneer industrial tech but also social relations.

Between 1793 and 1815 these were complicated by constant war with France.

Britain was a trailblazer in economic dev.

Eighteen-Century Origins

Although many aspects of the British IR were up for debate it is agreed that changes were out of
a long process of development.

The expanding Atlantic economy of the 18 th served Britain well.

The colonial empire Britain built and the strong position in Latin America and the slave trade
provided a great market for British manufactured goods.

Ag played a big role in the IR in B. English farmers were only to the Dutch in productivity in 1700
and they were adopting new methods as it went on.

The result was a period if bounty and low food prices.

Ppl didn’t j have to survive in bread and could actually get wages, reflecting the entre European
economy.
As manufacturing expanded to supply all around the world customers.

—Water was cheaper than land to transport.

Beginning in the 1770s a canal building boom enhanced it even further to posit iron and coal
which were critical in the industrial age.

—There were no tariffs to hinder trade as there was before.

Britain had an effective central bank and developed credit markets.

The government let the domestic econ operate with few controls and encouraged personal
initiative and free market.

Britain had a good central bank and developed credit markets.

Britain had a lot of hired ag workers and it boomed as the second round of enclosures
happened.

These factors combined to make the Industrial revolution.

The term IR was coined by contemporaries in the 1830s to describe the burst of major
inventions and changes in industries.

Industyry had grown only 0.7 between 1700 and 60 but then grew at 3% after 1801 and 1831 in
full swing.

—The quicking happened in the 1780s.

It wasn’t complete in Britain until 1850 but didn’t effect other nations until the end of the
Napolenic wars in the 1815s.

The first factories

The pressure to produce more was growing and related to the first breakthrough of the IR.

—Creation of the first large facgtories in the British cotton textle industries.
Innovations in these making of cotton led to anew system of social relations, no other industry
had such rapid transformation before 1830.

—under pressure fo demand its advantages were o/wing its advantages in the 1760s.

A shortage of thread focused attention on improvements in spnning, with better machines it

was harder to spin old textiles — wool and flax but cotton was different.

James Hargreaves invented the cotton spinning jenny in about 1765 at the same time Richard
Arkwright invented or pirated another spinning machine, the water frame.

—These breakthroughs created an explosion of the undustry in the 80s, 13% e/yr

By 1790 the new machines were producing 10x what they were 20 years ago.

Hargreaces spinning jenny was simple, inexpensive and powered by hand.

Arkwrights water frame was able to power a lot more with little but employed a lot more
because they factories were larger.

A new strat was maed by Samuel Crompton which needed even more power but after time
spinners began to be consolidated in factories.

The prie for cotton splits and underpants was sharply declining — families using cottan in the
cottage industry were able to get yarn from the nearby factory.

Weavers wages were among the highest they had ever been to keep in competition with
spinners.

—thus a lot of ag ppl became handloom weavers.

Edmond Cartwright achived the powered loom in 1785.

Working conditions in early cotton factories were pretty bad and wores than weavers and
spinners — adults were reluctant to work in them.

—Owners turned to young children who were put in parashes and were ‘apprenticed’
These workers were as young as 5 or 6 and forced to labor for 14 hours a day — received little to
no pay – 6 days a week.

—This exploitation was taken interest by humanitarian workers and reformers who
made child labor laws in the early 19th cent.

The creation of the first modern facotries in the British cotton industrial in the 1770 and 80s
grew out of the putting out system.

—Accounted for 22% of the countries entire industrial production.

The problem of energy

The growth of the cotton industry might have been stunted if water had remained the primary
source of energy.

Ppl used water and air early, sails and grain grinders but also relied on wood and animals which
sucked.

Shortage in energy became clear in Britain in the 18 th cent. Wood and charcoal were really
popular but mixed with iron to produce pig iron.

—The iron industries appetite for wood was giant and by 1740 the British iron industry
was stagnating.

The steam engine breakthrough

As this crisis gew Britain look to coal, by 1640 most homes in London were heated by it. And was
also used to make beer, glass, soap + others.

As more coal was produced mines became deeper and were filling with water, mechanical
pumps powered by animslas had to be installled.

—At one time 500 horses were used.

Thomas Savery (1698) and Thomas Newcomen (1705) invented steam engines — both were
really inefficient but by the 1770s they were better and operating in English and Scottish mines.

A Scot – James Watt — 1736—1819 — was drawn to steam engines and employed at the Uni of
Glasgow — pioneers of practical technical education.

In 1763 Watt was called to repair a Newcomen—added a condenser-pattented in 1769.

In partnership with Mathew Boulton an eglish industrialist, gave Watt capital and manship, he
found mechanics who could install and regulate his engines and continued to make
improvements.

—By the 1780s the Boulton and Watt firm made the steam engine a practical and
commercial success in Britain.

—steam power began to replace water in spinning mills in the 1780s and flour
mills.

The British Iron industry was also transformed, belows and blast furnaces.

In the 1780s Henry Cort developed the puddling furnace which allwde pig iron to be refined with
coke.

Also made giant commercial iron molds which created a boom in the iron industry and it
became indespendible of the econ.

17K to 260K tons. In 1844 Britina produced 3 mil tons.

Coming of the railroads

The later half of the 18th cent saw construction of hard and smooth roads in France before the
rev.

—It was passenger traffic that benefited most.

Overland shipment was limited and expensive—used rivers and canals for heavy freight when
possible.

—It was inevitable that they wanted to find other solitions, like steam.

In 1800 an ameircan drove a steamer on wheels and in the 20s the English created steam cars –
10mph.
 —Horses still reigned.

Once a rail capable of supporting a heavy train was dev’d in 1816 experiments on rails were
made.

In 1825 George Stephenson built the first locomotive.

His Rocket sped at 16 mph — Liverpool to Manchester.

—Private companies soon took to building their own roads.

Markets used to be small and local but they became larger which encouraged factories to
become larger—made things cheaper.

—Created a demad for unskilled labor in rail making.

The railroad changed outlook on society, new art and speeds were reached, Isambard Kingdom
Brunel and Thomas Brassey, pierced tunnels and mountains and bridges.

Industry and population

In 1851 London had a fair called the Great Exhibition in the Crystal Palace—the island of Britain
was known as the workshop of the world.

—Produced 2/3rds of the wor.ds coal and >1/2 of its cotton and iron.

The GNP rose by x4 and the wealth expanded giantly so did the population, by >2x from 9
million — wasn’t harmful because it facilitated economic growth.

Malthus argued there were few states that increase in pop and econ mean permanent
melioration. Or that pop would grow faster than food.

—Only way to fix was marrying late.

David Ricardo — 1772—1823 — was pessimist to, depressing Iron law of wages posited that bc
of pressure of pop growth wages would always sink to subsistence.

—The econ was dubbed ‘the dismal science’

Proved wrong.
 Industrialization in Continental Europe
How after 1815 did continental countries respond to the challenge of industrialization?

The new tech in the BRI was adopted slowly in the continental Europe.

—Still some Euoprean and U.S states had industrialized their economies.

Western industrialization happened in lurches, there were alternative paths to the industrial
world in the 19th century, no need to follow the British model.

National Variations

In 1750 all countries were close together and Britain was only slightly ahead of its enemy,
France.

By 1800 they had a bigger lead and only accelerated by 1830 and reached its peak by 1860.

—Twice that of France in 1830 and thrice in 1860, all other countries except for the U.S
fallen further behind Britain than France.

Belgium, achieved independence from the Netherland in 1831 and rich in Iron and coal led in
adopting Britains tech and surged in 1830-60.

France had no surge but was tarnished by the rise of Germany and the U.S in 1860.

European countries industrialized further than non-western ones, included US Canada and Japan
— magnified existing disparities across the world.

The Challenge of Industrialization

Different patterns if dev show the process wasn’t automatic.

No wars in the early industrialization period had been fought on British soil so they didn’t
experience economic dislocation.

BUT France was quite different because war handicapped economic expansion.
This gap made it almost impossible for other countries to follow British patterns—they
dominated the world economic stage.

—it was so advanced few others understood it and iron, coal, and rails were too costly
to create capital to start said momentum. Also there was a shortage of workers used to
working in factories.

BUT when they started to face up to Britain they had some important advantages in 1815.

1 — most had rich tradition of putting out merchant capitalists, and skilled artisans which gave
them the ability to adapt and survive market conditions.

2 — They didn’t need to dev their own tech but they could borrow methods from GB.

3 — They had strong independent governments that didn’t fall inder foreign political control and
made policies that served their own purpose, used the state to promote industry.

Agents of Industrialization

The British realized the value of their tech and tried to keep it secret.

—Untul 1825 it was illegal for arts and merchants to leave Britain, until 1843 it was
illiegal to export textile machinery, some still slipped out.

William Cockerill, a Lancashire carpenter. Began building spinning stuff in French occupied
Belguim in 1799.

John Cockerill acquired the old summer palace of the desposed bishops of Liege in the south.

—Converted it into a industrial enterprise.

—Produced rails, steam engines, and locomotives, also established ironworks

and coal mines.

Transmitted new tech and info across Europe, British workers came to illigeally work for him.

—Ppl brought the latest plans to him.

British technicians were incredibly important.

Entrepreneurs such as Fritz Harkort, pioneer in the German machine industry, serving in England
as a Prussian army officer in the Napoleonic wars.
 —Germany had to match all these English advancements.

Set up shop in the castle still-tranquil Ruhr Valley, felt a calling to become the Watt of Germany.

Lacking skilled labors he turned to England but getting materials was hard.

—Built and resold engines winning fame but his ambition led to financial losses and was
forced to close his company.

Government Support and Corporate Banking

Another major force in continental industrialization was the government which helped ppl to
overcome difficulties.

Tariff protection was important — afterh the Nappy war in 1815 France was flooded with
cheaper British goods.

—The French government raised tariffs to protect the economy.

Belgium govnt decided to make a state owned system for railroads as well as several smaller
German states.

The Prussian govnt guaranteed that the state treasury would pay the interest on railroad bonds
if the companies couldn’t — capital was increased quickley with no consequences.

In France the state shouldred all of the expense.

Friedrich List — German journalist thought that the growth of the modern industry was
important bc manufacturing increased well being and relieved poverty.

—To promote industry was to defend the nation, ag nations sucked.

The NSPE, national system of political economy defened policies on railroad building and tairiffs.

The Zollverein was a union in 1834 allowing goods to move between German states without
terriffs but erected a single one against other states which would help domestic industries
against the British.

—Denounced the British free trade.

By the 1840s Lists economic nationalism designed to portect the economy was popular in
Germany and elsewhere.
Banks also played a big part in the econ than in Britain, they used to be all private as
partnerships.

Because of potential unlimited financial loss the partners of p banks were quite conservative
and content to deal with a few rich merchants/clients.

—Avoided industrial investment, too risky.

In Belgium, two banks received permission from the government to establish themselves as
corps. with limited liability.

—Stockholders could lose only their original investments in the banks common stock
and couldn’t be forced by courts to pay for additional losses.

—Attrackedted a lot of attention and got a shit ton of money which helped with
further industrial investment.

Similar banks were important in France and Germany in the 1850s and 60s. In collaboration with
governments, coproate banks established and developed many railroads and companies in
heavy industry.

—Called liability corporations.

The most famous was the Bank — Credit Mobilier of Paris, founded by Isaac and Emile Pereire,
Jewish journalists from Bordeaux.

—Advertised and used all types of investments.

—Built all over the West.

Skilled workers, entrepreneurs, governments, and industrial banks meshed between 1850 and
crash of 1873.

In Belgium, Germany, and France, indicators of development, railway milage, iron, coal, and
steam engines increased at 5-10%.

—Most rails were complete and in the early 1870s Britain was still Europes most
developed nation, a few were closing the gap.
 Relations Between Capital and Labor
How did the IR affect people of all social classes and what measures were taken to improve the
conditions of workers?

Industrial developments brought new social relations and intensified problems between cap and
labor.

In a new group, men and women strengthened wealth and the size of the middle class BUT the
IR created a larger group — the factory workers.

—Men, women, children all worked together!!

This stimulated new think about social relations combined w/ the French rev.

Argued that each class had conflicting economic interests.

Conflicting classes existed because many came to believe they existed and developed a sense of
class feeling — class-consciousness.

The New Class of Factory Owners

Early industrialists operated in a very comp economic system.

Watt and Harkort both illustraited there was success and large profits but they were hard.

Manufacturues wanted to cut production costs, much of profit had to go back.

Many came from a variety of backgrounds, many like Harkort were from well off merchant
families but Watt Wedgwood and Cockerill were modest.

Artisians illustrated exceptional ability and had lots of opportunities.

Many marginalized ppl had to stick together.

Scots, Quakers, and other Protestant dissenters were important to Britain, Protestants and Jews
drove banking in France.

As factories grew larger opportunities declined and it became harder for the poor gifeted person
to start an enterprise and skyrocket.

—Education became important for success but was expensive.

In Britain and France industrialists had inherited their enterprises and aware of class, the gap
began to widen.

—Wives of successful ppl found fewer opportunities and were valued for their ladiness

—separate herself from the working class.

New Factory Workers

The industrialization had many critizs, William Blake called factories satanic mills.

William Wordsworth lamented the destruction of rural life.

Luddites attacked factories in 1812 and smashed new machines.

This view was accepted by Friedrich Engels, colleague of Karl Marx.

Publichsed the condition of the working class in England – indictment of the middle classes.

—Capitalism with competition and technical change.

Others thought that changes were net-good like Andrew Ure, some factoires had good
conditions.

Edwin Chadwick said that more and more people were able to move beyond necessities but the
ppl who thought things were getting worse was the majority.

From 1792—1815 of war in France saw a rise in food prices.

Saw a decline in wages and standard of living.

Use of specific goods supports the position that the standard of living of the working classes
rose after long wars in France.

There was economic improvement but it was hard and slow.

Working hours were also increasing, in Northern Europe for a while, workers earned more
because they worked more.

Monday was known as Saint Monday because workers took the day off.

Work in Early Factories

The first cotton factories began in 1770 along fast rivers.

They didn’t really want to work in factories because work was unappealing but wages were
good.

—had to keep up with the machine and follow its tempo, had to show up on time and
work long hours.

—punished for breaking the rules, docing from pay or beating family.

—Used to being able to interrupt work to play with children.

Sunday was for relaxing, Saturday was for pay, if they couldn’t get their work in they would have
to pull an all nighter.

It was the reluctance of the cottage workers that factories turned to abandoned children to
work, badly treated and overworked — accepted.

Working Families and Children

The Factory Act of 1833 — limited the factory workday for children between 9 and 13 to 8
hours and that of adolecents between 14 and 18 to 12.

—didn’t try to regulate hours at home or private businesses.

People often worked as family units and shared work through blood like subcontracting.

Robert Owen advocated for children’s work rights—reformers pressed parliament.

The Sexual Division of Labor

Women had low paying bad jobs.

1 — The new discipline of the clock and machine was hard on married women, factory
expectations conflicted with childcare.

2 — Running a household on poverty was its own job, no supermarkets or transportation, had to
be done on foot.

3 — The young unmarried women who did work for wages were confined to “women’s jobs” —
men wanted to hold down women but it might have led to more unplanned pregnancies,
wanted to control sexuality in the work place.

The Mines Act of 1842 prohibited underground work for all women and boys under ten—they
were pleased with the law.

The Early labor movement in Britain

Many kinds of employment changed after the GB-IR, in 1850 more ppl stilled worked in farms
which helped the transition.

In the case of cotton and coal the iron industry was dominated by large scale capitalists and
many had more than 1000 ppl in their payrolls yet the firms that fashioned iron into goods
payed fewer than ten.

—Survival of small workshops gave many workers and alt to factory employment.
In northern factory distrcits where thousands of hired hands looked across at a minort of
managers, anticapitalists sentiments were frequent.

—Strike in 1825 afainst the wool center of Bradford.

As during the French rev. the British government attacked monopolies and workers guilds in the
name of liberty.

In 1799 Parliament passed the Combination Acts which outlawed unions and strikes.

—in 1813/14 they repealed the law of 1563 regulating wages of artisans.

As a result artisans found capitalists trying to ignore traditional work rules and flooding their
trades with unorganized woman and children to beat down wages.

The attack on guilds was resented and the Combination Acts were disregarded.

—They weren’t afraid to strike and there was one on cotton spinners in Manchester in
1810.

In the face of union activir parliament repealed the Combination Acts in 1824.

The effort was started to make a nationwide union, by people like Robert Owen.

—Self made spinner, pioneered socialist communities like New Harmony Indiana.

Organized the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union but didn’t work very well.

The British labor movement transitioned to the craft unions, the most famous was the
Amalgamated Society of Engineers which won good benefits and became accepted in the
industrial scene.

After the collapse of Owen’s union many ppl went to the Chartist movement which sought
political democracy.

—demanded all ppl the right to vote.

—advocated for 10 hour work days, no helpless ppl or passive beneficiaries.

 22 — Ideologies and Upheavals
1815 — 1850 — the economic transformation of modern times began in the late 18 th cent. With
the IR in England then the FR.

Until 1815 these things were separate — economic and political — but once peace returned
these changes fused together.

Traditional elites, monarchs, landowners, etc defended their privileges and used nationalism to
respond to the dual revolution.

Radical change was reflected in the romantic movement.

Conservatism, liberalism, nationalism, and socialism were critical in political and social battles
across Europe in 1848.
 22.1 — The Aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars
How did the victories allies fashion a peace settlement and how did Metternich uphold a
conservative European order?

The conservative aristocratic monarchies like Russia, Prussia, Austria, and GB—known as the
Quadruple Alliance had defeated France!!

Met in the Congress of Vienna for a peace settlement — wanted peace and got it.

The European Balance of Power

Allies were concerned with what to do w/ France now that they were defeated.

The first peace of Paris gave France the boundaries it had in 1792 — didn’t have to pay any war
reparations.

When the allies of the Quadruple alliance plus a rep from the Bourbon monarch of France met in
the Congress of Vienna (plus some ppl from smaller states).

—Agreed to suppress French aggression.

The Low Countries, Belgium and Holland were united under the Dutch monarchy, could oppose
the French better.

Prussia got more territory on France’s eastern border to stand as the “sentinel on the Rhine”
against France.

The QA had leniency AND strong defensive measures.

—Motivated by traditional ideas of power balancing.

To Klemens von Matternich and Robert Castlereagh the ministers of Austria and GB as well as
France meant international equilibrium.
 —Discouraged aggression by any combination of states and domination by one state.

The great powers, Austria, Britain, Prussia, Russia, and France used the balancing to settle
disputes in Vienna.

Each should get compensation for their struggle against France.

Russia and Prussia wanted more territory and when France Austria and GB agreed Russia got a
small Polish kingdom and Prussia got some of Saxony.

Sadly for France Napoleon escaped from the island of Elba and reignited some wars for a little.

The second peace of Paris was concluded after Nappys final defeat at Waterloo in 1815.

Louis XVIII 18th was restored to the throne — lost some territory and had to pay 700 million
francs to support a army.

The members of the QA decided to meet regularly to maintain peace in England.

—This marked the start of the congress system and lessened charges diplomatically.

Repressing the Revolutionary Spirit

In 1815 under Metternich Austria Prussia and Russia crusaded against the ideas and politics of
the dual revolution — lasted until 1848.

The first step was the Holy Alliance formed by the three, Austria – Prussia – and Russia.

—Alexander I of Russia proposed the alliance became a symbol of anti liberal

sentiments.

In 1820 revs stopped the monarchs of Spain and the Italin kingdom of the Two Sicilies to grant
liveral constitutions.
 —Metternich was horrified, revs were happening again!

Called a conference at Troppau in Austria under provisions of the QA, he and Alexander I
proclaimed the intervention to maintain autocratic regimes when threatened.

—Ausrtian forces marched on Naples – 1821 and restored Ferdinand I of Two Sicilies.

—French armies restored the Spanish regime.

Until 1848 his system was good — dominated the Italian peninsula and the German
Confederation.

The confederation comprised of 38 states including Prussia and Austria, met in assemblies
dominated by Austria.

It was through the German Confederation that Metternich issued the Carlsbad Decrees.

—Required the states to root out subversive ideas in unis and newspapers.

—Another committee was formed to spy and investigate liberal heathens!!

Metternich and Conservatism

Defended the squo and was an emeny in the eyes of the progressives.

Born into nobility of the Rhineland Prince Kelemens von Metternich (1773—1859), lots of dip
cap.

—Austrian foreign minister 09-49.

—Pessimistic view of human nature, self serving.

—Strong govn’ts were needed to defend his class.

Believed that liberalism was embodied in rev America and France, responsible for war.

—Blamed middle class liberals for uprisings.

The idea of national self-determination was bad to M bc it threatened to destroy the Austrian
Empire and revolutionize central Europe.

The vast Aust empire of the Habs was big and rich. Formed over cents. by marriage and luck.
 —Germans dominated the empire — 1/4 th of the pop.

The Magyars (Hungarians) was a smaller group.

The Czechs were the 3rd major group, concentrated in Bohemia and Moravia — also large
numbers of Italians, Poles, Ukrainians and smaller groups of Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and
Romanians.

—Lots of different cultures.

Metternich’s state was both strong and weak.

1 — Strong because of its pop and terratories.

2 — Weak because of its dissatisfied nationalities.

Metternich had to oppose lliberalism and nationalism, Austria was unable to adopt to these
ideologies of the dual revolution.

M was supported by the Russians and lesser from the Ottomans — both worked to preserve
traditional orders as the domant ppl, Russian Orthodox Christians and Muslim Ottoman Turks of
Anatolia.

Only after 1850 did each have a crisis and reform and modernize.