Wireless Channel impairment

mitigation techniques

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 Introduction
 The properties of mobile radio channels:
 Multipath fading => time dispersion, ISI
 Doppler spread => dynamical fluctuation

•These effects have a strong negative impact on the bit error rate
of any modulation.

 Mobile communication systems require signal processing

techniques that improve the link performance in hostile mobile
radio environments.
 Three popular techniques:
 Equalization: compensates for ISI
 Diversity: compensates for channel fading
 Channel coding: detects or corrects errors
• These techniques can be deployed independently or jointly. 2
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 The three techniques of equalization, diversity, and channel
coding are used to improve radio link performance (i.e. to
minimize the instantaneous bit error rate)
 but the approach, cost, complexity, and effectiveness of each
technique varies widely in practical wireless communication
systems.

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 Equalization
 If the modulation bandwidth exceeds the coherence bandwidth of
the radio channel, ISI occurs and modulation pulses are spread in
time.

 Equalization compensates for inter symbol interference (ISI)

created by multipath within time dispersive channels.
• An equalizer within a receiver compensates for the average
range of expected channel amplitude and delay characteristics.

 Equalizers must be adaptive

• since the channel is generally unknown, random and time
varying, equalizers must track the time varying characteristics of
mobile channel, and thus are called Adaptive Equalizer.

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 Fundamentals of Equalization

 Intersymbol interference (ISI)

 Caused by multipath propagation (time dispersion) ;
 Causes bit errors at the receiver;
 The major obstacle to high speed data transmission over
mobile radio channels.

 Equalization
 A technique used to combat ISI
 Can be any signal processing operation that minimizes ISI;
 Usually track the varying channel adaptively.

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 Adaptive Equalization
• The operating modes of an adaptive equalizer
are:
• Training
• Tracking

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 Training mode of adaptive equalization
• Initially, a known fixed-length training sequence is sent by the
transmitter so that the receiver's equalizer may average to a proper
setting.

• The training sequence is typically a pseudorandom binary signal or a

fixed, prescribed bit pattern.
• Immediately following the training sequence, the user data is sent.

 The time span over which an equalizer converges is a function of

1. the equalizer algorithm
2. the equalizer structure
3. the time rate of change of the multipath radio channel.
• Equalizers require periodic retraining in order to maintain
effective ISI cancellation

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 The training sequence
• The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer at the
receiver to acquire the proper filter coefficients in the worst
possible channel conditions.

• Therefore when the training sequence is finished the filter

coefficients are near optimal.

• An adaptive equalizer at the receiver uses a recursive

algorithm to evaluate the channel and estimate filter
coefficients to compensate for the channel.

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 Tracking mode
• When the data of the users are received, the adaptive algorithm
of the equalizer tracks the changing channel.

• As a result of this, the adaptive equalizer continuously changes

the filter characteristics over time.

 Commonly used in digital communication systems

• where user data is segmented into short time blocks.

 TDMA wireless systems are particularly well suited for

equalizers.
• data in fixed-length time blocks,
• training sequence usually sent at the beginning of a block
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Communication system with an adaptive equalizer

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 Working of an adaptive Equalizer
The signal received by the equalizer is given by
……. 1

Where x(t) =original information signal

f(t) =combined impulse response of transmitter, wireless
channel and receiver RF/IF stage
= base band noise
If the impulse response of the equalizer is , then the output
of the equalizer is

…… 2

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 Working of an adaptive Equalizer contd.
Where, g(t) = combined impulse response of the transmitter, channel, RF/IF
sections of the receiver, and the equalizer at the receiver.
The complex baseband impulse response of a transversal filter equalizer is
given by

Where, = complex filter coefficients of the equalizer.

The desired output is x(t) which is the original source data.
Assuming =0 , in order to force

The main goal of equalization is to satisfy above equation.

In frequency domain it is given by

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 Working of an adaptive Equalizer contd.

Where, = Fourier transform of heq (t)

F(f) = Fourier transform of f(t)
• Therefore, the equalizer is an inverse filter of the channel
• If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer
• enhances the frequency component with small amplitudes and
• Attenuates the strong frequencies in the received frequency spectrum
In order to provide
• A flat, composite, received frequency response and linear phase
response.
• For a time varying channel, the equalizer is designed to track the
channel variations so that the above equation is approximately
satisfied
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 EQUALIZERS IN A COMMUNICATION RECEIVER
• Due to multipath channel environment, there is always a possibility
of intersymbol interference (ISI) and tracking error at receiver end.

• Therefore, the instantaneous combined frequency response will not

always be flat, this causes some finite prediction error.

• Since adaptive equalizer are constructed using digital logic

therefore time waveforms may be equivalently expressed as a
sequence of n in the discrete domain. Therefore, equation 2 (refer
slide no 13) can be written as

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• The prediction error is

• The expected value of the squared prediction error is

known as the ‘mean squared error’. It is represented as
Mean squared error =
• Better equalizers provide smaller values of mean squared error
and a low value of bit error rate (BER)

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 Basic structure of an adaptive equalizer

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 Training a Generic Adaptive Equalizer
• There is a single input yk into the equalizer at any time instant.
• The value of yk depends upon the instantaneous state of the radio
channel and specific value of noise.
• A Generic Adaptive equalizer is transversal filter with
 N delay elements

 N+1 taps

 N+1 tunable complex multipliers, called weights

 These weights are updated continuously by the adaptive

algorithm
• either on a sample by sample basis or on a block by block
basis
• The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek.

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• ek is derived by comparing the output of the equalizer with some signal
which is either an exact scaled replica of the transmitted signal xk or which
represents a known property of the transmitted signal.
• The adaptive algorithm uses ek to minimize a cost function and
the weights are updated in a manner that reduces the cost function
iteratively.
• For example, the least mean squares (LMS) algorithm searches for the
optimum or near-optimum filter weights by performing the following
iterative operation
New weights = Previous weights + (constant) x (Previous error) x
(Current input vector)
where,
Previous error = Previous desired output — Previous actual output
• This process is repeated rapidly in a programming loop while the
equalizer attempts to converge
• Upon reaching convergence, the adaptive algorithm freezes the filter
weights until the error signal exceeds an acceptable level or until a new
training sequence is sent
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  Techniques used to minimize the error
 gradient
 steepest decent algorithms
 Based on classical equalization theory, the most common cost
function is MSE
• MSE----mean square error (MSE) between the desired
signal and the output of the equalizer denoted by
E[e(k)  e* (k)] and a known training sequence must be
periodically transmitted when a replica of the transmitted
signal is required at the output of the equalizer.
• By detecting the training sequence, the adaptive
algorithm in the receiver is able to compute and minimize
the cost function by driving up the tap weights until the
next training sequence is sent.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF EQUALIZATION

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 LINEAR EQUALIZERS
 Current and past values of the received signal are linearly
weighted by the filter coefficient and summed to produce the
output,
• If the delays and the tap gains are analog, the continuous
output of the equalizer is sampled at the symbol rate and the
samples are applied to the decision device.
• Implementation is usually carried out in the digital domain
where the samples of the received signal are stored in a shift
register.
• Linear equalizers are further divided into two parts.
1. Linear Transversal Equalizers
2. Linear Lattice Equalizers
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 Linear Transversal Equalizers (LTE)

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 Nonlinear Equalization
• Linear equalizers do not perform well when the channel distortion is
too high. In this case, the efficiency of linear equalizer falls
significantly.

• Nonlinear equalizers are used in applications where the channel

distortion is too severe for a linear equalizer to handle.

• Three very effective nonlinear equalizer are

• Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

• Maximum Likelihood Symbol detection
• Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Estimation (MLSE)

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 1. Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

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• DFE can be implemented either by transversal equalizer or
lattice equalizer.
• Only the change is that one extra elements added in the
equalizer that is used for feedback.
• The output of the threshold detector is given to feedback filter
(FBF).
• FBF coefficients can be adjusted to cannel the intersymbol
interference (ISI) by comparing current symbol from past
directed symbol.
• the current output of transversal filter is compared with the
past output of threshold detector thereby ISI gets minimized.

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 Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
• Equalizer requires a specific algorithm to update the coefficients
and track the channel variations.
• Factors which determine the performance of an algorithm:
• Rate of convergence (fast or slow?)
• Defined as the number of iterations required for the algorithm,
in response to stationary inputs, to converge close enough to
the optimum solution.

 A fast rate of convergence allows the algorithm to adapt

rapidly to a stationary environment of unknown statistics.

 Furthermore, it enables the algorithm to track statistical

variations when operating in a non stationary environment.

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 Misadjustment (precise or not?)
 Provides a quantitative measure of the amount by which the final
value of the mean square error, averaged over an ensemble of
adaptive filters, deviates from the optimal minimum mean square
error.

 Computational complexity (simple or complex?)

 Number of operations required to make one complete
iteration of the algorithm.

 Numerical properties (stable or not?)

 When an algorithm is implemented numerically, inaccuracies are
produced due to round-off noise and representation errors in the
computer.
 These kinds of errors influence the stability of the algorithm

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 Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
• Three classic equalizer algorithms
 Zero Forcing Algorithm (ZF)

 Least Mean Square Algorithm (LMS)

 Recursive Least Squares Algorithm (RLS)

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 Zero Forcing (ZF) Algorithm
• In a zero forcing equalizer, the equalizer coefficients, Cn are
chosen to force the samples of the channel and equalizer
impulse response to zero

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 Fundamentals of Diversity Techniques
 Random nature of radio propagation:
 Multipath propagation
 Independent fading of each Multipath component
 If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another
independent path may have a strong signal

 Diversity exploits the random nature of radio propagation by

finding independent signal paths for communication, so as to
boost the instantaneous SNR at the receiver.

 Diversity is a powerful communication receiver technique that

provides wireless link improvement at relatively low cost.

 Requires no training

 In virtually all applications, diversity decisions are made by the

receiver, and are unknown to the transmitter.
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Types of Diversity
Two types of diversity:
• Microscopic diversity
– For small scale fading
• Macroscopic diversity
– For large scale fading

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1. Microscopic diversity
 Small-scale fades: deep and rapid amplitude fluctuations over
distances of just a few wavelengths.
• caused by multiple reflections from the surroundings in the
vicinity of the mobile.
• results in a Rayleigh fading distribution of signal strength over
small distances.

 Microscopic diversity techniques can exploit the rapidly

changing signal.
• For example, use two antennas at the receiver (separated by a
fraction of a meter), one may receive a null while the other receives
a strong signal.
• By selecting the best signal at all times, a receiver can
mitigate small-scale fading effects
• Called antenna diversity or space diversity

 Examples: Rake receiver, MIMO transmission

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2. Macroscopic diversity
 Large-scale fading: caused by shadowing due to variations
in both the terrain profile and the nature of the
surroundings.
• In deeply shadowed conditions, the received signal
strength at a mobile can drop well below that of free space.
• log-normally distributed with a standard deviation of about
10 dB in urban environments.

 Macroscopic diversity: By selecting a base station which is not

shadowed when others are, the mobile can improve
substantially the average ratio on the forward link.
• It is called Macroscopic diversity as the mobile takes
advantage of large separations between the serving base
stations.
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 Macroscopic diversity is also useful at the base station
receiver.
• By using base station antennas that are sufficiently
separated in space, the base station is able to improve the
reverse link by selecting the antenna with the strongest signal
from the mobile.

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 Practical Space Diversity Considerations
• Space diversity (also known as antenna diversity), is one of the
most popular forms of diversity used in wireless systems.

• Conventional wireless system consist of an elevated base

station antenna and a mobile antenna close to ground.

• The existence of direct path between the transmitter and

receiver is not guaranteed and possibility of a number of
scatterers in the vicinity of the mobile suggests a Rayleigh
fading signal.

• Therefore, the signals received from spatially separated

antennas on the mobile would have essentially uncorrelated
envelopes for antenna separations of one half wavelength or
more.
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 Space diversity can be used at either the mobile or base station,
or both.

• Since the important scatterers are generally on the ground in

the vicinity of the mobile, when base station diversity is used,
the antennas must be spaced considerably far apart to achieve
decorrelation (several tens of wavelengths).

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General block diagram of a space diversity
scheme

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Space diversity reception methods can be classified into four
categories

1. Selection diversity
2. Feedback diversity
3. Maximal ratio combining
4. Equal gain diversity

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1) Selection Diversity

 The simplest diversity technique.

 The receiver branch having the highest instantaneous
SNR is connected to the demodulator.
 The antenna signals themselves could be sampled and the
best one sent to a single demodulator.
 In practice, the branch with the largest (S + N) /N is used,
since it is difficult to measure SNR.
 A practical selection diversity system cannot function on
a truly instantaneous basis, but must be designed so that
the internal time constants of the selection circuitry are
shorter than the reciprocal of the signal fading rate.

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2. Feedback or Scanning Diversity
 Very similar to selection diversity

 The M signals are scanned in a fixed sequence until one is

found to be above a predetermined threshold.
 This signal is then received until it falls below threshold and
the scanning process is again initiated.
 The resulting fading
statistics are somewhat
inferior to those
obtained by the other
methods.
 Advantage: very simple
to implement (only one
receiver is required).
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3. Maximal Ratio Combining
 The signals from all of the M branches are weighted and
then summed.

 The individual signals must be co-phased before being

summed.

• requires an individual receiver and phasing circuit for

each antenna element.

 Output SNR equal to the sum of the individual SNRs.

 Advantage: produces an output with an acceptable SNR even

when none of the individual signals are themselves acceptable.

 Gives the best statistical reduction of fading of any known

linear diversity combiner.
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 Maximal Ratio Combiner

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4. Equal Gain Combining

• In certain cases, it is not convenient to provide for the

variable weighting capability required for true maximal
ratio combining. In such cases, the branch

 Equal gain combining diversity sets all weights to unity but the
signals from each branch are co-phased.

 The possibility of producing an acceptable signal from a

number of unacceptable inputs is still retained.

 The performance is only marginally inferior to maximal

ratio combining and superior to selection diversity

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 Frequency Diversity
 Transmits information on more than one carrier frequency.
• frequencies separated by more than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel will not experience the same fades.

 Frequency diversity is often employed in microwave LOS

links.

 In practice, 1:N protection switching is provided by a radio

licensee,
• When diversity is needed, the appropriate traffic is simply
switched to the backup frequency.

 Disadvantage: not only requires spare bandwidth but also

requires that there be as many receivers as there are channels
used for the frequency diversity.
• for critical traffic, the expense may be justified
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 New OFDM modulation and access techniques exploit
frequency diversity by providing simultaneous modulation
signals with error control coding across a large bandwidth.

 If a particular frequency undergoes a fade, the composite

signal will still be demodulated

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 Time Diversity
 Time diversity repeatedly transmits information at time
spacings that exceed the coherence time of the channel
• Multiple repetitions of the signal will be received with
independent fading conditions.

 One modem implementation of time diversity involves the use

of the RAKE receiver for spread spectrum CDMA, where the
multipath channel provides redundancy in the transmitted
message.

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 RAKE Receiver
 In CDMA spread spectrum systems, the spreading codes are
designed to provide very low correlation between successive
chips.

 If the multipath components are delayed in time by more than

a chip duration, they appear like uncorrelated noise at a
CDMA receiver, and equalization is not required.

 However, since there is useful information in the multipath

components, CDMA receivers may combine the time delayed
versions of the original signal transmission in order to improve
the signal to noise ratio at the receiver

 A RAKE is employed to do this:

• It attempts to collect the time-shifted versions of the original
signal by providing a separate correlation receiver for each of
the multipath signals.
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The RAKE receiver is essentially a diversity receiver designed
specifically for CDMA, where the diversity is provided by the
fact that the multipath components are practically uncorrelated
from one another when their relative propagation delays
exceed a chip period

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 Block diagram

An M branch (M-finger) RAKE receiver implementation. Each

correlator detects a time shifted version of the original CDMA
transmission, and each finger of the RAKE correlates to a
portion of the signal which is delayed by at least one chip in
time from the other fingers.
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