1.Draw and explain the architectural diagram of 8086 microprocessor.

The 8086 microprocessor is a 16-bit processor that was developed by Intel in 1978. It is
considered the first x86 processor, and it was the basis for the development of many other
processors such as the 80286, 80386, and 80486.

The architectural diagram of the 8086 microprocessor consists of several main components:

● The ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for performing mathematical and
logical operations.

● The Register Array consists of several 16-bit registers, including the AX, BX, CX,
DX, BP, SP, SI, and DI registers. These registers are used for various purposes such as
storing data and holding addresses.

● The Address Unit generates memory addresses for the instruction pointer and data
pointer.

● The Control Unit manages the flow of instructions and data within the processor. It
decodes instructions and generates the necessary control signals to execute them.

● The Bus Interface Unit is responsible for communicating with external devices such
as memory and input/output devices. It also manages the transfer of data between the
processor and these devices.
● The Instruction Queue is a small buffer that holds the next instruction to be executed.

● The clock generator is used to generate the clock signals that drive the processor.

2.Explain different phases of a compiler with a suitable diagram

A compiler is a program that converts source code written in a high-level

programming language into machine code that can be executed by a computer. The
process of compilation is divided into several phases, each of which performs a
specific task. The main phases of a compiler are:

● Lexical Analysis: The first phase of a compiler is lexical analysis, also known as
tokenization. The lexical analyzer reads the source code and breaks it down into a
sequence of tokens, which are the basic building blocks of the source code such as
keywords, identifiers, and operators.

● Syntax Analysis: The second phase is syntax analysis, also known as parsing. The
syntax analyzer takes the tokens generated by the lexical analyzer and checks that
they form a valid sequence according to the grammar of the programming language. It
also builds a parse tree or an abstract syntax tree (AST) representation of the source
code.

● Semantic Analysis: The third phase is semantic analysis. The semantic analyzer
examines the parse tree or AST and checks for semantic errors, such as type
 mismatches or undeclared variables. It also performs type checking and performs
other tasks such as symbol table construction and type inference.

● Intermediate Code Generation: The fourth phase is intermediate code generation. The
compiler generates an intermediate code representation of the source code, such as
three-address code or bytecode, which is easier to optimize and translate to machine
code.

● Code Optimization: The fifth phase is code optimization. The compiler applies
various techniques to improve the performance of the code, such as constant folding,
dead code elimination, and instruction scheduling.

● Code Generation: The final phase is code generation. The compiler generates the
machine code, which can be executed by the computer's CPU.

3.Write down the features of a machine dependent loader.

A machine dependent loader is a software component that is responsible for loading

executable programs into memory for execution by the computer's central processing
unit (CPU). The following are some of the features of a machine dependent loader:

● Architecture-specific: A machine dependent loader is designed to work with a specific

type of CPU architecture, such as x86 or ARM. It is not portable to other types of
architectures.

● Format-specific: A machine dependent loader is designed to work with a specific file

format, such as ELF or PE, and may not be able to load programs in other formats.

● Relocation: The loader is responsible for relocating the program's code and data to the
appropriate memory addresses. It also updates any memory references in the program
to point to the correct locations.

● Symbol resolution: The loader is responsible for resolving any symbolic references in
the program, such as linking to external libraries or resolving undefined symbols.

● Memory management: The loader is responsible for allocating memory for the
program's code and data and for managing the program's memory usage during
execution.
 ● Exception handling: The loader is responsible for handling any exceptions that may
occur during the loading process, such as invalid file format or missing dependencies.

● Dynamic linking: Machine dependent loader also handle dynamic linking, which is
the process of linking to shared libraries at runtime. This allows programs to use
shared libraries without having to link to them during the compilation process.

● Loading and initializing of kernel modules: Machine dependent loader loads and
initializes kernel modules, the software components that provide additional
functionality to the operating system kernel.

4.What is Linker? Briefly explain the relocation and linking concepts.

A linker is a program that takes one or more object files generated by a compiler and
combines them into a single executable program or a library. The process of linking is the
final step in the compilation process.

The two main concepts related to linker are relocation and linking.

● Relocation: Relocation is the process of adjusting the memory addresses of a

program's code and data to match the memory layout of the target system. This is
necessary because the memory addresses used by the compiler during the compilation
process may not match the memory addresses of the target system. The linker uses
relocation information embedded in the object files to adjust the memory addresses of
the program's code and data.

● Linking: Linking is the process of combining multiple object files into a single
executable program or library. The linker takes the object files as input, and combines
them into a single file by resolving any external symbol references, creating a table of
symbols and linking the object files together.

During the linking process, the linker also performs tasks such as:

● Resolving external symbol references: The linker takes the external symbol references
from the object files, and resolves them by matching them to the definitions of those
symbols in other object files or libraries.

● Creating a table of symbols: The linker creates a table of symbols that lists all the
symbols used in the program, along with their memory addresses. This table is used
by the loader to resolve symbolic references during the loading process.
 ● Performing dead code elimination: The linker can remove any code that is not
reachable from the program's entry point, thus reducing the size of the final
executable.

● Performing garbage collection of data: The linker also can remove any data that is not
reachable from the program's entry point, thus reducing the size of the final
executable.

5.Explain different operations performed in document editing process. How do

translators interact with debugger?

Document editing process: There are several operations that are typically performed in a
document editing process, including:
● Text insertion: Adding new text to the document
● Text deletion: Removing existing text from the document
● Text replacement: Replacing existing text with new text
● Formatting: Changing the appearance of the text, such as font size, color, and style
● Spell checking: Checking the document for spelling errors and correcting them
● Grammar checking: Checking the document for grammar errors and correcting them
● Document structure: Modifying the overall structure of the document, such as adding
or removing sections, tables, or images
Translators and debuggers: Translators and debuggers are two different types of software
tools that are used in software development.
● Translators: A translator is a program that converts source code written in a high-level
programming language into machine code that can be executed by a computer.
Examples of translators are compilers and interpreters.

● Debuggers: A debugger is a program that helps developers find and fix errors (also
known as bugs) in their code. Debuggers allow developers to step through their code
line by line, inspect the values of variables and memory addresses, and set
breakpoints to stop execution at specific points in the code.

Translators and debuggers can interact in the following way:

● A translator such as a compiler may generate a symbol table or debug information

while translating the source code into the object code, which can be used by the
debugger to help the developer understand the code and identify the bugs, the debug
information can also be used to match the source code with the machine code, making
it easier to understand the code flow and the bugs.

● A debugger may also use the symbol table or debug information generated by the
translator to match the machine code with the source code, making it easier to
understand the code flow and the bugs.
 6.Discuss different code generation techniques.
Code generation techniques are methods used to automatically generate code from a
higher-level representation of a program. There are several different code generation
techniques, including:

● Template-based code generation: This technique uses a template, which is a

pre-written piece of code with placeholders, to generate code. The placeholders are
replaced with specific values to generate the final code. This technique is commonly
used in code generators for programming languages such as C++ and Java.

● Model-driven code generation: This technique uses a model, which is a high-level

representation of a system, to generate code. The model is transformed into code by
applying a set of predefined rules. This technique is commonly used in model-driven
engineering, which is a software development process that uses models to generate
code.

● Domain-specific language (DSL) code generation: This technique uses a DSL, which
is a specialized programming language tailored to a specific domain, to generate code.
The code is generated by interpreting the DSL code and applying a set of predefined
rules. This technique is commonly used in the generation of code for embedded
systems and domain-specific applications.

● Genetic programming: This technique uses evolutionary algorithms to generate code.

The algorithm generates a population of candidate solutions, which are then evaluated
and evolved to improve their quality over time. This technique is commonly used in
the generation of code for optimization problems, such as neural network training or
search algorithms.

● Artificial Intelligence (AI) based code generation: This technique uses AI methods,
such as natural language processing or deep learning, to generate code. The AI model
is trained on a large dataset of code, and it generates code by analyzing the input and
applying the learned knowledge. This technique is commonly used in the generation
of code for specific tasks, such as code completion or error correction.

● Metaprogramming: This technique uses code to generate code. The code is executed
at runtime and it generates new code on the fly. This technique is commonly used in
the generation of code for dynamic languages, such as Lisp or Ruby.
 7.Explain the concept of dynamic linking and dynamic loading .

Dynamic linking and dynamic loading are two related concepts that are used in software
development to allow programs to use shared libraries at runtime.

● Dynamic linking: Dynamic linking is the process of linking a program to a shared

library at runtime, instead of at compile-time. This allows the program to use the
functions and data in the shared library without having to include a copy of the library
in the program's executable file. Instead, the program's code contains references to the
shared library, and the operating system loads the library into memory and resolves
the references at runtime. This allows multiple programs to share the same library and
reduces the amount of memory used by the system.

● Dynamic loading: Dynamic loading is the process of loading a shared library into
memory at runtime, as needed, instead of loading all the libraries at program startup.
This allows the program to use the library only when it is needed and reduces the
amount of memory used by the system. Dynamic loading is also known as runtime
loading or lazy loading, and it allows the program to use a library only when it needs
it, and unload it when it's no longer needed.

Both dynamic linking and dynamic loading are used to reduce the memory usage and
disk space on the system, as well as to improve the performance of the program.
Dynamic linking allows multiple programs to share the same library, and dynamic
loading allows the program to use a library only when it's needed.

8.Explain shift reduce parser with example

A shift-reduce parser is a type of parser that is used to parse context-free grammars. It uses a
stack to keep track of the input symbols that have been parsed so far, and a set of shift and
reduce actions to build a parse tree.

● Shift: A shift action is used to move the next input symbol from the input buffer to the
stack. The symbol is pushed onto the top of the stack, and the parser moves to the
next symbol in the input buffer. For example, when the input is "2 + 3 * 4", and the
next symbol is "2", the parser will shift the "2" from the input buffer onto the stack.

● Reduce: A reduce action is used to combine the symbols on the top of the stack into a
single nonterminal symbol. The symbols are removed from the top of the stack, and a
new nonterminal symbol is pushed onto the stack. For example, when the stack
contains the symbols "2", "+", "3", "", "4", the parser will reduce the symbols "3", "",
"4" to a single nonterminal symbol "12" and push it onto the stack
 ● Repeat: The parser will repeat the process of shifting and reducing the symbols in the
input buffer until the entire input has been parsed.

The parse tree is built by the parser by applying the reduce actions to the symbols on the
stack. The parse tree represents the structure of the input according to the grammar of the
programming language.

For example, consider the following grammar:

And the input string is "2 + 3 * 4"

The parser will start by shifting the first symbol "2" onto the stack, then it will shift the next
symbol "+" onto the stack. The next symbol is "3" and it will shift it onto the stack, then it
will shift the next symbol "" onto the stack. The next symbol is "4" and it will shift it onto the
stack. Now the stack contains "2", "+", "3", "", "4

9.What is nested macro call? 3

A nested macro call is when a macro calls another macro, either directly or indirectly, within
its expansion. In other words, a macro call is embedded inside another macro call. This can
occur in programming languages, such as C and C++, that support macro expansion.

For example, consider the following macro definitions:

Here, the macro CUBE calls the macro SQUARE, making it a nested macro call.