Unit-I

Magnetic fields and magnetic circuit:

A magnetic circuit is a closed path that is followed by magnetic field lines of magnetic flux.
Materials having high permeability such as soft steel, iron, etc are used in the magnetic
circuit. The materials with a high degree of permeability will offer very low resistance to the
flow of the magnetic flux.
Let’s consider a coil as shown in the figure below.

There are ‘N’ numbers of turns present in the coil and this coil is wound on a rectangular iron
core. As we pass current ‘I’ through the coil, magnetic flux Φ is set up in the iron core. The
flux will follow a path ABCDA and the direction of the magnetic flux is given by the “Right-
hand thumb rule.”
The magnetic flux Φ depends upon the magnitude of the current ‘I’ and the number of turns
‘N’ of the coil.
The product of ‘N’ and ‘I’ is termed as MMF or magnetomotive force. MMF will determine
the amount of flux to be set up in a magnetic circuit.
m.m.f.=N I Ampere turns
Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields in many devices such
as electric motors, generators, transformers, relays, lifting electromagnets, SQUIDs,
galvanometers, and magnetic recording heads.
Some examples of magnetic circuits are:
 horseshoe magnet with iron keeper (low-reluctance circuit)
 horseshoe magnet with no keeper (high-reluctance circuit)
 electric motor (variable-reluctance circuit)
 some types of pickup cartridge (variable-reluctance circuits)

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Important terms:
1. Magnetomotive Force (m.m.f.)
Similar to the way that electromotive force (EMF) drives a current of electrical charge in
electrical circuits, magnetomotive force (MMF) 'drives' magnetic flux through magnetic
circuits.
The Magnetomotive force (MMF) is defined as the work done in moving a unit magnetic
pole once around the magnetic circuit. It is a magnetic pressure that tends to set up magnetic
flux in a magnetic circuit. Mathematically, the mmf is the product of current and number of
turns of a coil.
MMF=N I Ampere turns (AT)

 In any magnetic circuit, if H being the magnetising force and l is the length of the
magnetic circuit, then the mmf for the magnetic circuit is given by,
MMF = ×
 In any magnetic circuit, if Φ being the magnetic flux and S is the magnetic reluctance
of the magnetic circuit. Then, the mmf required is given by,
MMF=Magneticflux(ϕ)×Reluctance(S)
The term 'magnetomotive force', though, is a misnomer since it is not a force nor is anything
moving. It is perhaps better to call it simply MMF.

2. Magnetic flux (ϕ)

Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field which passes through a given area.
It is a useful tool for helping describe the effects of the magnetic force on something
occupying a given area. The measurement of magnetic flux is tied to the particular area
chosen. We can choose to make the area any size we want and orient it in any way relative to
the magnetic field.
If we use the field-line picture of a magnetic field then every field line passing through the
given area contributes some magnetic flux. The angle at which the field line intersects the
area is also important. A field line passing through at a glancing angle will only contribute a
small component of the field to the magnetic flux. When calculating the magnetic flux we
include only the component of the magnetic field vector which is normal to our test area.

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If we choose a simple flat surface with area A as our test area and there is an angle θ
between the normal to the surface and a magnetic field vector (magnitude B) then the
magnetic flux is,
Φ = B.A cosθ

In the case that the surface is perpendicular to the field then the angle is zero and the
magnetic flux is simply BA, Figure 1 shows an example of a flat test area at two different
angles to a magnetic field and the resulting magnetic flux.

2. Reluctance
Reluctance is the resistance offered to the flow of magnetic flux. This can be thought of as
the resistance in an electrical circuit which would offer opposition to the flow of the current.
Reluctance depends upon the physical dimensions such as length and the cross-sectional area.
It also depends on the type of material i.e. permeability of the material which would make up
the magnetic circuit.

Where ‘l’ is the length, ‘a’ is the cross-sectional area and μr is the relative permeability and
μ0 is the permeability of the material in free space.
Magnetic materials such as steel and iron have low reluctance and it is because their relative
permeability is high and hence will offer a very low opposition to the flow of magnetic field
lines.

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3. Permeance
Permeance is the measure of the proficiency with which the magnetic field lines (flux) can
flow through a circuit.

The permeance can be thought of as analogous to the conductance of an electrical circuit.

Inductance:
Thus, inductance is a property of a conductor or circuit, due to its magnetic field, which
tends to oppose changes in current through the circuit. The unit of inductance in the SI
system is the henry (H), named after American scientist Joseph Henry , which is the amount
of inductance which generates a voltage of one volt when the current is changing at a rate of
one ampere per second.
Inductance is defined as the ratio of the induced voltage to the rate of change of current
causing it. It is a proportionality factor that depends on the geometry of circuit conductors
and the magnetic permeability of nearby materials.

Theory of Inductor
A current through a conductor produces a magnetic field surround it. The strength of this
field depends upon the value of current passing through the conductor. The direction of the
magnetic field is found using the right hand grip rule, which shown. The flux pattern for this
magnetic field would be number of concentric circle perpendicular to the detection of current.
Now if we wound the conductor in the form of a coil or solenoid, it can be assumed that there
will be concentric circular flux lines for each turn of the coil as shown. But it is not possible
practically, as if concentric circular flux lines for each turn exist, they will intersect each
other. However, since lines of flux cannot intersect, the flux lines for an individual turn will
distort to form complete flux loops around the whole coil as shown. This flux pattern of a
current carrying coil is similar to a flux pattern of a bar magnet as shown.

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Now if the current through the coil gets changed, the magnetic flux produced by it will also
get changed at the same rate. As the flux already surrounds the coil, this changing flux
obviously links the coil. Now according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, if
changing flux links with a coil, there would be an induced emf in it. Again as per Lenz’s law,
this induced emf opposes every cause of producing it. Hence, the induced emf is in opposite
of the applied voltage across the coil.

Analogy Between Electric Circuit and Magnetic Circuit:

The relation of magnetic flux derived in the magnetic circuit analysis shows that magnetic
flux is the ratio of m.m.f. and reluctance. From this relationship, we can see a comparableness
of the magnetic flux relation to that of Ohm’s Law (I=E/R).
The m.m.f. is comparable to the emf of an electric circuit. Also, the reluctance is analogous to
the resistance of the electric circuit and finally, the flux is analogous to the electric current.
The analogy between the electric circuit and the magnetic circuit can be summarized in the
table below.

Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit

M.M.F. Voltage or EMF

Flux Current

Reluctance Resistance

Flux Density Current Density

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 Magnetic Field Intensity No Equivalent Quantity

Difference Between Electrical Circuit and Magnetic Circuit

The important difference between the electrical circuit and the magnetic circuit is as follows:
1. In a magnetic circuit, there is no energy expended. In simpler words, the energy is
required to create the magnetic flux but not to maintain it. But in the case of an
electrical circuit, energy is consumed by the circuit as long as the current flows
through the circuit which will be dissipated in the form of heat.
2. Practically the resistance of an electrical circuit is constant as the resistance depends
upon the resistivity and resistivity varies marginally with the temperature rise,
however, the reluctance is not a constant quantity. Reluctance depends on the flux
density (B).
3. In the case of the magnetic circuit, we use Kirchhoff’s flux and MMF Law whereas in
the electrical circuit we use Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Law.

Ampere’s Law:
The law defines the relationship between the current and magnetic field that it creates around
itself. This law was named after the scientist Andre Marie Ampere who discovered this
phenomenon.
Ampere conducted multiple experiments to comprehend how the forces acted on wires which
carry current.
The magnetic field in space around an electric current is proportional to the electric current
which serves as its source, just as the electric field in space is proportional to
the charge which serves as its source. Ampere's Law states that for any closed loop path, the
sum of the length elements times the magnetic field in the direction of the length element is
equal to the permeability times the electric current enclosed in the loop.

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The integral form of the circuital law is a line integral of the magnetic field around
some closed curve (arbitrary but must be closed) is times current in closed path.
i.e
Enclose current I in a closed path of radius “r”
Then

Where

Also
In Differential form

 J is the total current density (in amperes per square metre, A·m−2),
 dl is an infinitesimal element (a differential) of the curve C (i.e. a vector with
magnitude equal to the length of the infinitesimal line element, and direction given by
the tangent to the curve C)
 × is the curl operator.

Important Notes:
• In order to apply Ampère’s Law all currents have to be steady (i.e. do not change with time)
• Only currents crossing the area inside the path are taken into account and have some
contribution to the magnetic field

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• Currents have to be taken with their algebraic signs (those going “out” of the surface are
positive, those going “in” are negative)- use right hand’s rule to determine directions and
signs
• The total magnetic circulation is zero only in the following cases:
-the enclosed net current is zero
-the magnetic field is normal to the selected path at any point
-the magnetic field is zero
• Ampère’s Law can be useful when calculating magnetic fields of current distributions with
a high degree of symmetry (similar to symmetrical charge distributions in the case of Gauss’
Law)

Biot-Savart Law
Biot–Savart's law helps in the study of Magneto statics. This law states that the magnetic
field decreases with the square of the distance from a “point of current” or current segment.
We know that electric current or moving charges are source of magnetic field. A small
current carrying conductor of length dl (length element) carrying current I is a elementary
source of magnetic field.

The force on another similar conductor can be expressed conveniently in terms of magnetic
field dB due to the first. The dependence of magnetic field dB on current I, on size and
orientation of the length element dl and on distance r was first guessed by Biot and Savart.
The magnitude of the magnetic field dB at a distance r from a current element dl carrying
current I is found to be proportional to I, to the length dl and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance |r|. The direction of the magnetic Field is perpendicular to the line
element dl as well as radius r.

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 b P
I
θ r
o
dl

Let ab is current element of dl. It is carrying current I. P is the observation point. o is mid
point of current element, and op= r . Let op makes angle θ with direction of current.
It was found that magnetic induction at P
i.e dB ∝ I
∝ dl
∝ inθ
∝ 1/r2

i.e ∝

where

and = magnetic permeability of air or free space or vaccum

= 4π×10-7 S.I units

where

direction inside and perpendicular to plane of paper

Sp. Cases: (i) Mag. Field on central line of current element
Here θ=0 putting in equ. (i)
dB = 0
(ii) Magnetic induction perpendicular to current element:
Here θ = 90 putting in equ. (i)

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Visualization of magnetic fields produced by a bar magnet:
The lines of magnetic field from a bar magnet form closed lines. By convention, the field
direction is taken to be outward from the North pole and in to the South pole of the magnet.
Permanent magnets can be made from ferromagnetic materials.
As can be visualized with the magnetic field lines, the magnetic field is strongest inside the
magnetic material. The strongest external magnetic fields are near the poles. A magnetic
north pole will attract the south pole of another magnet, and repel a north pole.

The magnetic field lines of a bar magnet can be traced out with the use of a compass. The
needle of a compass is itself a permanent magnet and the north indicator of the compass is a
magnetic north pole. The north pole of a magnet will tend to line up with the magnetic field,
so a suspended compas needle will rotate until it lines up with the magnetic field. Unlike
magnetic poles attract, so the north indicator of the compass will point toward the south pole
of a magnet. In response to the Earth's magnetic field, the compass will point toward the
geographic North Pole of the Earth because it is in fact a magnetic south pole. The magnetic
field lines of the Earth enter the Earth near the geographic North Pole.

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As can be seen from the above-illustrated diagrams:
 A magnetic field line moves from the North Pole of the bar magnet to the South Pole.
The arrows show the direction of the magnetic lines of force.
 The lines are dense around the poles, symbolizing the strength of the magnetic field
which is greatest at the poles.
 The lines are far apart in the middle of the magnet symbolizing the weak magnetic
field around the centre of the magnet as compared to the poles.
 The attraction between the two opposite poles of two different magnets is observed as
it allows the flow of magnetic fields from the North Pole to the South Pole.
 While the two magnets experience an attractive force when the opposite poles are
made to enter the other one's magnetic field, the same cannot be said when the like
poles are made to cross the other one's magnetic field.
 Since the two same poles of different magnets are unable to create the flow of
magnetic lines as needed for the magnetic field to be formed, repulsive force is
experienced by both the magnets.

Visualization of magnetic fields produced by a current carrying coil:

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During the early 19th century, a scientist named H. C. Oersted discovered that a current
carrying conductor produces magnetic effect around it.
Magnetic field is directly proportional to the current passing through the wire and it is
inversely proportional to the distance from the wire.
This magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines surrounding a wire.
One way to explore the direction of a magnetic field is with a compass, as shown by a long
straight current-carrying wire in. Hall probes can determine the magnitude of the field.
Another version of the right hand rule emerges from this exploration and is valid for any
current segment—point the thumb in the direction of the current, and the fingers curl in the
direction of the magnetic field loops created by it.

 The region around a magnet where magnetism acts is represented by the magnetic
field.
 The force of magnetism is due to moving charge or some magnetic material.
 Like stationary charges produce an electric field proportional to the magnitude of
charge, moving charges produce magnetic fields proportional to the current. In other
words, a current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. The sub-
atomic particles in the conductor like the electrons moving in atomic orbitals are
responsible for the production of magnetic field.
 The magnetic field lines around a straight conductor (straight wire) carrying current
are concentric circle whose centres lie on the wire.

Making Connections: Notation

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For a wire oriented perpendicular to the page, if the current in the wire is directed out of the
page, the RHR tells us that the magnetic field lines will be oriented in a counterclockwise
direction around the wire. If the current in the wire is directed into the page, the magnetic
field lines will be oriented in a clockwise direction around the wire. We use ⊙ to indicate
that the direction of the current in the wire is out of the page, and ⊗ for the direction into the
page.

Figure Two parallel wires have currents pointing into or out of the page as shown. The
direction of the magnetic field in the vicinity of the two wires is shown.

Magnetic Field Produced by a Current-Carrying Solenoid-

A solenoid is a long coil of wire (with many turns or loops, as opposed to a flat loop).
Because of its shape, the field inside a solenoid can be very uniform, and also very strong.
The field just outside the coils is nearly zero. Figure shows how the field looks and how its
direction is given by RHR-2.

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Figure (a) Because of its shape, the field inside a solenoid of length l is remarkably uniform
in magnitude and direction, as indicated by the straight and uniformly spaced field lines. The
field outside the coils is nearly zero. (b) This cutaway shows the magnetic field generated by
the current in the solenoid.
The magnetic field inside of a current-carrying solenoid is very uniform in direction and
magnitude. Only near the ends does it begin to weaken and change direction. The field
outside has similar complexities to flat loops and bar magnets, but the magnetic field
strength inside a solenoid is simply (inside a solenoid),
where n is the number of loops per unit length of the solenoid (n=N/l, Where N being the
number of loops and l the length). Note that B is the field strength anywhere in the uniform
region of the interior and not just at the center. Large uniform fields spread over a large
volume are possible with solenoids.
The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying solenoid is similar to the magnetic field
produced by a bar magnet.
The strength of magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid depends on:
(i) Number of turns in the solenoid: Larger the number of turns in the solenoid, greater will
be the magnetism produced.
(ii) Strength of current in the solenoid: Larger the current passed through solenoid, stronger
will be the magnetic field produced.
(iii) Nature of the core material: The use of soft iron rod as core in a solenoid produces the
strongest magnetism.

Magnitude of Magnetic Field from Current:

The equation for the magnetic field strength (magnitude) produced by a long straight current-
carrying wire is:

For a long straight wire where I is the current, r is the shortest distance to the wire, and the
constant 0=4π10−7 T⋅m/A is the permeability of free space. (μ0 is one of the basic constants in
nature, related to the speed of light. ) Since the wire is very long, the magnitude of the field
depends only on distance from the wire r, not on position along the wire. This is one of the
simplest cases to calculate the magnetic field strength from a current.
The magnetic field of a long straight wire has more implications than one might first
suspect. Each segment of current produces a magnetic field like that of a long straight wire,

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and the total field of any shape current is the vector sum of the fields due to each
segment. The formal statement of the direction and magnitude of the field due to each
segment is called the Biot-Savart law. Integral calculus is needed to sum the field for an
arbitrary shape current. The Biot-Savart law is written in its complete form as:

where the integral sums over the wire length where vector dℓ is the direction of the
current; r is the distance between the location of dℓ, and the location at which the magnetic
field is being calculated; and is a unit vector in the direction of r.

Visualization of magnetic fields produced by a current carrying coil-through iron and

air gap:
Air Gap in Magnetic Circuit
Air is a kind of insulator to electricity as well as magnetism, i.e. area with negativity is used
for positive results. Like air, it can be as paint, gas, vacuum, aluminium etc. to prevent core
saturation depending upon application of use.
But sometimes in transformer the air gap fails to prevent saturation caused by excessive AC
voltage polarization.

Air is a non-magnetic part of a magnetic circuit that connects serially and magnetically all the
other parts in the circuit to make the flux to flow through the gap. Air gap has a significant
character to enhance electrified parts to move physically in magnetic fields, without touching
each other.
One of main reasons for an Air Gap is to increase the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The
amount of air or another non-magnetic material like a fibre plate or fibre board increases the
reluctance of the circuit, thereby increasing the amount of current that we could put in a coil
before we reach saturation. Also, the air gaps help the magnetic flux to expand outside the
magnetic circuit. This flux fringes out into the neighbouring air path and such paths for flux
are called flux fringing resulting in a non-uniform flux density in the air gap. As we increase

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the air gap, it increases flux fringing and vice versa. With small air gaps, fringing can be
neglected unless otherwise noted. However, with a larger air gap we might have to take that
change in area into consideration when we start doing flux density calculations.
The air gap in magnetic circuit means the magnetic resistance, i.e. reluctance to the magnetic
flux density. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area and a magnetic property of the given material called its
permeability. To calculate reluctance:
Magnetic Reluctance (R) = L/Aμμo
L = Length of circuit
A = Cross-sectional area of the circuit
μ = Permeability
μo = Relative magnetic permeability
The air gap is mostly used in applications where the magnetic saturation concludes as a high
risk as magnetic saturation causes loss of inductance, increasing of current, power loss in the
circuit. But implementation of air gap in a magnetic circuit influences the parameters of
magnetic inductor also i.e. addition of reluctance (air) in the circuit changes the B-H curve
(allows driving the inductor at higher current, therefore higher magnetic field strength, thus
extending the range before magnetic saturation occurs), decrease the inductance and
increasing the saturation current of magnetic inductor. The problem which an air gap solves
in a core is the excessive flux produced with a high level of current in the windings.
Another phenomenon of flux in magnetic circuit is that most of the flux is confined to the
intended path use of magnetic cores (ferromagnetic material), but a small amount of flux
always complete its path through the surrounding air called the leakage flux. So whenever an
air gap is put-up in magnetic core, flux fringes out into the neighboring air path and such
paths for flux called flux fringing resulting in non-uniform flux density in the air gap and
dropping of MMF. The largest is the air gap, the more is the flux fringing and vice versa. A
magnetic circuit resembles as a “conductor” so that the magnetic field can put along the
desired path. If a high permeability material is used, then very little energy will be stored in
the magnetic core. However, the air gap has an advantage of discontinuity and due to its low
permeability stores significant amount of magnetic energy, as compared to the same volume
of magnetic core before the saturation.
Flux Density in an Air Gap:
Let’s look at the basic formula to calculate flux density.
Flux density, Bg = Φg / Ag

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where, B is magnetic flux density in Teslas (T)
Φ is magnetic flux in Webers (Wb)
A is area in square meters (m2)
As we know that permeability of any material can be stated as the ratio of the magnetic flux
density to the magnetic field intensity of a material. It can be expressed as below,
μ=B/H
where, μ is permeability of a material, in henrys/meter
H is magnetic field strength, in ampere-turns/meter
B is flux density, in teslas
Solving the above equation for B, we get
B=μxH ….. (Equation 1)
Now, magnetizing force of the air gap is determined as below,
H = Fm / l ….. (Equation 2)
where, Fm is Magnetomotive force (mmf), in ampere-turns, l is length of material (gap), in
meters
Substituting the value of H from Equation 2 into Equation 1, we get
B = μ x (Fm/l)
Solving the above equation for magnetomotive force, we get
Fm = Bl / μ ........ (Equation 3)
Let’s assume that we have an air gap, and the permeability of air (free space) is a constant
μair = 4π x 10-7 H/m
Replacing the value for μ in Equation 3, we come up with a very basic formula for
determining the magnetomotive force required to set up a particular flux in an air gap.
Fm = BL / (4π x 10-7)
The air gap can take different form, shape and size depending on the type of magnetic circuit
and its shape. In some circuits it might be actually an integral part ensuring correct
performance of the device, but in other cases it should be as small as possible. Such
requirements will be determined by the operating principle, performance, size, efficiency, and
many other technological factors.

Influence of highly permeable materials on the magnetic flux lines:

Magnetic permeability is one of the magnetic characteristics which indicates how easily a
magnetic material is magnetized.

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If a material's internal dipoles become easily oriented to an applied magnetic field, that
material is regarded as being a high-permeability material. If the material's internal dipoles
do not become easily oriented to an applied magnetic field, it is a low-permeability magnetic
material.
Magnetic Permeability is simply the ability of the material to form an internal magnetic field
within itself under the influence of an applied magnetic field.
Two magnets attract to each other because their fields interact. Usually, materials that are not
magnets do not have a net external field, and obviously, they do not attract to things;
however, some metal alloys can have a net field created by applying an external field. This
induced field is only present when the external drive field is applied.
A permanent magnet is “attracted” to a ferrous workpiece because magnetism is “induced” in
the workpiece. The magnetism is induced by the magnetic field emanating from the
permanent magnet. (A workpiece is what the magnet or magnetic field is acting on. This
could be the steel door skin of a refrigerator, a nail, a metal plate used in a magnetic latch,
etc.) A magnet is not attracted to a piece of wood because no internal field in induced in the
wood. With no induced internal field in the wood, there is no field interaction and no
attraction.
So, a magnetic field can be induced in a piece of steel. As stated above, an external magnetic
field is needed to do this. That is why two pieces of steel do not attract to each other. They
do not induce fields in each other. No field, no interaction, no attraction.
The degree of the induced magnetism is related to the ferrous material’s magnetic
permeability, and it is expressed as a unit-less value designated by the Greek letter, mu (μ).
The higher the material’s permeability, the greater the magnetic induction and the resulting
force of attraction.
The magnetic permeability of a material is not constant, and for a given temperature, it
changes based on the intensity of the applied external magnetic field (H). The relative aspect
of permeability is more apparent when illustrated with a graph depicting a material’s
permeability relative to the applied external field. (Refer to Figure below magnetic
permeability table)

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Figure
Key Points:
 A ferrous material is attracted to a permanent magnet because the permanent magnet
induces magnetism within the ferrous material. The permanent magnet’s field and the
newly induced field in the ferrous part interact and attract.
 Magnetic Permeability is the characteristic of a material which represents the
establishment of an induced internal magnetic field by an external magnetic field. The
magnetic permeability is the proportionality between the Induced Field (B) and the
applied Field Strength (H).
 A material’s permeability indicates how easily an external magnetic field can induce
an internal field in the material. The higher the internal field, the higher the force of
attraction.
 A material’s permeability is not constant and changes based on number a of factors.
The effective permeability of a material can change with the temperature, how it was
processed, the intensity of the applied drive field, humidity, etc.

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20
 Electromagnetic force and torque
B-H curve of magnetic material:
A magnetic material is identified and characterized by its B – H characteristic. In free space
or in air the relationship between the two is linear and the constant of proportionality is the
permeability μ0. If B is plotted against H, it will be straight a line. However, for most of the
materials the relationship is not linear and is as shown in figure 1. A brief outline for
experimental determination of B-H characteristic of a given material is given now. First of all
a sample magnetic circuit (with the given material) is fabricated with known dimensions and
number of turns. Make a circuit arrangement such as shown in Figure 2, to increase the
current from 0 to some safe maximum value. Apart from ammeter reading one should record
the amount of flux produced in the core by using a flux meter-let us not bother how this meter
works!
Let,
Number of turns= N
Mean length of the flux path= l in m
Cross sectional area= A in m2
Reading of the ammeter= I in A
Reading of the flux meter= ϕ in Wb
.

Now corresponding to this current, calculate and and tabulate them. Thus

we have several pair of H & B values for different values of currents. Now by choosing H to
be the x axis B to be the y axis and plotting the above values one gets a typical B-H curve as
shown in Figure 1 below.

Fig. 1: A typical B-H curve Fig. 2: Experimental determination of B-H curve

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Different zones of B-H characteristic :
The initial portion of the B-H curve is nearly a straight line and called linear zone. After this
zone the curve gradually starts deviating from a straight line and enters into the nonlinear

zone. The slope of the curve starts gradually decreasing after the linear zone. A time

comes when there is practically no increase in B in spite of the fact that H is further
increased. The material is then said to be saturated. The rise in the value of B in the linear
zone is much more than in the nonlinear or saturation zone for same ΔH. this can be
ascertained from the B-H curve by noting ΔB1 > ΔB2 for same ΔH.
For this lesson, a brief qualitative explanation for the typical nature of the B-H curve is given.
In a ferromagnetic material, very large number of tiny magnets (magnetic dipoles) are present
at the atomic/molecular level. The material however does not show any net magnetic property
at macroscopic level due to random distribution of the dipoles and eventual cancellation of
their effects. In presence of an external field , these dipoles start aligning themselves along
the direction of the applied field. Thus the more and more dipoles get aligned (resulting into
more B) as the H i.e., current in the exciting coil is increased. At the initial phase, increase in
B is practically proportional to H. However rate of this alignment gets reduced after a definite
value of H as number of randomly distributed dipoles decreases. This is reflected in the
nonlinear zone of the figure 1. Obviously if we further increase H, a time will come when
almost all the dipoles will get aligned. Under such circumstances we should not expect any
rise in B even if H is increased and the core is said to be saturated. At the saturation zone, the
characteristic becomes almost parallel to the H axis. Different materials will have different
B-H curves and if the characteristics are plotted on same graph paper, one can readily decides
which of them is better than the other. Referring to Figure 3, one can easily conclude that
material-3 is better over the other two as flux produced in material-3 is the highest for same
applied field H.

Fig. 3

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 From the above discussion it can be said that there is no point in operating a magnetic
circuit deep into saturation zone as because large exciting current will put extra overhead on
the source supplying power to the coil. Also any desire to increase B by even a small amount
in this zone will call for large increase in the value of the current. In case of transformers and
rotating machines operating point is chosen close to the knee point of the B-H characteristic
in order to use the magnetic material to its true potential. To design a constant value of
inductance, the operating point should be chosen in the linear zone. Approach to solve a
magnetic circuit problem will be different for linear and nonlinear cases.

Magnetic Hysteresis Loop:

The Magnetic Hysteresis loop above, shows the behaviour of a ferromagnetic core
graphically as the relationship between B and H is non-linear. Starting with an unmagnetised
core both B and H will be at zero, point 0 on the magnetisation curve.
If the magnetisation current, I is increased in a positive direction to some value the magnetic
field strength H increases linearly with I and the flux density B will also increase as shown by
the curve from point 0 to point a as it heads towards saturation.
Now if the magnetising current in the coil is reduced to zero, the magnetic field circulating
around the core also reduces to zero. However, the coils magnetic flux will not reach zero due
to the residual magnetism present within the core and this is shown on the curve from
point a to point b.

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To reduce the flux density at point b to zero we need to reverse the current flowing through
the coil. The magnetising force which must be applied to null the residual flux density is
called a “Coercive Force”. This coercive force reverses the magnetic field re-arranging the
molecular magnets until the core becomes unmagnetised at point c.
An increase in this reverse current causes the core to be magnetised in the opposite direction
and increasing this magnetisation current further will cause the core to reach its saturation
point but in the opposite direction, point d on the curve.
This point is symmetrical to point b. If the magnetising current is reduced again to zero the
residual magnetism present in the core will be equal to the previous value but in reverse at
point e.
Again reversing the magnetising current flowing through the coil this time into a positive
direction will cause the magnetic flux to reach zero, point f on the curve and as before
increasing the magnetisation current further in a positive direction will cause the core to reach
saturation at point a.
Then the B-H curve follows the path of a-b-c-d-e-f-a as the magnetising current flowing
through the coil alternates between a positive and negative value such as the cycle of an AC
voltage. This path is called a Magnetic Hysteresis Loop.
The effect of magnetic hysteresis shows that the magnetisation process of a ferromagnetic
core and therefore the flux density depends on which part of the curve the ferromagnetic core
is magnetised on as this depends upon the circuits past history giving the core a form of
“memory”. Then ferromagnetic materials have memory because they remain magnetised after
the external magnetic field has been removed.
However, soft ferromagnetic materials such as iron or silicon steel have very narrow
magnetic hysteresis loops resulting in very small amounts of residual magnetism making
them ideal for use in relays, solenoids and transformers as they can be easily magnetised and
demagnetised.
Since a coercive force must be applied to overcome this residual magnetism, work must be
done in closing the hysteresis loop with the energy being used being dissipated as heat in the
magnetic material. This heat is known as hysteresis loss, the amount of loss depends on the
material’s value of coercive force.
By adding additive’s to the iron metal such as silicon, materials with a very small coercive
force can be made that have a very narrow hysteresis loop. Materials with narrow hysteresis
loops are easily magnetised and demagnetised and known as soft magnetic materials.

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Flux linkage vs Current characteristics of magnetic circuit:
Flux linkage is the linking of the magnetic field with the conductors of a coil when the
magnetic field passes through the loops of the coil
In circuit theory flux linkage is a property of a two-terminal element. It is an extension
rather than an equivalent of magnetic flux and is defined as a time integral.

where is the voltage across the device, or the potential difference between the two
terminals. This definition can also be written in differential form as a rate

Faraday showed that the magnitude of the electromotive force (EMF) generated in a
conductor forming a closed loop is proportional to the rate of change of the total magnetic
flux passing through the loop (Faraday's law of induction). Thus, for a typical inductance (a
coil of conducting wire), the flux linkage is equivalent to magnetic flux, which is the total
magnetic field passing through the surface (i.e., normal to that surface) formed by a closed
conducting loop coil and is determined by the number of turns in the coil and the magnetic
field, i.e.,

where is the flux density, or flux per unit area at a given point in space.
The simplest example of such a system is a single circular coil of conductive wire immersed
in a magnetic field, in which case the flux linkage is simply the flux passing through the loop.
The flux Φ through the surface delimited by a coil turn exists independently of the presence
of the coil. Furthermore, in a thought experiment with a coil of N turns, where each turn
forms a loop with exactly the same boundary, each turn will "link" the "same" (identically,
not merely the same quantity) flux Φ, all for a total flux linkage of λ=NΦ. The distinction
relies heavily on intuition, and the term "flux linkage" is used mainly in engineering
disciplines. Theoretically, the case of a multi-turn induction coil is explained and treated
perfectly rigorously with Riemann surfaces: what is called "flux linkage" in engineering is
simply the flux passing through the Riemann surface bounded by the coil's turns, hence no
particularly useful distinction between flux and "linkage".

25
Due to the equivalence of flux linkage and total magnetic flux in the case of inductance, it is
popularly accepted that the flux linkage is simply an alternative term for total flux, used for
convenience in engineering applications.

The "flux linkage" in an inductor is proportional to the applied current and the
inductance of the inductor. Thus:

NΦ=LI
where Φ is the flux (in Webers), N is the number of turns, L is the inductance (in
Henries), and I is the current (in Amperes).

Flux linkage vs current characteristics:

Fig. Flux linkage and current characteristics ( in air and in absence of air gap)

26
It is evident that magnetic saturation results in larger difference in stored energy or co-energy
when motion takes place. It is obvious that when there is a large air gap in the system, flux
linkage-current relationship is almost linear. In absence of air gap, the magnetic, the magnetic
circuit tends to saturate.
Let us consider the singly excited relay circuit. When the coil is excited by DC source, the
transition from OFF position (large air gap) to ON position (lesser airgap) takes place in a
fraction of seconds. In an actual system, the current and flux linkage undergo transient
conditions. The coil inductance suddenly rises to a new value and speed-induced EMF also
appears in the coil, satisfying Lenz's law. This transition may be explained in the following
two ways:
(a) Constant Current transition: As the name suggests, during constant current transition, it is
assumed that the current remains constant and only changes in flux linkages are taking place.
This shows in figure 2. Although if the coil is excited by a constant current source, a
momentary change in current does take place due to presence of speed-induced EMF in the
circuit. In fig. 2, shaded portion depicts the difference in co-energy of the system from OFF
to ON position.

Fig. 3: Constant current transition

(b) Constant flux transition: If the coil is excited by an ideal constant voltage source, the flux
linkage is likely to remain constant during transition. This shows in figure 3. Here, current
undergoes momentarily changes during switching ON the device. Since supply is DC, the

27
steady state current remains constant and changing inductance has no effect on the steady
state current. The transition current lasts for micro-seconds and can be visualized using
oscilloscope.

Fig. 3: Constant flux transition

It is clear that if force in a singly excited system is calculated using constant flux transition,
the calculated values will be lesser than that of constant current transition. In actual practice,
the transient state incorporates the change in energy, co-energy, inductance, current, and
mechanical motion.

Linear and non-linear magnetic circuits:

Fig. λ-I characteristics for various gaps in the magnetic circuits

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Magnetic circuit may be linear or non linear.
Linear magnetic circuit- Magnetic circuit is said to be linear when magnetic flux linkage is
directly proportional to current. For linear magnetic circuit, the material is fully characterized
by its relative permeability μr and the reluctance which remains constant (independent of the
operating point). In other words, for linear cases, the magnetic circuit problems can be solved
exactly in the same manner for solving linear electrical circuits. Depending on situation, one
can invoke any convenient method of solving electrical circuit problem here as well. Form
above fig. magnetic circuit with increased airgap will approach the linearity.
Non-linear magnetic circuit- Magnetic circuit is said to be non-linear when magnetic flux
linkage is not directly proportional to current. The non-linearity is represented by B-H curve.
The graphical solution involving B-H characteristic of the material or materials. The reason

being, the material can not be characterized by a unique μr for different operating points as

is a function of the operating point. The values of B’s (B, B1, B2, …….) are expected to be
different in the magnetic circuit. Instead of looking for relative permeabilities, it will be much
easier to read the corresponding H values (H, H1, H2,…..) from the B-H curve of the material
and calculate the respective mmf drops as Hl, Hl1 and Hl2. Generally the pair of B-H values
are given in tabular form for some fixed number of points. One has to plot these points on a
simple graph paper and join them by a smooth curve to get the characteristic and use it for
problem solving.

Energy stored in a magnetic circuit:

Magnetic field in the magnetic circuit can be of permanent magnet or electro-magnet. Both
magnetic fields store some energy. Permanent magnet always creates the magnetic flux and it
does not vary upon the other external factors. But electromagnet creates its variable magnetic
fields based on how much current it carries. The dimension of this electro-magnet is
responsible to create the strength the magnetic field and hence the energy stored in this
electromagnet.
First we consider the magnetic field is due to electromagnet i.e. a coil of several no. turns.
This coil or inductor is carrying current I when it is connected across a battery or voltage
source through a switch.

29
Suppose battery voltage is V volts, value of inductor is L Henry, and current I will flow at
steady state. When the switch is ON, a current will flow from zero to its steady value. But
due to self induction a induced voltage appears which is

this E always in the opposite direction of the rate of change of current.

Now here the energy or work done due to this current passing through this inductor is U.
As the current starts from its zero value and flowing against the induced emf E, the energy
will grow up gradually from zero value to U.
, where W is the small power and
So, the energy stored in the inductor is given by

Now integrate the energy from 0 to its final value.

Again

as per dimension of the coil, where N is the number of turns of the coil, A is the effective
cross-sectional area of the coil and l is the effective length of the coil.
Again,

Where, H is the magnetizing force, N is the number of turns of the coil and l is the effective
length of the coil.
Also
Therefore,
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Now putting expression of L and I in equation of U, we get new expression i.e.

So, the stored energy in a electromagnetic field i.e. a conductor can be calculated from its
dimension and flux density.

Now let us start discussion about energy stored in magnetic circuit having magnetic field due
to permanent magnet.
Total flux flowing through the magnet cross-sectional area A is Φ.
Then we can write that Φ = B.A, where B is the flux density.
Now this flux Φ is of two types, (a) Φr this is remanent flux of the magnet and (b) Φd this is
demagnetizing flux.
So,

as per conservation of the magnetic flux Law.

Again, Bd = μ. H, here H is the magnetic flux intensity.

Now MMF or Magneto Motive Force can be calculated from H and dimension of the magnet.

where l is the effective distance between two poles.

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Now to calculate energy we have to first go for the reluctance of the magnetic flux path.
Magnet’s internal reluctance path that is for demagnetizing is denoted as Rm,
And

Now Wm, is the energy stored in the magnet’s internal reluctance.

Now energy density

Look at the model below. Dotted lined box is the magnet and one reluctance path R l for the
mechanical load is connected across the magnet.

Now apply node equation and loop equation, we get

Again,

Now , If we do any mechanical work inside a magnetic field, then the energy required W.

Again, if we place a electromagnetic coil in the vicinity of a permanent magnet, then this coil
will experience a force. To move this coil some work is done. This energy density is the co-
energy with respect to the permanent magnet and the coil magnet. Magnetizing flux intensity
for the permanent magnet is H and for the coil is H C.
This co-energy is denoted as

Where, B is the flux density at the coil position near the permanent magnet.

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Force and torque on a conductor in a magnetic field:
The force on a moving particle of electric charge q in a magnetic field is given by the
Lorentz's force law:

is determined by the magnitude of the charge on the particle and the magnitude of the B field
as well as the velocity of the particle. In fact, the direction of the force is always
perpendicular to the direction of both the particle motion and that of the magnetic field.
Mathematically, this is indicated by the vector cross product v × B in above Eq.. The
magnitude of this cross product is equal to the product of the magnitudes of v and B and the
sine of the angle between them; its direction can be found from the fight-hand rule, which
states that when the thumb of the fight hand points in the direction of v and the index finger
points in the direction of B, the force, which is perpendicular to the directions of both B and
v, points in the direction normal to the palm of the hand as shown in fig.

The force acting on a current carrying conductor can be directly derived from the equation as

where C is the contour of the conductor. For a homogeneous conductor of length l carrying
current I in a uniform magnetic field, the above expression can be reduced to

In a rotating system, the torque about an axis can be calculated by

where r is the radius vector from the axis towards the conductor.

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Force and torque as a partial derivative of stored energy with respect to angular
position of a moving element/rotating element:

Energy Conversion Process-

The energy transfer equation is as follows:

i n ni n n in n
in n in n i i
The energy balance can therefore be written as:
i n in ni n n in i
i n i i n n in n
For the lossless magnetic energy storage system in differential form,

dWe = i d  = differential change in electric energy input

dWm = fmdx = differential change in mechanical energy output
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy

We can write

Here e is the voltage induced in the electric terminals by changing magnetic stored energy.

Together with Faraday’s law for induced voltage, form the basis for the energy method.

Consider a singly excited linear actuator/electromagnetic relay as shown below. The winding
resistance is R. At a certain time instant t, we record that the terminal voltage applied to the
excitation winding is v, the excitation winding current i, the position of the movable plunger
x, and the force acting on the plunger F with the reference direction chosen in the positive

34
direction of the x axis, as shown in the diagram. After a time interval dt, we notice that the
plunger has moved for a distance dx under the action of the force F.

Fig. A singly excited linear actuator

Fig. Schematic of an electromagnetic relay

The amount of electrical energy that has been transferred into the magnetic field and
converted into the mechanical work during this time interval can be calculated by subtracting
the power loss dissipated in the winding resistance from the total power fed into the
excitation winding as

Because

We can write

Value of Wf is uniquely specified by the values of  and x, since the magnetic energy storage
system is lossless.

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dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy

The -i characteristics of an electromagnetic system depends on the air-gap length and B-H
characteristics of the magnetic material.

For a larger air-gap length the characteristic is essentially linear. The characteristic becomes
non linear as the air-gap length decreases.

36
For a particular value of air-gap length, the field energy is represented by the upper area
between  axis and -i characteristic. The lower area between i axis and  - i characteristic is
known as the co-energy
The co-energy is defined as

From the figure of  - i characteristic,

Note that if the  - i characteristic is non linear and if it is linear.

The quantity of coenergy has no physical significance. However, it can be used to derive
expressions for force (torque) developed in an electromagnetic system.
Determination of Force from Energy:
The magnetic stored energy Wf is a state function, determined uniquely by the independent
state variables λ and x. This is shown explicitly by

For any function of two independent variables F(x1 ,x2 ), the total differential equation of F
with respect to the two state variables x1 and x2 can be written

Therefore, for the total differential of Wf

And we know that

Therefore, by comparing the above two equations, we conclude

where the partial derivative is taken while holding x constant and the mechanical force:

37
where the partial derivative is taken while holding  constant.
From the knowledge of electromagnetics, the energy stored in a magnetic field can be
expressed as

For a magnetically linear (with a constant permeability or a straight line magnetization curve
such that the inductance of the coil is independent of the excitation current) system for which
, the above expression becomes

and the force(F) acting on the plunger can be found directly

Determination of Torque from Energy:

For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal, the mechanical terminal variables become
the angular displacement θ and the torque T. Therefore, equation for the torque:

where the partial derivative is taken while holding  constant.

The negative sign shows that the force acts in a direction to decrease the magnetic field stored
energy at constant flux.
The selection of energy or coenergy as the function to find the force is purely a matter of
convenience.
They both give the same result, but one or the other may be simpler analytically, depending
on the desired result and characteristics of the system being analyzed.
Determination of Force from Co-energy: Mathematically, if we define the area underneath
the magnetization curve as the co-energy (which does not exist physically), i.e.

and the differential coenergy

38
We know previously that

So, the differential coenergy

By expanding

and, from the previous result

By matching both equations,

where the partial derivative is taken while holding x constant.

and the mechanical force

where the partial derivative is taken while holding i constant.

From the above diagram, the co-energy or the area underneath the magnetization curve can
be calculated by

For a magnetically linear system for which =L(x)i, the above expression becomes

and the force(F) acting can be found directly

39
The positive sign emphasizes that the force acts in a direction to increase the coenergy at
constant current.
Determination of Torque from Coenergy: For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal,
the mechanical terminal variables become the angular displacement θ and the torque T.
Therefore, equation for the torque:

where the partial derivative is taken while holding i constant.

Singly Excited Rotating Actuator:

The singly excited linear actuator mentioned above becomes a singly excited rotating actuator
if the linearly movable plunger is replaced by a rotor, as illustrated in the diagram below.
Through a derivation similar to that for a singly excited linear actuator, one can readily obtain
that the torque acting on the rotor can be expressed as the negative partial derivative of the
energy stored in the magnetic field against the angular displacement or as the positive partial
derivative of the co-energy against the angular displacement, as summarized in the following
table.

Table: Torque in a singly excited rotating actuator

Energy Co-energy
In general,

40
If the permeability is a constant,

Doubly Excited Rotating Actuator:

Most of the energy converters, particularly the higher-power ones, produce rotational motion.
The essential part of a rotating electromagnetic system is shown in the figure. The fixed part
is called the stator, the moving part is called the rotor. The rotor is mounted on a shaft and is
free to rotate between the poles of the stator.
The general principle for force and torque calculation discussed above is equally applicable
to multi-excited systems. Consider a doubly excited rotating actuator shown schematically in
the diagram below as an example.

The differential energy and co-energy functions can be derived as following:

Where

41
and

Hence,

and

Therefore, comparing the corresponding differential terms, we obtain

For magnetically linear systems, current and flux linkages can be related by constant
inductances as following

or

The magnetic energy and coenergy can be expressed as

and

42
respectively, and it can be shown that they are equal.
Therefore, the torque acting on the rotor can be calculated

43