AN OVERVIEW OF SYSTEMS

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT IS SYSTEMATIC PROCESS WHICH

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS:
IT IS A PROCESS OF COLLECTING AND INTERPRETING
FACTS, IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEMS, AND
DECOMPOSITION OF A SYSTEM INTO ITS COMPONENTS.
SYSTEM ANALYSIS IS CONDUCTED FOR THE PURPOSE OF
STUDYING A SYSTEM OR ITS PARTS IN ORDER TO IDENTIFY
ITS OBJECTIVES. IT IS A PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUE
THAT IMPROVES THE SYSTEM AND ENSURES THAT ALL
THE COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEM WORK EFFICIENTLY
TO ACCOMPLISH THEIR PURPOSE.
ANALYSIS SPECIFIES WHAT THE SYSTEM SHOULD DO.
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SYSTEMS DESIGN
IT IS A PROCESS OF PLANNING A NEW BUSINESS SYSTEM OR
REPLACING AN EXISTING SYSTEM BY DEFINING ITS COMPONENTS
OR MODULES TO SATISFY THE SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS. BEFORE
PLANNING, YOU NEED TO UNDERSTAND THE OLD SYSTEM
THOROUGHLY AND DETERMINE HOW COMPUTERS CAN BEST BE
USED IN ORDER TO OPERATE EFFICIENTLY. SYSTEM DESIGN
FOCUSES ON HOW TO ACCOMPLISH THE OBJECTIVE OF THE SYSTEM.
SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN (SAD) MAINLY FOCUSES ON −
• SYSTEMS
• PROCESSES
• TECHNOLOGY
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WHAT IS A SYSTEM?
THE WORD SYSTEM IS DERIVED FROM GREEK WORD
SYSTEMA, WHICH MEANS AN ORGANIZED RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN ANY SET OF COMPONENTS TO ACHIEVE SOME
COMMON CAUSE OR OBJECTIVE.
A SYSTEM IS “AN ORDERLY GROUPING OF
INTERDEPENDENT COMPONENTS LINKED TOGETHER
ACCORDING TO A PLAN TO ACHIEVE A SPECIFIC GOAL.”
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CONSTRAINTS OF A SYSTEM
A SYSTEM MUST HAVE THREE BASIC CONSTRAINTS −
A SYSTEM MUST HAVE SOME STRUCTURE AND BEHAVIOR
WHICH IS DESIGNED TO ACHIEVE A PREDEFINED OBJECTIVE.
INTERCONNECTIVITY AND INTERDEPENDENCE MUST EXIST
AMONG THE SYSTEM COMPONENTS. THE OBJECTIVES OF THE
ORGANIZATION HAVE A HIGHER PRIORITY THAN THE
OBJECTIVES OF ITS SUBSYSTEMS.
FOR EXAMPLE, TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, PAYROLL
SYSTEM, AUTOMATIC LIBRARY SYSTEM, HUMAN RESOURCES
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PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
A SYSTEM HAS THE FOLLOWING PROPERTIES −
ORGANIZATION:
ORGANIZATION IMPLIES STRUCTURE AND ORDER. IT IS
THE ARRANGEMENT OF COMPONENTS THAT HELPS TO
ACHIEVE PREDETERMINED OBJECTIVES.
INTERACTION:
IT IS DEFINED BY THE MANNER IN WHICH THE
COMPONENTS OPERATE WITH EACH OTHER.
FOR EXAMPLE, IN AN ORGANIZATION, PURCHASING
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INTERDEPENDENCE:
INTERDEPENDENCE MEANS HOW THE COMPONENTS OF A
SYSTEM DEPEND ON ONE ANOTHER. FOR PROPER
FUNCTIONING, THE COMPONENTS ARE COORDINATED
AND LINKED TOGETHER ACCORDING TO A SPECIFIED
PLAN. THE OUTPUT OF ONE SUBSYSTEM IS THE REQUIRED
BY OTHER SUBSYSTEM AS INPUT.
INTEGRATION:
INTEGRATION IS CONCERNED WITH HOW A SYSTEM
COMPONENTS ARE CONNECTED TOGETHER. IT MEANS
THAT THE PARTS OF THE SYSTEM WORK TOGETHER
WITHIN THE SYSTEM EVEN IF EACH PART PERFORMS A
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CENTRAL OBJECTIVE
THE OBJECTIVE OF SYSTEM MUST BE CENTRAL. IT MAY BE
REAL OR STATED.
IT IS NOT UNCOMMON FOR AN ORGANIZATION TO STATE
AN OBJECTIVE AND OPERATE TO ACHIEVE ANOTHER.
THE USERS MUST KNOW THE MAIN OBJECTIVE OF A
COMPUTER APPLICATION EARLY IN THE ANALYSIS FOR A
SUCCESSFUL DESIGN AND CONVERSION.
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ELEMENTS OF A SYSTEM
THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAM SHOWS THE ELEMENTS OF A
SYSTEM −
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OUTPUTS AND INPUTS
THE MAIN AIM OF A SYSTEM IS TO PRODUCE AN OUTPUT
WHICH IS USEFUL FOR ITS USER. INPUTS ARE THE
INFORMATION THAT ENTERS INTO THE SYSTEM FOR
PROCESSING. OUTPUT IS THE OUTCOME OF PROCESSING.
PROCESSOR(S)
• THE PROCESSOR IS THE ELEMENT OF A SYSTEM THAT
INVOLVES THE ACTUAL TRANSFORMATION OF INPUT INTO
OUTPUT. IT IS THE OPERATIONAL COMPONENT OF A
SYSTEM.
• PROCESSORS MAY MODIFY THE INPUT EITHER TOTALLY
OR PARTIALLY, DEPENDING ON THE OUTPUT
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CONTROL
• THE CONTROL ELEMENT GUIDES THE SYSTEM.
• IT IS THE DECISION–MAKING SUBSYSTEM THAT
CONTROLS THE PATTERN OF ACTIVITIES GOVERNING
INPUT, PROCESSING, AND OUTPUT.
• THE BEHAVIOR OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM IS
CONTROLLED BY THE OPERATING SYSTEM AND
SOFTWARE. IN ORDER TO KEEP SYSTEM IN BALANCE,
WHAT AND HOW MUCH INPUT IS NEEDED IS
DETERMINED BY OUTPUT SPECIFICATIONS.
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FEEDBACK
• FEEDBACK PROVIDES THE CONTROL IN A DYNAMIC
SYSTEM.
• POSITIVE FEEDBACK IS ROUTINE IN NATURE THAT
ENCOURAGES THE PERFORMANCE OF THE SYSTEM.
• NEGATIVE FEEDBACK IS INFORMATIONAL IN NATURE
THAT PROVIDES THE CONTROLLER WITH INFORMATION
FOR ACTION.
ENVIRONMENT
THE ENVIRONMENT IS THE “SUPERSYSTEM” WITHIN WHICH
AN ORGANIZATION OPERATES. IT IS THE SOURCE OF
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BOUNDARIES AND INTERFACE
• A SYSTEM SHOULD BE DEFINED BY ITS BOUNDARIES.
BOUNDARIES ARE THE LIMITS THAT IDENTIFY ITS
COMPONENTS, PROCESSES, AND INTERRELATIONSHIP
WHEN IT INTERFACES WITH ANOTHER SYSTEM.
• EACH SYSTEM HAS BOUNDARIES THAT DETERMINE ITS
SPHERE OF INFLUENCE AND CONTROL.
• THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE BOUNDARIES OF A GIVEN
SYSTEM IS CRUCIAL IN DETERMINING THE NATURE OF
ITS INTERFACE WITH OTHER SYSTEMS FOR
SUCCESSFUL DESIGN.
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TYPES OF SYSTEMS
THE SYSTEMS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES −
PHYSICAL OR ABSTRACT SYSTEMS
• PHYSICAL SYSTEMS ARE TANGIBLE ENTITIES. WE CAN
TOUCH AND FEEL THEM.
• PHYSICAL SYSTEM MAY BE STATIC OR DYNAMIC IN
NATURE. FOR EXAMPLE, DESKS AND CHAIRS ARE THE
PHYSICAL PARTS OF COMPUTER CENTER WHICH ARE
STATIC. A PROGRAMMED COMPUTER IS A DYNAMIC
SYSTEM IN WHICH PROGRAMS, DATA, AND APPLICATIONS
CAN CHANGE ACCORDING TO THE USER'S NEEDS.
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OPEN OR CLOSED SYSTEMS
AN OPEN SYSTEM MUST INTERACT WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT. IT
RECEIVES INPUTS FROM AND DELIVERS OUTPUTS TO THE
OUTSIDE OF THE SYSTEM. FOR EXAMPLE, AN INFORMATION
SYSTEM WHICH MUST ADAPT TO THE CHANGING
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS. A CLOSED SYSTEM DOES NOT
INTERACT WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT. IT IS ISOLATED FROM
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES. A COMPLETELY CLOSED SYSTEM
IS RARE IN REALITY.
ADAPTIVE AND NON ADAPTIVE SYSTEM
ADAPTIVE SYSTEM RESPONDS TO THE CHANGE IN THE
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PERMANENT OR TEMPORARY SYSTEM
PERMANENT SYSTEM PERSISTS FOR LONG TIME. FOR
EXAMPLE, BUSINESS POLICIES. TEMPORARY SYSTEM IS
MADE FOR SPECIFIED TIME AND AFTER THAT THEY ARE
DEMOLISHED. FOR EXAMPLE, A DJ SYSTEM IS SET UP FOR
A PROGRAM AND IT IS DISSEMBLED AFTER THE PROGRAM.
NATURAL AND MANUFACTURED SYSTEM
NATURAL SYSTEMS ARE CREATED BY THE NATURE. FOR
EXAMPLE, SOLAR SYSTEM, SEASONAL SYSTEM.
MANUFACTURED SYSTEM IS THE MAN-MADE SYSTEM. FOR
EXAMPLE, ROCKETS, DAMS, TRAINS.
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DETERMINISTIC OR PROBABILISTIC SYSTEM:
DETERMINISTIC SYSTEM OPERATES IN A PREDICTABLE
MANNER AND THE INTERACTION BETWEEN SYSTEM
COMPONENTS IS KNOWN WITH CERTAINTY. FOR
EXAMPLE, TWO MOLECULES OF HYDROGEN AND ONE
MOLECULE OF OXYGEN MAKES WATER. PROBABILISTIC
SYSTEM SHOWS UNCERTAIN BEHAVIOR. THE EXACT
OUTPUT IS NOT KNOWN. FOR EXAMPLE, WEATHER
FORECASTING, MAIL DELIVERY.
SOCIAL, HUMAN-MACHINE, MACHINE SYSTEM:
SOCIAL SYSTEM IS MADE UP OF PEOPLE. FOR EXAMPLE,
SOCIAL CLUBS, SOCIETIES. IN HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEM,
BOTH HUMAN AND MACHINES ARE INVOLVED TO
PERFORM A PARTICULAR TASK. FOR EXAMPLE,
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MAN–MADE INFORMATION SYSTEMS
IT IS AN INTERCONNECTED SET OF INFORMATION RESOURCES TO
MANAGE DATA FOR PARTICULAR ORGANIZATION, UNDER DIRECT
MANAGEMENT CONTROL (DMC). THIS SYSTEM INCLUDES HARDWARE,
SOFTWARE, COMMUNICATION, DATA, AND APPLICATION FOR PRODUCING
INFORMATION ACCORDING TO THE NEED OF AN ORGANIZATION.
MAN-MADE INFORMATION SYSTEMS ARE DIVIDED INTO THREE TYPES −
• FORMAL INFORMATION SYSTEM − IT IS BASED ON THE FLOW OF
INFORMATION IN THE FORM OF MEMOS, INSTRUCTIONS, ETC., FROM
TOP LEVEL TO LOWER LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT.
• INFORMAL INFORMATION SYSTEM − THIS IS EMPLOYEE BASED
SYSTEM WHICH SOLVES THE DAY TO DAY WORK RELATED
PROBLEMS.
• COMPUTER BASED SYSTEM − THIS SYSTEM IS DIRECTLY DEPENDENT
ON THE COMPUTER FOR MANAGING BUSINESS APPLICATIONS. FOR
EXAMPLE, AUTOMATIC LIBRARY SYSTEM, RAILWAY RESERVATION
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SYSTEMS MODELS
SCHEMATIC MODELS
A SCHEMATIC MODEL IS A 2-D CHART THAT SHOWS SYSTEM
ELEMENTS AND THEIR LINKAGES. DIFFERENT ARROWS ARE
USED TO SHOW INFORMATION FLOW, MATERIAL FLOW, AND
INFORMATION FEEDBACK.
FLOW SYSTEM MODELS
A FLOW SYSTEM MODEL SHOWS THE ORDERLY FLOW OF THE
MATERIAL, ENERGY, AND INFORMATION THAT HOLD THE
SYSTEM TOGETHER.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE (PERT), FOR
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STATIC SYSTEM MODELS
THEY REPRESENT ONE PAIR OF RELATIONSHIPS SUCH AS
ACTIVITY–TIME OR COST–QUANTITY. THE GANTT CHART, FOR
EXAMPLE, GIVES A STATIC PICTURE OF AN ACTIVITY-TIME
RELATIONSHIP.
DYNAMIC SYSTEM MODELS
BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS ARE DYNAMIC SYSTEMS. A
DYNAMIC MODEL APPROXIMATES THE TYPE OF
ORGANIZATION OR APPLICATION THAT ANALYSTS DEAL
WITH. IT SHOWS AN ONGOING, CONSTANTLY CHANGING
STATUS OF THE SYSTEM. IT CONSISTS OF −
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CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION
THERE ARE THREE CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION RELATED
TO MANAGERIAL LEVELS AND THE DECISION MANAGERS
MAKE.
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STRATEGIC INFORMATION
THIS INFORMATION IS REQUIRED BY TOPMOST MANAGEMENT
FOR LONG RANGE PLANNING POLICIES FOR NEXT FEW YEARS.
FOR EXAMPLE, TRENDS IN REVENUES, FINANCIAL
INVESTMENT, AND HUMAN RESOURCES, AND POPULATION
GROWTH.
THIS TYPE OF INFORMATION IS ACHIEVED WITH THE AID OF
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM (DSS).
MANAGERIAL INFORMATION
THIS TYPE OF INFORMATION IS REQUIRED BY MIDDLE
MANAGEMENT FOR SHORT AND INTERMEDIATE RANGE
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OPERATIONAL INFORMATION
THIS TYPE OF INFORMATION IS REQUIRED BY LOW
MANAGEMENT FOR DAILY AND SHORT TERM PLANNING TO
ENFORCE DAY-TO-DAY OPERATIONAL ACTIVITIES. FOR
EXAMPLE, KEEPING EMPLOYEE ATTENDANCE RECORDS,
OVERDUE PURCHASE ORDERS, AND CURRENT STOCKS
AVAILABLE.
IT IS ACHIEVED WITH THE AID OF DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS
(DPS).