Sri Lanka

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"Ceylon" redirects here. For other uses, see Ceylon (disambiguation).
Coordinates:  7°N 81°E

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

 ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය (Sinhala)

 இலங்கை சனநாயக சோசலிசக்
குடியரசு (Tamil)

Sinhala: Śrī Laṅkā Prajātāntrika Samājavādī Janarajaya
Tamil: Ilaṅkai Jaṉanāyaka Sōsalisak Kuṭiyarasu


Flag

Emblem

Anthem: "Sri Lanka Matha"

(English: "Mother Sri Lanka")
2:54
 Capital Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (legislative)[1]
Colombo (executive and judicial)[2]
6°56′N 79°52′E

Largest city Colombo

Official languages Sinhala
Tamil[3]

Recognised English
languages

Ethnic groups 74.9% Sinhalese
(2012[4]) 11.2% Sri Lankan Tamils
9.2% Sri Lankan Moors
4.2% Indian Tamils
0.5% Others
(incl. Burghers, Malays, Veddas, Chinese, I
ndians)

Religion 70.2% Buddhism (official)[5]
(2012) 12.6% Hinduism
9.7% Islam
7.4% Christianity
0.1% Other/None

Demonym(s) Sri Lankan

Government Unitary semi-presidential republic[6]

• President Ranil Wickremesinghe

• Prime Minister Dinesh Gunawardena
• Speaker of the Mahinda Yapa Abeywardena
Parliament
• Chief Justice Jayantha Jayasuriya

Legislature Parliament
 Formation
• Kingdom established[ 543 BCE
7]

• Rajarata established[8] 437 BCE

• Kandyan Wars 1796
• Kandyan 1815
Convention signed
• Independence 4 February 1948
• Republic 22 May 1972
• Current constitution 7 September 1978

Area
• Total 65,610 km2 (25,330 sq mi) (120th)
• Water (%) 4.4

Population
• 2020 estimate  22,156,000[9] (57th)

• 2012 census 20,277,597[10]
• Density 337.7/km2 (874.6/sq mi) (24th)

GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
• Total  $318.6 billion[11] (60th)

• Per capita  $14,230[11] (101th)

GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
• Total  $73.7 billion[11] (79th)

• Per capita  $3,293[11] (132th)

Gini (2016) 39.8[12]
medium

HDI (2021)  0.782[13]
high · 73rd

Currency Sri Lankan rupee (Rs) (LKR)

Time zone UTC+5:30 (SLST)

Date format dd-mm-yyyy

Driving side left

Calling code +94

ISO 3166 code LK

Internet TLD .lk

.ලංකා
 .இலங்கை

Website
gov.lk

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Sri Lanka (UK: /sri ˈlæŋkə, ʃriː -/, US: /- ˈlɑːŋkə/ ( listen); Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකා, romanized: Śrī

Laṅkā (IPA: [ʃriː laŋkaː]); Tamil: இலங்கை, romanized: Ilaṅkai (IPA: [ilaŋɡaj])), formerly
known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is
an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of
Bengal, and southeast of the Arabian Sea; it is separated from the Indian
subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait. Sri Lanka shares a maritime
border with India and Maldives. Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is its legislative capital,
and Colombo is its largest city and financial centre.
Sri Lanka has a population of around 22 million (2020) and is a multinational state,
home to diverse cultures, languages, and ethnicities. The Sinhalese are the majority
of the nation's population. The Tamils, who are a large minority group, have also
played an influential role in the island's history. Other long established groups
include the Moors, the Burghers, the Malays, the Chinese, and the
indigenous Vedda.[14]
Sri Lanka's documented history goes back 3,000 years, with evidence of prehistoric
human settlements that dates back at least 125,000 years. [15] The earliest
known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, known collectively as the Pāli canon, date to
the fourth Buddhist council, which took place in 29 BCE.[16][17] Also called the Teardrop
of India, or the Granary of the East, Sri Lanka's geographic location and deep
harbours have made it of great strategic importance, from the earliest days of the
ancient Silk Road trade route to today's so-called maritime Silk Road.[18][19][20] Because
its location made it a major trading hub, it was already known to both Far Easterners
and Europeans as long ago as the Anuradhapura period (377 BCE–1017 CE).
During a period of great political crisis in the Kingdom of Kotte,
the Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka and sought to control the island's maritime trade,
with a part of Sri Lanka subsequently becoming a Portuguese possession. After
the Sinhalese-Portuguese war, the Dutch and the Kingdom of Kandy took control of
those areas. The Dutch possessions were then taken by the British, who later
extended their control over the whole island, colonising it from 1815 to 1948. A
national movement for political independence arose in the early 20th century, and in
1948, Ceylon became a dominion. The dominion was succeeded by
the republic named Sri Lanka in 1972. Sri Lanka's more recent history was marred
by a 26-year civil war, which began in 1983 and ended decisively in 2009, when
the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.[21]
Sri Lanka is a developing country, ranking 73rd on the Human Development Index. It
is the highest-ranked South Asian nation in terms of development and has the
second-highest per capita income in South Asia; however, the ongoing economic
crisis has resulted in the collapse of the currency, rising inflation, and a humanitarian
crisis due to a severe shortage of essentials. It has also led to an eruption of street
protests, with citizens successfully demanding that the president and the government
step down.[22] The island has had a long history of engagement with modern
international groups: it is a founding member of the SAARC and a member of
the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the G77, and the Non-Aligned
Movement.

Toponymy
Main article: Names of Sri Lanka
In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to
the Mahāvaṃsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the
island Tambapaṇṇĩ ("copper-red hands" or "copper-red earth"), because his
followers' hands were reddened by the red soil of the area where he landed.[23]
[24]
 In Hindu mythology, the term Lankā ("Island") appears but it's unknown whether it
refers to the modern day state. But scholars generally agree that it must have been
Sri Lanka because it is so stated in the 5th century Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa.
[25]
 The Tamil term Eelam (Tamil: ஈழம், romanized: īḻam) was used to designate the
whole island in Sangam literature.[26][27] The island was known under Chola
rule as Mummudi Cholamandalam ("realm of the three crowned Cholas").[28]
Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā (Ancient Greek: Ταπροβανᾶ)
or Taprobanē (Ταπροβανῆ)[29] from the word Tambapanni. The Persians and Arabs
referred to it as Sarandīb (the origin of the word "serendipity")
from Sanskrit Siṃhaladvīpaḥ.[30][31] Ceilão, the name given to Sri Lanka by the
Portuguese Empire when it arrived in 1505,[32] was transliterated into English
as Ceylon.[33] As a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved
independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948.
The country is now known in Sinhala as Śrī Laṅkā (Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකා) and in Tamil
as Ilaṅkai (Tamil: இலங்கை, IPA: [iˈlaŋɡaɪ]). In 1972, its formal name was changed
to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". Later, on 7 September
1978, it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka". [34][35] As the
name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan
government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has
authority.[36]

History
Main article: History of Sri Lanka
Prehistoric Sri Lanka
Main article: Prehistory of Sri Lanka
The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back
as 500,000 years.[37] The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and early Iron Ages.
Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri
Lanka, Pahiyangala (37,000 BP), named after the Chinese traveller monk Faxian;
[38]
 Batadombalena (28,500 BP);[39] and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important.
In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains
of anatomically modern humans which they have named Balangoda Man, and other
evidence[40] suggesting that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic
dogs for driving game.[41]
The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people,
[42]
 an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri
Lanka.
During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with
southern India,[43] and shared the same megalithic burials, pottery, iron technology,
farming techniques and megalithic graffiti.[44][45] This cultural complex spread from
southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the Velir, prior to the migration
of Prakrit speakers.[46][47][44]
One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana,
which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka, that was created by the divine
sculptor Vishvakarma for Kubera, the God of Wealth.[48] It is said that Kubera was
overthrown by his rakshasa stepbrother, Ravana.[49]
Ancient Sri Lanka
Main articles: Pre Anuradhapura period and Anuradhapura period

Ptolemy's world map of Ceylon, first century CE, in a 1535 publication

According to the Mahāvamsa, a Pāḷi chronicle written in the 5th century CE, the

original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient
cemeteries that were used before 600 BCE have also been discovered in Sri Lanka.
[50]
 Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival of Prince Vijaya, a
semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being
expelled from Vanga Kingdom (present-day Bengal).[51] He established the Kingdom
of Tambapanni, near modern-day Mannar. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the
approximately 189 monarchs of Sri Lanka described in chronicles such as
the Dipavamsa, Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and Rājāvaliya.[52]
Once Prakrit speakers had attained dominance on the island,
the Mahavamsa further recounts the later migration of royal brides and service
castes from the Tamil Pandya Kingdom to the Anuradhapura Kingdom in the early
historic period.[53]
The Avukana Buddha statue, a 12-metre-tall (39 ft) standing Buddha statue from the reign of Dhatusena of
Anuradhapura, 5th century

The Anuradhapura period (377 BCE – 1017 CE) began with the establishment of

the Anuradhapura Kingdom in 380 BCE during the reign of Pandukabhaya.
Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400
years.[54] Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of structures such
as tanks, dagobas and palaces.[55] Society underwent a major transformation during
the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BCE,
[56]
 Mahinda, a bhikkhu and the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived
in Mihintale carrying the message of Buddhism.[57] His mission won over the monarch,
who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population.[58]
Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain many Buddhist schools and
monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries
in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist
University of Nalanda, which was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji. It is probable that
many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries
and that the written form of the Tripiṭaka, including Sinhalese Buddhist literature,
were part of the University of Nalanda. [59] In 245 BCE, bhikkhuni Sanghamitta arrived
with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the
historical Bodhi Tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightened.[60] It is
considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the
world. (Bodhivamsa)[61][62]
Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign
of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and
Guttika from South India.[58] The next invasion came immediately in 205 BCE by
a Chola named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44
years. Dutugamunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa,
defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. During its two and a half millennia of
existence, the Sinhala Kingdom was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring
South Indian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and Pallava. There also
were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Odisha) and from the Malay
Peninsula as well.

The Sigiriya ("Lion Rock"), a rock fortress and city, built by King Kashyapa (477–495 CE) as a new more
defensible capital. It was also used as a Buddhist monastery after the capital was moved back to
Anuradhapura.

The Fourth Buddhist Council of Theravada Buddhism was held at the Anuradhapura

Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka under the patronage of Valagamba of Anuradhapura in
25 BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri
Lanka were particularly poor and many Buddhist monks subsequently died of
starvation. Because the Pāli Canon was at that time oral literature maintained in
several recensions by dhammabhāṇakas (dharma reciters), the surviving monks
recognised the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks
whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations
died, the teachings would not be lost. [63] After the council, palm-leaf
manuscripts containing the completed Canon were taken to other countries such
as Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.
Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler: Anula of
Anuradhapura (r. 47–42 BCE).[64] Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable
construction projects such as Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during
the reign of Kashyapa I of Anuradhapura, who ruled between 477 and 495. The
Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats.
Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other
structures.[65][66]
In 993 CE, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sinhalese
ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this
situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V
was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of
Anuradhapura causing the fall of Anuradhapura Kingdom. Subsequently, they moved
the capital to Polonnaruwa.[67]
Post-classical Sri Lanka
Main articles: Polonnaruwa period and Transitional period of Sri Lanka
Following a 17-year-long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of
Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century. [68][69] Upon
his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish
Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.
[70]
 During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories,
namely, Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya.[71]

The seated image of Gal Vihara in Polonnaruwa, 12th century, which depicts the dhyana mudra, shows
signs of Mahayana influence.

Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign

of Parākramabāhu the Great (1153–1186).[72] This period is considered as a time
when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power. [73][74] He built 1,470 reservoirs – the
highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910
canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs. [75] His most famous
construction is the Parakrama Samudra,[76] the largest irrigation project of medieval
Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the
south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against
the kings of Ramanna (Burma) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka. [77]
After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215, Kalinga Magha, an
invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom,
invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa. He sailed from Kalinga[75] 690
nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous
invaders, he looted, ransacked and destroyed everything in the ancient
Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery. [78] His priorities in ruling
were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the
traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of
native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the
mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power. [79][80]
Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King
Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The
north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom.[79][80] The Jaffna
kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one
occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king Parâkramabâhu VI's adopted
son, Prince Sapumal.[81] He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE. [82]
The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically
shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including
Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte,[83] Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy.
In 1247, the Malay kingdom of Tambralinga which was a vassal of the Srivijaya
Empire led by their king Chandrabhanu[84] briefly invaded Sri Lanka from Insular
Southeast Asia. They were then expelled by the South Indian Pandyan Dynasty.
[85]
 However, this temporary invasion reinforced the steady flow of the presence of
various Austronesian merchant ethnic groups, from Sumatrans (Indonesia)
to Lucoes (Philippines) into Sri Lanka which occurred since 200 BCE. [86] Chinese
admiral Zheng He and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in
1409 and got into battle with the local king Vira Alakesvara of Gampola. Zheng He
captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him. [87][88][89][90] Zheng He erected
the Galle Trilingual Inscription, a stone tablet at Galle written in
three languages (Chinese, Tamil, and Persian), to commemorate his visit.[91]
[92]
 The stele was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved
in the Colombo National Museum.
Early Modern Sri Lanka
Main article: Kandyan period
See also: Portuguese Ceylon, Dutch Ceylon, and British Ceylon period
A 17th-century engraving of Dutch explorer Joris van Spilbergen meeting with King Vimaladharmasuriya in
1602

A 1595 map of Sri Lanka created by Dutch cartographer Petrus Plancius

The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier
and explorer Lourenço de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505.[93] In
1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of Colombo and gradually extended
their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare
with the Portuguese, Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his kingdom to the inland city
of Kandy, a location he thought more secure from attack. [94] In 1619, succumbing to
attacks by the Portuguese, the independent existence of the Jaffna kingdom came to
an end.[95]
During the reign of the Rajasinha II, Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638,
the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of the
Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[96] The following Dutch–Portuguese
War resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The
Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had
signed in 1638. The Burgher people, a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of
intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period. [97]
The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka. [98] In 1595,
Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic—the traditional symbol of royal
and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese—to Kandy and built the Temple of the
Tooth.[98] In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom
survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king Vira
Narendrasinha's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu-
speaking Nayakkar princess from South India (Madurai) and was childless by her.[98]
Eventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita Sarankara and ignoring the right
of "Unambuwe Bandara", the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's
princesses, overlooking Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine.[99] The
new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar
dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be
unsuccessful.[100]
Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of Kandy, the last ruling native Sri Lankan monarch

During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might
deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the
island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.[101] Two years later, in
1798, Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a
fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old
Kannasamy, was crowned.[102] The young king, now named Sri Vikrama Rajasinha,
faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War
ended in a stalemate.[102]
By then the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result
of the Treaty of Amiens. On 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in
the second Kandyan War, ending Sri Lanka's independence.[102] Sri Vikrama
Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India. [103] The Kandyan
Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri
Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were
thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg.[104]
The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke-
Cameron reforms of 1833.[105] They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture
to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime
provinces as a single unit of government. [105] An executive council and a legislative
council were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative
legislature. By this time, experiments with coffee plantations were largely successful.
[106]

Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee
prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and
prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops,
boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on
roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[106] These harsh measures antagonised the
locals, and another rebellion broke out in 1848.[107] A devastating leaf
disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the
entire industry within fifteen years.[108] The British quickly found a replacement:
abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead. Tea production in Sri
Lanka thrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the
early 20th century.

British appointed Kandyan chief headmen in 1905.

By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class transcending race

and caste arose through British attempts to staff the Ceylon Civil Service and the
legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives. [109] New leaders
represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative
Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted
against Christian missionary activities.[110][111] The first two decades in the 20th century
are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership,
which has since been lost.[112]
The 1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylon actually started in the early 1900s, but the first
case was documented in 1906.
In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon
National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam,[113] pressing
colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular
support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by
creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the
Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s. [114]
The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and
introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms).
This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that
they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon,
which succeeded the legislative council. [115][116] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G.
Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50%
for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by
the Soulbury reforms of 1944–45.
Contemporary Sri Lanka
Main article: History of Sri Lanka (1948–present)
See also: Sri Lankan independence movement and Sri Lankan Civil War
The formal ceremony marking the start of self-rule, with the opening of the first parliament at Independence
Square

The Soulbury constitution ushered in dominion status, with independence proclaimed

on 4 February 1948.[117] D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon.
[118]
 Prominent Tamil leaders including Ponnambalam and Arunachalam
Mahadeva joined his cabinet.[115][119] The British Royal Navy remained stationed
at Trincomalee until 1956. A countrywide popular demonstration against withdrawal
of the rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime minister Dudley Senanayake.[120]
S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule
had a profound impact through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged
Sinhalese culture".[121] He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act,
recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although
partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community,
which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture. [122][123][124]
The Federal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha)
against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement
(Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the
FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[125] The pact proved ineffective in the face of
ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with
various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political
rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders. [126] Bandaranaike
was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959. [127]
Leaders in 1960

Elizabeth II
Queen of Ceylon
 Sirimavo Bandaranaike
Prime Minister

1960 saw the election of Sirimavo Bandaranaike as Ceylon's Prime Minister and the first time in world
history that the heads of both state and government in a country were female.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in

1960, and withstood an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term as
prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening
ties with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In
1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In
1972, the country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion
status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an
election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling
Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s. [128] The policy of standardisation by the
Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrollment, which was
in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to
obtain tertiary education,[129] resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at
university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy. [130][131] The
assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by the Liberation Tigers of
Tamil Eelam (LTTE) marked a crisis point.[132][133]
The government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely
unpopular United Front government.[134] Jayawardene introduced a new constitution,
together with a free-market economy and a powerful executive presidency modelled
after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its
economy.[135] Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were manifested in an on-and-off
insurgency against the government by the LTTE. An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers
resulted in the anti-Tamil race riots in July 1983, allegedly backed by Sinhalese hard-
line ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island,
seeking asylum in other countries.[136][137]
Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms
and training.[138][139][140] In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and the Indian
Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the
region by neutralising the LTTE.[141] The same year, the JVP launched its second
insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka,[142] necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in
1990.[143] In October 1990, the LTTE expelled Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims by religion)
from northern Sri Lanka.[144] In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a
Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement. [124]
The 2004 Asian tsunami killed over 30,000 and displaced over 500,000 people in Sri
Lanka.[145][146] From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents
held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government
resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in
2008.[124] In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa, the Sri Lanka Armed
Forces defeated the LTTE, bringing an end to the civil war, and re-established
control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government. [147] Overall, between
60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the 26 years of conflict. [148][149]
Economic troubles in Sri Lanka began in 2019, when a severe economic
crisis occurred caused by rapidly increasing foreign debt, massive government
budget deficits due to tax cuts, a food crisis caused by mandatory organic farming
along with a ban on chemical fertilizers, and a multitude of other factors. [150] The Sri
Lankan Government officially declared the ongoing crisis to be the worst economic
crisis in the country in 73 years.[151] In August 2021, a food emergency was declared.
[152]
 In June 2022, Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe declared the collapse of the
Sri Lankan economy in parliament.[153] The crisis resulted in Sri Lanka defaulting on its
$51 billion sovereign debt for the first time in its history, along with double-digit
inflation, a crippling energy crisis that led to 15 hour power cuts, severe fuel
shortages leading to the suspension of fuel to all non-essential vehicles, and more. [154]
[155]
 Due to the crisis, massive street protests erupted across the country, with
protesters demanding the resignation of the then-incumbent President Gotabaya
Rajapaksa. The protests culminated with the storming of the President's House on
July 9, 2022, and resulted in President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fleeing to
Singapore[156] and later email his resignation to parliament, formally announcing his
resignation and making him the first Sri Lankan president to resign in the middle of
his term.[157] On the same day the President's House was stormed, protesters stormed
the private residence of the prime minister and burnt it down.[158]
On July 20, 2022, Ranil Wickremesinghe was elected as the ninth President via
a parliamentarian election.[159]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Sri Lanka

Topographic map of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka, an island in South Asia shaped as a teardrop or a pear/mango,[160] lies on

the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formerly part of the Indo-Australian
Plate.[161] It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between
latitudes 5° and 10° N, and longitudes 79° and 82° E.[162] Sri Lanka is separated from
the mainland portion of the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Strait. According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian
mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone
shoals remaining above sea level.[163] Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to
1480 CE, until cyclones deepened the channel.[164][165] Portions are still as shallow as 1
metre (3 ft), hindering navigation.[166] The island consists mostly of flat to rolling
coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point
is Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level.

A view of Sripada from Maskeliya

Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River, extending 335
kilometres (208 mi).[167] These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10
metres (33 ft) or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263
metres (863 ft).[168] Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km (985 mi) long.[169] Sri Lanka claims
an exclusive economic zone extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately
6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly
productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of
coastal and estuarine seagrasses.[170]
Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons.[169] Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem
spans over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves
in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[171] The island is rich in minerals such
as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolin, mica and thorium.[172][173] Existence
of petroleum and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed, and the
extraction of recoverable quantities is underway. [174]
Climate
Main article: Forestry in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka map of Köppen climate classification

The climate is tropical and warm because of moderating effects of ocean winds.

Mean temperatures range from 17 °C (62.6 °F) in the central highlands, where frost
may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of 33 °C (91.4 °F) in low-
altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to nearly
31 °C (87.8 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 °C (57.2 °F) to 18 °C
(64.4 °F).[175]
The rainfall pattern is influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay
of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands
receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in
the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern
parts of Sri Lanka constitute the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 and
1,900 mm (47 and 75 in) of rain annually.[176]
The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least rain at 800 to 1,200 mm
(31 to 47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring
overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island.
Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on
the seasonal patterns of rainfall.[177] An increase in average rainfall coupled with
heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to
infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy. [178]
Flora and fauna
Main articles: Environment of Sri Lanka and Wildlife of Sri Lanka
See also: List of mammals of Sri Lanka and List of birds of Sri Lanka

The Sri Lankan elephant is one of three recognised subspecies of the Asian elephant. The 2011 elephant
census estimated a population of 5,879.[179]

Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka were included among the first 18
global biodiversity hotspots due to high levels of species endemism. The number of
biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34.[180] Sri Lanka has the highest
biodiversity per unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all
vertebrate groups except birds.[181] A remarkably high proportion of the species among
its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals,
are endemic.[182] Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna of that stands at 453 species and
this include 240 species of birds that are known to breed in the country. 33
species are accepted by some ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists
consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six are considered as proposed
endemics.[183] Sri Lanka's protected areas are administrated by two government
bodies; The Department of Forest Conservation and the Department of Wildlife
Conservation. Department of Wildlife Conservation administrates 61 wildlife
sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and
one jungle corridor while Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65
conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the
country's land area is legally protected. This is a higher percentage of protected
areas when compared to the rest of Asia.[184]
Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests, Sri
Lanka montane rain forests, Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests, and Deccan
thorn scrub forests.[185] Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula.
Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such
as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical
evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and
creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates
flourish in the higher altitudes.[186]

The Sri Lankan leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya) is an endangered subspecies of leopard native to Sri

Lanka.

Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks.
The Wilpattu National Park in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the
habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island
has four biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-
Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.[187] Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds
and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive red-faced malkoha, the green-billed
coucal and the Sri Lanka blue magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja
flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%)
are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and
seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya
National Park borders the Minneriya Tank, which is an important source of water for
elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the
congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season
(August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park
also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical
monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas),
and grasslands (talawas).[188]

Maha rath mala (Rhododendron arboreum ssp. zeylanicum) is a rare sub-species of Rhododendron

arboreum found in Central Highlands of Sri Lanka.

During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the
government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national
parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to
2010. In 1956, 44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover
depleted rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010. [189]

Government and politics

 This section needs expansion with:
is missing explication of the
constitutional socialist nature of the
republic that is reflected in the
formal name of the country:
"Democratic Socialist Republic of
Sri Lanka". You can help by adding
to it. (July 2022)

Main article: Constitution of Sri Lanka

The old Sri Lankan Parliament building, near the Galle Face Green in Colombo. It now serves as
the Presidential Secretariat's headquarters.

Sri Lanka is a democratic republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-

presidential system.[190] Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia. [191] Most provisions
of the constitution can be amended by a two-thirds majority in parliament. The
amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and
reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and
approval in a nationwide referendum.
In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:

 Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state; the commander in

chief of the armed forces; chief executive, and is popularly elected for a five-year
term.[192] The president heads the cabinet and appoints ministers from
elected members of parliament.[193] The president is immune from legal
proceedings while in the office with respect to any acts done or omitted to be
done by him or her in either an official or private capacity. [194] Following the
passage of the 19th amendment to the constitution in 2015, the president has
two terms, which previously stood at no term limit.
 Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka is a unicameral 225-member legislature
with 196 members elected in multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected
by proportional representation.[195] Members are elected by universal suffrage for a
five-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session
and dissolve Parliament at any time after four and a half years. The parliament
reserves the power to make all laws.[196] The president's deputy and head of
government, the prime minister, leads the ruling party in parliament and shares
many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo

 Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court – the highest and
final superior court of record,[196] a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of
subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural
influences.[197] Criminal law is based almost entirely on British law. Basic civil law
derives from Roman law and Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce,
and inheritance are communal.[198] Because of ancient customary practices and
religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai,
and Sharia law are followed in special cases.[199] The president appoints judges to
the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service
commission, composed of the chief justice and two Supreme Court judges,
appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Sri Lanka and Elections in Sri Lanka

 National symbols of Sri Lanka

Flag Lion Flag

Emblem Gold Lion Passant

Anthem "Sri Lanka Matha"

Butterfly Sri Lankan birdwing

Animal Grizzled giant squirrel

Bird Sri Lanka junglefowl

Flower Blue water lily

Tree Ceylon ironwood (nā)

Sport Volleyball
 Source: [200][201]

 v

 t

 e

The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led
by the centre-left and progressive United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an
offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and
pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP).[202] Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party
democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist, and Tamil nationalist political
parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is
67.[203] Of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935, is the
oldest.[204]
The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest
single political party.[205] It is the only political group which had representation in all
parliaments since independence.[205] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D.
Bandaranaike in July 1951.[206] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the
ruling UNP in the 1956 Parliamentary election.[206] Following the parliamentary
election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the
world's first elected female head of government.[207]
G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,
[208]
 founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to
Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V.
Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu
Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political
party in Sri Lanka for next two decades.[209] The Federal Party advocated a more
aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.[210] With the constitutional reforms of 1972,
the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation
Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late
1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the Tamil
National Alliance.[210][211] Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist–Leninist political party
founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political
context.[212] It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist
leftist politics of the LSSP and the Communist Party.[210] Founded in 1981, the Sri
Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[213]
President Mahinda Rajapaksa lost the 2015 presidential elections, ending his ten-
year presidency. However, his successor as Sri Lankan President, Maithripala
Sirisena, decided not to seek re-election in 2019.[214] The Rajapaksa family regained
power in November 2019 presidential elections when Mahinda's younger brother and
former wartime defence chief Gotabaya Rajapaksa won the election, and he was
later sworn in as the new president of Sri Lanka. [215][216] Their firm grip of power was
consolidated in the parliamentary elections in August 2020. The family's political
party, Sri Lanka People's Front (known by its Sinhala initials SLPP), obtained a
landslide victory and a clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the
Rajapaksa family won seats in the new parliament. Former president Mahinda
Rajapaksa became the new prime minister. [217]
In 2022, a political crisis started due to the power struggle
between President Gotabaya Rajapaksa and the Parliament of Sri Lanka. The crisis
was fuelled by anti-government protests and demonstrations by the public and also
due to the worsening economy of Sri Lanka since 2019. The anti-government
sentiment across various parts of Sri Lanka has triggered unprecedented political
instability, creating shockwaves in the political arena. [218]
On July 20, 2022, Ranil Wickremesinghe was elected as the ninth President via
a parliamentarian election.[219]

Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Sri Lanka
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces[220] and twenty-
five districts.[221]
Provinces
Provinces in Sri Lanka have existed since the 19th century, but they had no legal
status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment of the 1978 constitution established
provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for
a decentralisation of the government.[222] Each provincial council is an autonomous
body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its functions had been
undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and
statutory authorities,[222] but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to
provincial councils.[223][224] Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern
provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province.[225][226] Prior to
1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil
service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is
administered by a directly elected provincial council:
 Bay of Bengal
Palk Strait
Northern Province
Gulf of
Mannar
North Central Province
North Western
Province
Eastern
Province
Central
Province
Uva Province
Western
Province
Sabaragamuwa
Province
Southern Province
Indian Ocean
 Provincial Sri Lanka
Density
Area Populatio GDP Prosperity
Province Capital (Persons
(km2) n (2012)[227] share (%) Index
per km2)
(2019)[228] (2019)[229]

Central Kandy 5,674 2,571,557 453 11.5 0.386

Eastern Trincomalee 9,996 1,555,510 155 5.7 0.107

North Central Anuradhapura 10,714 1,266,663 118 5.4 0.249

Northern Jaffna 8,884 1,061,315 119 4.7 0.373

North Western Kurunegala 7,812 2,380,861 305 10.7 0.310

Sabaragamuwa Ratnapura 4,902 1,928,655 393 7.6 0.254

Southern Galle 5,559 2,477,285 446 9.9 0.458

Uva Badulla 8,488 1,266,463 149 5.4 0.025

Western Colombo 3,709 5,851,130 1,578 39.1 1.615

Sri Jayawardenepura
Sri Lanka 65,610 20,359,439 310 100 0.802
Kotte and Colombo

Districts and local authorities

Each district is administered under a district secretariat. The districts are further
subdivided into 256 divisional secretariats, and these to approximately
14,008 Grama Niladhari divisions.[230] The districts are known in Sinhala as disa and in
Tamil as māwaddam. Originally, a disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony)
was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva.
There are three other types of local authorities: municipal councils (18), urban
councils (13) and pradeshiya sabha, also called pradesha sabhai (256). [231] Local
authorities were originally based on feudal counties named korale and rata, and
were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the divisional revenue officer.
[232]
 Later, the D.R.O.s became "assistant government agents," and the divisions were
known as "A.G.A. divisions". These divisional secretariats are currently administered
by a divisional secretary.

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Sri Lanka
See also: Sri Lanka and the Non-Aligned Movement

President J. R. Jayewardene gifting a baby elephant to US President Ronald Reagan in 1984

Sri Lanka is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). While

ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivated relations with
India.[233] Sri Lanka became a member of the United Nations in 1955. Today, it is also
a member of the Commonwealth, the SAARC, the World Bank, the International
Monetary Fund, the Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan.
The United National Party has traditionally favoured links with the West, while the Sri
Lanka Freedom Party has favoured links with the East. [233] Sri Lankan Finance
Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy
Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's
Conference held in Colombo in 1950.[234] At the San Francisco Peace Conference in
1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free Japan and
refused to accept payment of reparations for World War II damage because it
believed it would harm Japan's economy.[235] Sri Lanka-China relations started as
soon as the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. The two countries
signed an important Rice-Rubber Pact in 1952.[236] Sri Lanka played a vital role at
the Asian–African Conference in 1955, which was an important step in the
crystallisation of the NAM.[237]
The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western
policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under Fidel
Castro in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionary Che Guevara paid a visit to
Sri Lanka.[238] The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964[239] and Sirima-Gandhi Pact of
1974[240] were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve
the long-standing dispute over the status of plantation workers of Indian origin. In
1974, Kachchatheevu, a small island in Palk Strait, was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.
[241]
 By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM, and the fifth NAM
summit was held in Colombo in 1976.[242] The relationship between Sri Lanka and
India became tense under the government of J. R. Jayawardene.[143][243] As a
result, India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed
an Indian Peace Keeping Force in 1987.[244] In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive
relations with China,[245] Russia,[246] and Pakistan.[247]

Military
The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy,
and the Sri Lanka Air Force, come under the purview of the Ministry of Defence.
[248]
 The total strength of the three services is around 346,000 personnel, with nearly
36,000 reserves.[249] Sri Lanka has not enforced military conscription.[250] Paramilitary
units include the Special Task Force, the Civil Security Force, and the Sri Lanka
Coast Guard.[251][252]
Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been
internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of
the JVP and a 26-year-long conflict with the LTTE. The armed forces have been in a
continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.[253][254] The Sri Lankan Armed Forces
have engaged in United Nations peacekeeping operations since the early 1960s,
contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping
missions in Chad, Lebanon, and Haiti.[255]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Sri Lanka