Statistics and Probability

Lesson 1: Introduction to Statistics

Intro
History
Branches
Terms
Sampling
INTRO

Introduction

1.What is Statistics?
2.Why should I study statistics?
3.How can studying statistics
help me in my profession?
History
Branches
Terms
Sampling
INTRO

What is Statistics?

Is a sciences of planning studies and

experiments, collecting, organizing,
presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and
drawing conclusions based on the
data.
History
Branches
Terms
Sampling
INTRO

What is Statistics?

• Collections of data-refers to the process of

obtaining information.
• Organization of data refers to the ascertaining
manner of presenting the data into tables,
graphs, or charts so that logical and statistical
conclusion can be drawn from the collected
measurements.

History
Branches
Terms
Sampling
INTRO

What is Statistics?

• Analysis of data refers to the process of

extracting from the given data relevant
information from which numerical description
can be formed.
• Interpretation of data refers to the task of
drawing conclusions from the analyzed data.

History
Branches
Terms
Sampling
INTRO

Why should we study statistics?

• Essential for both understanding and

conducting research.
• Used to analyze data.
• Can help to discriminate between dact and
fiction.
• Helpful in knowing when, and for what
purpose, a statistician should be consulted.

History
Branches
Terms
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY

Branches
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Sampling
INTRO HISTORY

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INTRO HISTORY

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INTRO HISTORY

HISTORICAL NOTE
• A Scottish landowner and president of the
Board of Agriculture, Sir John Sinclair
introduced the word statistics in to the
English language in the 1798 publication of
his book on a statistical account of Scotland.
• The word statistics is derived from the Latin
word status, which loosely defined as a
statesman.

Branches
Terms
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY
HISTORICAL NOTE
• The origin of descriptive statistics can be
traced to data collection methods used in
censuses taken by the Babylonians and
Egyptians between 4500 and 3000 B.C.
• In addition, the Roman Emperor Augustus
conducted surveys on births and deaths of
the citizens of the empire, as well as the
number of livestock each owned and the
crops each citizen harvested yearly.
Branches
Terms
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY
HISTORICAL NOTE
• Inferential statistics originated in the 1600s,
when John Graunt published his book on
population growth, Natural and Political
Observation Made upon the Bills of Mortality.
• About the same time, another
mathematician/astronomer, Edmund Halley,
published the first complete mortality tables
(Insurance companies use mortality tables to
determine life insurance rates).
Branches
Terms
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES

Branches of Statistics

• Descriptive statistics
• Inferential statistics

Terms
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES

Branches of Statistics

•Descriptive statistics is the branch of

statistics that involves the collection,
organization, presentation,
summarization or analysis of data.

Terms
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES

Branches of Statistics
•Inferential statistics is the branch of statistics
that involves using a sample to interpret, and
draw conclusions based on the data or about a
population. A basic tool in the study of
inferential statistics is called probability. An
area of inferential statistics called hypothesis
testing is a decision-making process for
evaluation claims about population, based on
information obtained from samples.
Terms
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

VARIABLE (or Response Variable)

A characteristics or attribute
of interest about each individual
element of a population or sample
that can assume different values.

Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

VARIABLE (or Response Variable)

Example:
A student’s age at entrance into
college, the color of the student’s
hair, the student’s height, and the
student’s weight are four variables.
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

DATA
Consist of information coming from
observations, counts, measurements, or
responses.
The set of values that belong to the
sample. Once all the data are collected, it is
common practice to refer to the set of data as
the sample.

Sampling
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DATA
Example:
The set of 30 heights gathered
from 30 students is an example of a
set of data.

Sampling
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DATA VALUE
The value of the variable associated with
one element of a population or sample. This
may be a number, a word or a symbol

Sampling
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DATE VALUE
Example:
Angelo entered college at the of 23, his hair
is brown, he is 71 inches tall, and his weighs
183 pounds. These four data values are the
values for the four variables as applied to
Angelo.

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DATA SETS

Data sets are called

populations and samples.

Sampling
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DATA SETS (POPULATION)

Population
Collection of all outcomes, responses,
measurements, or counts that are of interest.
Consists of all subjects (human or
otherwise) that are being studied.

Sampling
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DATA SETS (POPULATION)

SAMPLE
• The City of Antipolo
• Students Sumulong College of Arts and
Sciences

Sampling
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DATA SETS (SAMPLE)

Sample
A sample is a subset, or part, of a
population. A sample is a group of subjects
selected from a population.

Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

DATE SETS (SAMPLE)

Example:
• The 16 barangays of Antipolo
City.
• Students from ABM/STEM/
HUMSS of SCAS.

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EXPERIMENT
A planned activity whose results yield a
set of data.
An experiment includes the activities for
both selecting the elements and obtaining the
data values.

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PARAMETER
A numerical description of a population
characteristics.
A numerical value summarizing all the
data of an entire population.

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STATISTIC
A numerical description of a sample
characteristics.
A numerical value summarizing the
sample data.

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PARAMETER AND STATISTIC

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SUMMARY

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CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES

Sampling
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TYPES OF DATA
• Qualitative (Attribute or
Categorical Variable)
• Quantitative (Numerical Variable)

Sampling
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TYPES OF DATA
Qualitative (Attribute or Categorical Variable)
Consist of attributes, labels, or nonnumerical entries.
A variable that describes or categorizes an element
of a population.
• Dichotomous
• Trichotomous
• Multinomous

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INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

TYPES OF DATA
Quantitative (Numerical Variable)
A variable that quantifies an element of a population.
Consist of numerical measurements of counts and
can be ordered or ranked and it can classify as discrete
variables or Continuous variables.

Sampling
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Types of Quantitative
Discrete Variables
Assume values that can be counted. Can be assigned
values such as 0, 1, 2, 3 and are said to be countable.
Example
The number of children in a family, the number of
students in a classroom, and the number of calls received
by a switchboard operator each day for a month.

Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

Types of Quantitative
Continuous Variables
Can assume an infinite number of values in an
interval between any two specific values. They are
obtained by measuring the often include fractions and
decimals.

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Types of Quantitative
Example:

Sampling
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MEASUREMENT SCALES
• Nominal Level
• Ordinal Level
• Interval Level
• Ratio Level

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MEASUREMENT SCALES
Nominal Level
Data are qualitative only. Data at
this level are categorized using names,
labels, or qualities. No mathematical
computation can be made at this level.

Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

MEASUREMENT SCALES
Example:
• Zip code
• Gender
• Eye color
• Politician/Religious affiliation
• Major field
• Nationality

Sampling
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MEASUREMENT SCALES
Ordinal Level
Data are qualitative and
quantitative. Data at this level can be
arranged I order, or ranked, but
differences between data entries are
not meaningful.
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

MEASUREMENT SCALES
Example:
• Grade A, B, C, D, F
• Ranking (1st, 2nd, 3rd place)
• Rating scale (poor, good, excellent)

Sampling
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MEASUREMENT SCALES
Interval Level
Data can be ordered, and meaningful
differences between data entries can be
calculated. At the interval level, a zero entry
simply represents a position on a scale; the
entry is not a inherent zero.
Note: An inherent zero is a zero that implies “none”
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

MEASUREMENT SCALES
Example:
• SAT score
• IQ
• Temperature

Sampling
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MEASUREMENT SCALES
Ratio Level
Data are similar to data at the interval
level, with the added property that a zero entry
is an inherent zero. A ratio of two data values
can be formed so that one data value can be
meaningfully expressed as a multiple of
another.

Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

MEASUREMENT SCALES
Example:
• Height
• Weight
• Time
• Salary
• Age
Sampling
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TYPES OF DATA & MEASUREMENT SCALES

Sampling
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CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
In experimental classification, a
researcher may classify variables
according to the function they serve in
the experiment.
• Independent variables
• Dependent variables
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INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
Independent variables
are variables controlled by the
experimenter/researcher, and expected
to have an effect on the behavior of the
subjects. The independent variables is
also called explanatory variable.
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CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
Dependent variable
Is some measure of the behavior of
subjects and expected to be influenced
by the independent variable. The
dependent variable is also called
outcome variable.
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CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
Example:
In the sit-up, the researchers gave
the groups two different types of
instructions, general and specific.

Sampling
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CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
Example: (contd.)
Hence, the independent variable is the type
of instruction.
The dependent variable is resultant
variable, that is, the number of sit-ups each
group was able to perform after four days of
exercise.

Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING

Sampling Techniques

• Census
• Sampling
• Sampling Frame
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Sampling Techniques
Census
It is a count or measure of
an entire population. Taking a
census provides complete
information, but it is often
costly and difficult to perform.
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING

Sampling Techniques

Sampling
It refers to the
process of selecting
individuals from target
population.
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING

Sampling Techniques

Sampling Frame
A list of all elements
or other units containing
the elements or members
in a population.
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING

Slovin’s Formula

It is used to calculate an
appropriate sample size
from a population.
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING

Slovin’s Formula
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
where,
𝑛 = Number of samples
N = Total Population
𝑒 = Marging of error or telerance (5%)
Margin of error is a value which
quantifies possibles sampling error.
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING

Example1:
The student’s population of Conception
College is 2,436. Compute the number
of sample using Slovin’s formula.
Use 𝑒 = 5%
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING

Solution 1.
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Example2:
At 5% margin of error, the number of
student respondents of a certain study is
265. assuming that the researcher used
the Slovin’s formula, what is the
student’s population?
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
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Solution 2.
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Solution 2. (cont.)
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Sampling Techniques

• Probability Sampling
• Non Probability
Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Probability sampling
Probability sampling or random sampling
is a process whose members had an equal
chance of being selected from the population.

Types of Probability Sampling:

• Simple Random Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Stratified Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Multistage Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Types of Probability Sampling: Simple Random
Sampling
It is a process of selecting 𝑛 sample size
in the population via random numbers or
through lottery.

Example:
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Types of Probability Sampling: Systematic
Sampling
A systematic sample is a sample in which
each member of the population is assigned a
number. The members of the population are
ordered in some way, a starting number is
random selected, and when sample members
are selected at regular intervals from the
starting number.
Example:
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Types of Probability Sampling: Stratified
Sampling
A stratified sample is a sample obtained
by dividing the population into subgroups,
called strata, according to various homogenous
characteristics and then selecting members
from each stratum for the sample.
Example:
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Types of Probability Sampling: Cluster
Sampling
Here the population is divided into
groups called cluster by some means such as
geographic area or schools in a large school
district, etc. then the research randomly
selects some of these custers and uses all
members of the selected clusters as the
subjects of the samples.
Example:
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Types of Probability Sampling: Multistage
Sampling
A sample design in which the elements
of the sampling frame are subdivided and the
sample can be obtained by using combination
of methods. This is usually used for nation,
regional, provincial or country level studies.
Example:
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Non Probability sampling
Nonprobability sampling or nonrandom
sampling is a sampling procedure where
samples selected in a deliberate manner with
little or no attention to randomization. Some
segments or the population do not have
chance or being selected or include in the
sample or cannot be specified.
Types of Probability Sampling:
• Convenience Sampling
• Purposive Sampling • Snowball Sampling
• Quota Sampling • Networking Sampling
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Types of Non Probability Sampling:
Convenience Sampling
A Convenience sample consist only of
available members of the population.

Example:
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Types of Non Probability Sampling: Purposive
Sampling
It is also called judgement sampling. The
sampling units are selected personally or
subjectively by the researcher, who attempts
to obtain a sample that appears to be
representative of the population.
Example:
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Types of Non Probability Sampling: Quota
Sampling
In this method, the researcher
determines the sampling size which should be
filled up. The basic idea is to set a target
number of completed interviews with
specified subgroups of the population of
interest.
Example:
A researcher might ask for a sample of 100
females, or in 100 individuals between the
ages of 20-30
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Types of Non Probability Sampling: Snowball
Sampling
It involves starting a process with one
individual or group and using their contacts to
develop the sample, hence “Snowball”.
Example:
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING
Types of Non Probability Sampling:
Networking Sampling
This is used to find socially devalued
urban populations such as addicts, alcoholics,
child abuser and criminals, because they are
usually “hidden from outsider”.
INTRO HISTORY BRANCHES TERMS SAMPLING

Collecting Data

• Interview
• Questionnaire
• Registration or Census
• Observation
• Experimentation
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Collecting Data

• Interview
This method presents
the collected data in
narrative and paragraphs
forms.
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Collecting Data

• Questionnaire
It is an inventory of
information listed down to
which a respondent answers.
There is no face to face
confrontation.
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Collecting Data

• Registration or Census
It requires the enactment
of law to take effect for it
needs the participation of a
large, if not the entire,
population.
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Collecting Data

• Observation
It makes use of the
different human senses in
gathering information.
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Collecting Data

• Experimentation
It is conducted in
laboratories where specimen
are subjected to some aspects
of control to find out cause
and effect ralationship.
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Presenting Data

• Textual Method
• Tabular Method
• Graphical Method
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Presenting Data

• Textual Method
This method presents
the collected data in
narrative and paragraph
forms.
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Presenting Data

• Textual Method
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Presenting Data

• Tabular Method
This method presents the
collected data in table which are
orderly arranged in rows and
columns for an easier and more
comprehensive comparison figures.
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Presenting Data

• Tabular Method
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Presenting Data

• Graphical Method
This method presents the
collected data in visual or pictorial
form to get a clear view of data.
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Presenting Data

• Graphical Method
 Questions?
NAKAKASABAY O NAKAKSABAW?