AIR CONDITIONING

OUTLINE:
Introduction:

Air/vapour Mixture, the psychometric chart, air conditioning processes: - Sensible cooling,
cooling with dehumidification, heating, humidification.

Air Conditioning Systems:

Comfort conditions, Room designs conditions, Components function, application of component,

Systems types, Equipment location to facilitate performance, elimination of vibration,
condensate and heat, servicing and energy saving, control of air-conditioning systems.

Ventilation:

Meaning of clean environment, air change rate, extract systems, exhaust hoods, fume
cupboards pressurization and rarefaction of spaces to control direction of pollution flow,
Application in Operation theater, Laboratories, Garages and Plant rooms.

Sizing of Air Conditioning Systems:

Designing and sizing of air conditioners.

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Introduction:

Air conditioning which deals with the comforts of human beings in an enclosed conditioned
space is known as Comfort Air Conditioning.

Comfort air-conditioning has been defined by Dr. D.W. Carrier as:

“Artificial simultaneous control within enclosures of variables such as; humidity, temperature,
air motion and air cleanliness.”

Any change in these conditions results in a change in the physiological functions of the body
and the body will try to adjust itself to prevalent conditions.

Airconditioning Fundamentals (Basic Terminologies):

Kilo-Calorie

It is defined as the amount of heat to be added (removed) to raise (lower) the temperature of
one Kg of water by one degree celesius.

BTU

It is defined as the amount of heat to be added (removed) to raise (lower) the temperature of
one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit.

1 Kilo - calorie = 3.97 BTU

Sensible heat

It is that heat which when applied to a body, results in a rise of its temperature. It is the heat
which is sensed by a thermometer.

Latent heat
It is that heat which when applied merely changes the state of substance, whether solid, liquid
or, gas, without causing any change in its temperature.
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Latent heat of fusion of ice: 80 k.cal/kg. (144 BTUs/Ib)

Latent heat of evaporation of water: 538.75 k.cal/kg (970 BTUs/lb)

Enthalpy

It is a calculated property of vapour which is defined as "Total heat content". It is the sum of the
sensible heat" and latent heat. '

Critical temperature (Tc)

There is a certain temperature for every liquid or gas, which is called its critical temperature.
When a gas is above its critical temperature, any amount of increase in pressure cannot liquify
it. When the temperature is below its critical point, the gas can be liquified without lowering its
temperature, by merely increasing the pressure.

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

Water boils at 100°C when the pressure on it is atmospheric. If the pressure is increased to
above atmospheric, the boiling point increases and if the pressure is decreased to below
atmospheric, the boiling point decreases. Boiling water does not necessarily have to be hot,
because if there is vacuum over the surface of the water, it will boil at a very low temperature.
The same thing is true in regard to other liquids such as, the various refrigerants which are used
to produce low temperatures. These refrigerants have the same properties as water except that
the range of their boiling points is lower.

PSYCHROMETRY
The art of measuring the moisture content of air is termed “Psychrometry”.

The science which investigates the thermal properties of moist air, considers the measurement
and control of the moisture content of air, and studies the effect of atmospheric moisture on
material and human comfort may properly be termed “Psychrometrics’’.

1. Dry air:The term ‘dry air’ is used to indicate the water free contents of air.

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2. Saturated air :Moist air is said to be saturated when its condition is such that it can
co-exist in natural equilibrium with an associated condensed moisture phase presenting a flat
surface to it.
3. Dry-bulb temperature (DBT):It is the temperature of air as registered by an ordinary
thermometer(tdb).
4. Wet-bulb temperature (WBT):It is the temperature registered by a thermometer
when the bulb is covered by a wetted wick and is exposed to a current of rapidly moving air
(twb).
5. Adiabatic saturation temperature:It is the temperature at which the water or ice
can saturate air by evaporating adiabatically into it. It is numerically equivalent to the
measured
wet bulb temperature (as corrected, if necessary for radiation and conduction) (twb).
6. Wet bulb depression:It is the difference between dry-bulb and wet bulb temperatures(tdb –
twb).
7. Dew point temperature (DPT):It is the temperature to which air must be cooled at
constant pressure in order to cause condensation of any of its water vapour. It is equal to steam
table saturation temperature corresponding to the actual partial pressure of water vapour in
the air (tdp).
8. Dew point depression:It is the difference between the dry bulb and dew point
temperatures(tdb – tdp).
9. Specific humidity (Humidity ratio):It is the ratio of the mass of water vapour per
unit mass of dry air in the mixture of vapour and air, it is generally expressed as grams of water
per kg of dry air. For a given barometric pressure it is a function of dew point temperature
alone.
10. Relative humidity (RH): It is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in
the mixture to the saturated partial pressure at the dry bulb temperature, expressed as
percentage.
11. Sensible heat:It is the heat that changes the temperature of a substance when added
to or abstracted from it.
12.Latent heat:It is the heat that does not affect the temperature but changes the state
of substance when added to or abstracted from it.
13. Enthalpy: It is the combination energy which represents the sum of internal and flow
energy in a steady flow process. It is determined from an arbitrary datum point for the air
mixture
and is expressed as kJ per kg of dry air (h).

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Note. When air is saturated DBT, WBT, DPT are equal.

Psychrometric Chart Use

Figure 1. Psychrometric Chart

Psychrometric Chart and Air Characteristics

A psychrometric chart presents physical and thermal properties of moist air in a graphical form.
It can be very helpful in troubleshooting greenhouse or livestock building environmental
problems and in determining solutions. Understanding psychrometric charts helps visualization
of environmental control concepts such as why heated air can hold more moisture, and
conversely, how allowing moist air to cool will result in condensation. The objective of this fact

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sheet is to explain characteristics of moist air and how they are used in a psychrometric chart.
Three examples are used to illustrate typical chart use and interpretation. Properties of moist
air are explained in the Definitions at the end for your reference during the following
discussions.

Psychrometric charts are available in various pressure and temperature ranges. Figure 1, at the
top of the page, is for standard atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) and temperatures of 30o to 120
oF which is adequate for most greenhouse or livestock housing applications. Psychrometric

properties are also available as data tables, equations, and slide rulers.

A psychrometric chart contains a lot of information packed into an odd-shaped graph. If we

dissect the components piece by piece, the usefulness of the chart will be clearer. Boundaries
of the psychrometric chart are a dry-bulb temperature scale on the horizontal axis, a humidity
ratio (moisture content) scale on the vertical axis, and an upper curved boundary which
represents saturated air or 100 percent moisture holding capacity. The chart shows other
important moist air properties as diagrammed in Figure 2: wet-bulb temperature; enthalpy;
dewpoint or saturation temperature; relative humidity; and specific volume. See Definitions for
explanation of these terms. Moist air can be described by finding the intersection of any two of
these properties and from that point all the other properties can be read. The key is to
determine which set of lines on the chart represent the air property of interest. Some practice
with examples will help. Use Figures 2 and 3 with the psychrometric chart in Figure 1 to verify
whether you can find each air property.

An understanding of the shape and use of the psychrometric chart will help in diagnosing air
temperature and humidity problems. Note that cooler air (located along lower, left region of
chart) will not hold as much moisture (as seen on the y-axis' humidity ratio) as warm air
(located along right side of chart). A rule of thumb, inside typical greenhouses or animal
buildings during winter conditions, is that a 10oF rise in air temperature can decrease relative
humidity 20 percent. Use of a psychrometric chart will show that this is roughly true. For
example, to decrease relative humidity in a winter greenhouse during a critical time period, we
could heat the air.

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Figure 2. Properties of moist air on a

psychrometric chart. Wet-bulb temperature
and enthalpy use the same chart line but
values are read off seperate scales.

Use of Psychrometric Chart in Greenhouse and Barn

Example 1 Find air properties

A sling psychrometer gives a dry-bulb temperature of 78oF and a wet-bulb temperature of 65oF.
Determine other moist air properties from this information. Two useful air properties for
environmental analysis in agricultural buildings would be relative humidity and dewpoint
temperature. Relative humidity is an indicator of how much moisture is in the air compared to
desirable moisture conditions, and dewpoint temperature indicates when condensation
problems would occur should the (dry-bulb) temperature drop.

Find the intersection of the two known properties, dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures, on the
psychrometric chart, Figure 1. The dry-bulb temperature is located along the bottom horizontal
axis. Find the line for 78oF, which runs vertically through the chart. Wet-bulb temperature is
located along diagonal dotted lines leading to scale readings at the upper, curved boundary
marked "saturation temperature". The intersection of the vertical 78oF dry-bulb line and the
diagonal 65oF wet-bulb line has now established a "state point" for the measured air. Now read
relative humidity as 50 percent (curving line running from left to right up through the chart) and
dewpoint temperature as 58oF (follow horizontal line, moving left, toward the curved upper

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boundary of saturation temperatures). This example is shown in Figure 3 so you may check your
work.

What might we conclude from this information? The relative humidity of 50 percent is
acceptable for most livestock and greenhouse applications. If we allowed the air temperature
(dry-bulb) to decrease to 58oF (dewpoint) or below, the air would be 100 percent saturated
with moisture and condensation would occur. The humidity ratio, as seen on the vertical, y-axis
scale, is a reliable indicator of air moisture level since it reflects the pounds of moisture
contained in a pound of dry air and does not fluctuate with dry-bulb temperature readings as
does relative humidity. The humidity ratio for air in this example is about 0.0104 lb moisture/ lb
dry air (move right horizontally from state point to humidity ratio scale).

Figure 3. Diagram of Example 1. Verify these values on the psychrometric chart (Figure 1).

Example 2 Winter ventilation

Often air is heated before it is introduced into greenhouse or young-livestock building

environments. Consider an application where outdoor air at 40oF (dry-bulb) temperature and
80 percent relative humidity is heated to 65oF (dry-bulb) before it is distributed throughout the
building.

Find the state point for the incoming cool air on the lower left portion of the psychrometric
chart (point A in Figure 4) Note that other properties of the 40oF air include a wet-bulb
temperature of 38oF a dewpoint temperature of about 34oF and humidity ratio of 0.0042 lb
moisture/ lb dry air. Heating air involves an increase in the dry-bulb temperature with no
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addition or reduction in the air's water content. The heating process moves horizontally to the
right along a line of constant humidity ratio. See Figure 4 for this heating process between
points A and B. Heating the air to 65oF (dry-bulb) has resulted in decreasing the relative
humidity to about 32 percent. The heated air entering the building is dry enough to be useful in
absorbing moisture from the plant or animal environment. (Verify that the heated air at point B
continues to have a dewpoint of 34oF and humidity ratio of 0.0042 lb moisture/ lb dry air.) The
heated air, with its lower relative humidity, can be mixed with moist, warm air already in the
building. As fresh air moves through an animal environment, it will pick up additional moisture
and heat before it reaches the ventilation system exhaust. We might measure the exhausted air
conditions at 75oF (dry-bulb) and 70 percent relative humidity, represented by point C in Figure
4. Note that in this exhausted air, the humidity ratio has tripled to 0.013 lb moisture/ lb dry air.
This means that a lot more water is ventilated out of the building in the warm, moist exhaust air
than was brought in by the cold, high relative humidity incoming air. This is one of the major
functions of a winter ventilation system: removal of moisture from the plant or animal
environment.

The air surrounding us is a mixture of dry air and moisture and it contains a certain amount of
heat. We are used to dealing with air temperature, relative humidity and, oftentimes, the
dewpoint as weather conditions are discussed. All these properties and more are contained in a
psychrometric chart. Chart shape and complexity take some getting used to. Refer to Figures 1
and 2. You will find that the upper curved boundary of the chart has one temperature scale yet
can represent three types of temperature: wet-bulb, dry-bulb, and dewpoint. This upper curved
boundary also represents 100 percent relative humidity or saturated air.

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Figure 4. Diagram of Example 2. Outdoor air at 40oF,80 percent relative

humidity (point A is heated to 65oF (point B) for use in ventilation. Exhaust air
(point C) at 75oF and 70% relative humidity contains three times the moisture
of the fresh air (point A and B).

Example 3 Winter ventilation

Evaporative cooling uses heat contained in the air to evaporate water. Air temperature (dry-
bulb) drops while water content (humidity) rises to the saturation point. Evaporation is often
used in hot weather to cool ventilation air. The process moves upward along the line of
constant enthalpy or constant web-bulb temperature, for example, from point D to point E in
Figure 5. Notice that hot dry air (points D to E with a 24oF temperature drop) has more capacity
for evaporative cooling than hot humid air (points F to G with only a 12oF temperature
decrese).

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Figure 5. Diagram of Example 3. Evaporative cooling process

with hot dry air from points D to E and with hot humid air from
points F to G. Notice greater evaporative cooling capacity with
dry air.

Definitions

Dry-bulb temperature is the commonly measured temperature from a thermometer. It is called

"dry-bulb" since the sensing tip of the thermometer is dry (see "wet bulb temperature" for
comparison). Dry-bulb temperature is located on the horizontal, or x-axis, of the psychrometric
chart and lines of constant temperature are represented by vertical chart lines. Since this
temperature is so commonly used, it can be assumed that temperatures are dry-bulb
temperatures unless otherwise designated.

Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water air can hold at a certain temperature. It
is "relative" with respect to the amount of water that air, at that same temperature, can hold at
100 percent humidity, or saturation. Air temperature (dry-bulb) is important because warmer
air can hold more moisture than cold air. Air at 60 percent relative humidity contains 60
percent of the water it could possibly hold (at that temperature). It could pick up 40 percent
more water to reach saturation. Lines of constant relative humidity are represented by the
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curved lines running from the bottom left and sweeping up through to the top right of the
chart. The line for 100 percent relative humidity, or saturation, is the upper, left boundary of
the chart.

Humidity ratio of moist air is the weight of the water contained in the air per unit of dry air. This
is often expressed as pounds of moisture per pound of dry air. Since the humidity ratio of moist
air is not dependent on temperature, as is relative humidity, it is easier to use in calculations.
Humidity ratio is found on the vertical, y-axis with lines of constant humidity ratio running
horizontally across the chart.

Dewpoint temperature indicates the temperature at which water will begin to condense out of
moist air. Given air at a certain dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity, if the temperature
is allowed to decrease, the air is no longer able to hold as much moisture. When air is cooled,
the relative humidity increases until saturation is reached and condensation occurs.
Condensation occurs on surfaces which are at or below the dewpoint temperature. Dewpoint
temperature is determined by moving from a state point horizontally to the left along lines of
constant humidity ratio until the upper, curved, saturation temperature boundary is reached.

Wet-bulb temperature is determined when air is circulated past a wetted sensor tip. It
represents the temperature at which water evaporates and brings the air to saturation.
Inherent in this definition is an assumption that no heat is lost or gained by the air. This is
different from dewpoint temperature where a decrease in temperature, or heat loss, decreases
the moisture holding capacity of the air, and hence, water condenses. Determination of wet-
bulb temperature on this psychrometric chart, follows lines of constant enthalpy but values are
read off the upper, curved, saturation temperature boundary.

Enthalpy is the heat energy content of moist air. It is expressed in Btu per pound of dry air and
represents the heat energy due to temperature and moisture in the air. Enthalpy is useful in air
heating and cooling applications. The enthalpy scale is located above the saturation, upper
boundary of the chart. Lines of constant enthalpy run diagonally downward from left to right
across the chart. Lines of constant enthalpy and constant wet-bulb are the same on this chart
but values are read off separate scales. More accurate psychrometric charts use slightly
different lines for wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy.

Specific volume indicates the space occupied by air. It is the increase of density and is
expressed as a volume per unit weight (density is weight per unit volume). Warm air is less
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dense than cool air which causes warmed air to rise. This phenomena is known as thermal
buoyancy. By similar reasoning, warmer air has greater specific volume and is hence lighter
than cool air. On the psychrometric chart, lines of constant specific volume are almost vertical
lines with scale values written below the dry-bulb temperature scale and above the upper
boundary's saturation temperature scale. On this chart, values range from 12.5 to 15.0 cubic
feet/ pound of dry air. Greater specific volume is associated with warmer temperatures (dry-
bulb).

Air Conditioning

An air conditioning system is the most complicated service utility in the building sector, because
it enables the complete control of the internal climatic conditions, by means of heating, cooling,
wetting and drying the air.

The use of air conditioning became popular in Europe in the seventies, in sharp contrast to the
USA, where it has been widespread since the twenties. The adoption of the use of air
conditioners to achieve thermal comfort has since been on the increase especially in the
tropics. One justification for the propagation of air conditioning globally is the significant
changes in the urban micro-climate, combined with the increase of the prevailing noise level
and the atmospheric pollution, which made natural ventilation no longer possible. At the same
time thermal comfort demands, on behalf of the users, have risen steadily whilst the initial cost
of air conditioning systems has dropped.

There are many different air conditioning systems available and the choice depends on the
function of the building, its architectural lay-out, the heating and cooling demand and of course
the financial restrictions.

Air Conditioning Processes

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Air Conditioning Processes illustrated on a Psychrometric Chart

In air conditioning processes heat is added to or extracted from the air to produce heating or
cooling. At any temperature, moist air will contain:

 Sensible heat for dry air.

 Sensible heat for water.
 Latent heat of evaporation.
 Sensible superheat for water vapor.

An adiabatic process is one in which the air loses sensible heat by an amount equal to the latent
heat gain.

Cooling is the transfer of energy from the space or air supplied to the space by virtue of a
difference in temperature between the source and the space or air. In the usual cooling process
air is circulated over a surface at a low temperature. Cooling usually denotes sensible heat
transfer, with a decrease in the air temperature.

Heating is the transfer of energy to a space or to the air in a space by virtue of a difference in
temperature between the source and the space or air. Heating can take place through direct
radiation and free convection, heating of forced circulated air, heating of water that is
circulated to the vicinity space.
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Dehumidifying is the transfer of water vapor from the atmospheric air. Latent heat transfer is
associated with this process. This process is most often accompanied by circulating the air over
a surface maintained at a sufficiently low temperature to cause the condensation of water
vapor from the mixture.

Humidifying is the transfer of water vapor to atmospheric air. This process is usually
accomplished by introducing water vapor or by spraying fine droplets of water that evaporate
into the circulating air stream.

Building Fabric

The building fabric is a critical component of any building, since it both protects the building
occupants and plays a major role in regulating the indoor environment. Consisting of the
building's roof, floor slabs, walls, windows, and doors, the fabric controls the flow of energy
between the interior and exterior of the building.

For a new project, opportunities relating to the building fabric begin during the pre-design
phase of the building. An optimal design of the building fabric may provide significant
reductions in heating and cooling loads-which in turn can allow downsizing of mechanical
equipment. When the right strategies are integrated through good design, the extra cost for a
high-performance fabric may be paid for through savings achieved by installing smaller HVAC
equipment.

The building fabric must balance requirements for ventilation and daylight while providing
thermal and moisture protection appropriate to the climatic conditions of the site. Fabric
design is a major factor in determining the amount of energy a building will use in its operation.
Also, the overall environmental life-cycle impacts and energy costs associated with the
production and transportation of different envelope materials vary greatly.

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In keeping with the whole building approach, the entire design team must integrate design of
the fabric with other design elements including material selection; day lighting and other
passive solar design strategies; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) and electrical
strategies; and project performance goals. One of the most important factors affecting fabric
design is climate. Hot/dry, hot/humid, temperate, or cold climates will suggest different design
strategies. Specific designs and materials can take advantage of or provide solutions for the
given climate.

A second important factor in fabric design is what occurs inside the building. If the activity and
equipment inside the building generate a significant amount of heat, the thermal loads may be
primarily internal (from people and equipment) rather than external (from the sun). This affects
the rate at which a building gains or loses heat. Building Configuration also has significant
impacts upon the efficiency and requirements of the building fabric. Careful study is required to
arrive at a building footprint and orientation that work with the building fabric to maximize
energy benefit.

Air Conditioning Systems

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Air-conditioning, or climate control, is the process of treating air so as to control simultaneously

its temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribution. All air-conditioning systems fall into
one of three major categories. Each type has certain functional and economic advantages.
Some are better than others for specific applications. The generic classification for these
systems is shown in the diagram.

Functions of Air-conditioners
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The biggest job an air conditioner has to do is to cool the indoor air. That's not all it does,
though. Air conditioners monitor and regulate the air temperature via a thermostat. They also
have an onboard filter that removes airborne particulates from the circulating air. Air
conditioners function as dehumidifiers.

The Parts of an Air Conditioner

The major parts of an air conditioner manage refrigerant and move air in two directions:
indoors and outside, these include:

 Evaporator - Receives the liquid refrigerant

 Condenser - Facilitates heat transfer
 Expansion valve - Regulates refrigerant flow into the evaporator
 Compressor - A pump that pressurizes refrigerant

The cold side of an air conditioner contains the evaporator and a fan that blows air over the
chilled coils and into the room. The hot side contains the compressor, condenser and another
fan to vent hot air coming off the compressed refrigerant to the outdoors. In between the two
sets of coils, there's an expansion valve. It regulates the amount of compressed liquid
refrigerant moving into the evaporator. Once in the evaporator, the refrigerant experiences a
pressure drop, expands and changes back into a gas. The compressor is actually a large electric
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pump that pressurizes the refrigerant gas as part of the process of turning it back into a liquid.
There are some additional sensors, timers and valves, but the evaporator, compressor,
condenser and expansion valve are the main components of an air conditioner.

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Although this is a conventional setup for an air conditioner, there are a couple of variations you
should know about. Window air conditioners have all these components mounted into a
relatively small metal box that installs into a window opening. The hot air vents from the back
of the unit, while the condenser coils and a fan cool and re-circulate indoor air. Bigger air
conditioners work a little differently: Central air conditioners share a control thermostat with a
home's heating system, and the compressor and condenser, the hot side of the unit, is not even
in the house. It is in a separate all-weather housing outdoors. In very large buildings, like hotels
and hospitals, the exterior condensing unit is often mounted somewhere on the roof.

Types of Air-conditioning Units

The residences, offices, shopping centers, stores, large buildings, theatres, auditorium etc. all
have slightly different requirements and require different design. The required cooling
capacities also vary widely depending upon the application. The factory assembled room air
conditioners are widely used for small residences, offices, etc. These units are available as
window type or split type. The capacities of these systems vary from a fraction of ton (TR) to
about 2TR. These systems use a vapour compression refrigeration system with a sealed
compressor and forced convection type evaporators and condensers. In the window unit type
all the components are housed in a single outer casing. In a split type air conditioner, the
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compressor and condenser with fan (commonly known as condensing unit) are housed in a
separate casing and is kept away from the indoor unit consisting of the evaporator, blower,
filter etc. The outdoor and indoor units are connected by refrigerant piping. For medium sized
buildings factory assembled package units are available, while for very large buildings a central
air conditioning system is used.

1. Window AC Units

A window air conditioner unit implements a complete air conditioner in a small space. The units
are made small enough to fit into a standard window frame. Typical window unit air
conditioner contains:

 A compressor
 An expansion valve
 A hot coil (on the outside)
 A chilled coil (on the inside)
 Two fans
 A control unit

The fans blow air over the coils to improve their ability to dissipate heat (to the outside air) and
cold (to the room being cooled).

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Schematic of window type room air conditioner

2. Split-system AC Units

For larger air-conditioning applications, split-system units are considered. A split-system air
conditioner splits the hot side from the cold side of the system, as in the diagram below.

The cold side, consisting of the expansion valve and the cold coil, is generally placed into a
furnace or some other air handler. The air handler blows air through the coil and routes the air
throughout the building using a series of ducts. The hot side known as the condensing unit lives
outside the building.

The unit consists of a long, spiral coil shaped like a cylinder. Inside the coil is a fan, to blow air
through the coil, along with a weather-resistant compressor and some control logic. This
approach has evolved over the years because it is low-cost, and also because it normally results
in reduced noise inside the house (at the expense of increased noise outside the house). Other
than the fact that the hot and cold sides are split apart and the capacity is higher (making the

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coils and compressor larger), there is no difference between a split-system and a window air
conditioner.

In warehouses, large business offices, malls, big department stores and other sizeable buildings,
the condensing unit normally lives on the roof and can be quite massive. Alternatively, there
may be many smaller units on the roof, each attached inside to a small air handler that cools a
specific zone in the building.

In larger buildings and particularly in multi-storey buildings, the split-system approach begins
to run into problems. Either running the pipe between the condenser and the air handler
exceeds distance limitations (runs that are too long start to cause lubrication difficulties in the
compressor), or the amount of duct work and the length of ducts becomes unmanageable. At
this point, it's time to think about a chilled-water

3. Chilled-water and Cooling-tower AC Units

Although standard air conditioners are very popular, they can use a lot of energy and generate
quite a bit of heat. For large installations like office buildings, air handling and conditioning is
sometimes managed a little differently.

Some systems use water as part of the cooling process. The two most well-known are chilled
water systems and cooling tower air conditioners.

 Chilled water systems - In a chilled-water system, the entire air conditioner is installed
on the roof or behind the building. It cools water to between 40 and 45 degrees
Fahrenheit (4.4 and 7.2 degrees Celsius). The chilled water is then piped throughout the
building and connected to air handlers. This can be a versatile system where the water
pipes work like the evaporator coils in a standard air conditioner. If it is well-insulated,
there's no practical distance limitation to the length of a chilled-water pipe.

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 Cooling tower technology - In all of the air conditioning systems we have described so
far, air is used to dissipate heat from the compressor coils. In some large systems, a
cooling tower is used instead. The tower creates a stream of cold water that runs
through a heat exchanger, cooling the hot condenser coils. The tower blows air through
a stream of water causing some of it to evaporate, and the evaporation cools the water
stream. One of the disadvantages of this type of system is that water has to be added
regularly to make up for liquid lost through evaporation. The actual amount of cooling
that an air conditioning system gets from a cooling tower depends on the relative
humidity of the air and the barometric pressure.

Because of rising electrical costs and environmental concerns, some other air cooling methods
are being explored, too. One is off-peak or ice-cooling technology. An off-peak cooling system
uses ice frozen during the evening hours to chill interior air during the hottest part of the day.
Although the system does use energy, the largest energy drain is when community demand for
power is at its lowest. Energy is less expensive during off-peak hours, and the lowered
consumption during peak times eases the demand on the power grid.

Another option is geo-thermal heating. It varies, but at around 6 feet (1.8 meters) underground,
the earth's temperature ranges from 45 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit (7.2 to 23.8 degrees Celsius).
The basic idea behind geo-thermal cooling is to use this constant temperature as a heat or cold
source instead of using electricity to generate heat or cold. The most common type of geo-
thermal unit for the home is a closed-loop system. Polyethylene pipes filled with a liquid

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mixture are buried underground. During the winter, the fluid collects heat from the earth and
carries it through the system and into the building. During the summer, the system reverses
itself to cool the building by pulling heat through the pipes to deposit it underground.

For real energy efficiency, solar powered air conditioners are also making their debut. There
may still be some kinks to work out, but around 5 percent of all electricity consumed in the U.S.
is used to power air conditioning of one type or another, so there is a big market for energy-
friendly air conditioning options.

AIR CONDITIONER SIZING

What to check out for:

• Disregard the brand and additional features, when selecting an air-conditioner which
main function is to cool down the room, there are 3 major ratings to look for, beside the
Horse Power (HP).

• BTU/hour - measurement on cooling capacity

• EER - measurement on efficiency in electricity consumption

• Airflow - measurement on cooling speed

BTU/hour - measurement on cooling capacity:

• This is the actual cooling capacity unit of the air-conditioner and must match with the
room size to be cooled. The room won’t cool efficiently and cost effectively if the
BTU/hr rating is too low or too high for the size of the room.

• BTU/hr is proportional to the Horse Power of the air-conditioner, but there is no fixed
conversion formula between them, and varies from different models and brands of air-
cond. Among air-conditioners with the same HP capacity, the higher the BTU/hr the
better.

• 1 HP air-conditioner has BTU capacity ranging between 9,000-12,000.

• 1.5 HP air-conditioner has BTU capacity ranging between 11,000-13,000.

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• 2 HP air-conditioner has BTU capacity ranging between 15,000-25,000.

• 2.5 HP air-conditioner has BTU capacity above 20,000.

• 3 ton air-conditioner has BTU capacity of about 36,000

• 5 ton air-conditioner has BTU capacity of about 60,000

EER - measurement on efficiency in electricity consumption:

• The Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) is calculated by dividing the BTU capacity by the
number of watts. The higher the EER number the more efficient the air-cond unit should
be. The EER rating generally ranges from 8-11.5, and should not be lower than 5.

Airflow - measurement on cooling speed:

• The cooling speed of air-conditioners is determined by the ability of airflow travelling in

cubic feet per minute (CFM). In normal words, CFM is the volume of air moved by the
air-cond blower per minute.

• For 1 HP air-conditioner, airflow generally varies between 210CFM-300CFM. Higher

airflow provides faster cooling as well as better air circulation.

Metabolic heat gain from occupants in air conditioned spaces at different degrees of activities
- in Watts and Btu/hr

1 W = 3.41 Btu/hr

Degree of Activity Typical Application Average Metabolic Average Metabolic

rate - male adult rate - male adult
(W) Btu/hr
Seated at rest Cinema, theatre, 100 341
school

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Degree of Activity Typical Application Average Metabolic Average Metabolic

rate - male adult rate - male adult
(W) Btu/hr
Seated, very light work Computer working 120 409
Office work Hotel reception, 130 443
cashier
Standing, walking slowly Laboratory work 130 443
Walking, seated 150 512
Moderate work Servant, hair dresser 160 546
Light bench work Mechanical production 220 750
Moderate Dancing Party 250 853
Fast walking Mountain walking 300 1,023
Heavy work Athletics 430 1,466
Step by step calculation:

Step 1:

• Take the floor measurements of each of the rooms that you expect to cool with the air
conditioner. The height does not matter too much since the cool air sinks. Multiply the
width by the length and then add them all together. This is the square footage, and
since there are 20 to 25 BTUs per square foot (Energy Star advocates 20 B.T.U.'s of A/C
power per square foot.), multiplies them by say 25. Write this figure down.

Step 2:

• Measure each of your south side windows and figure the square footage of each (width
times height). Add the square footage up and multiply it by 871 BTUs. Do the same for
the north-facing windows and multiply the square footage by 166 BTUs. Add these two
figures together and write it down.

Step 3:

• Count how many people you expect to be living in the area to be cooled. Each person
will generate about 400 BTUs each, so multiply the number of people by 400. Write this
figure down.

Step 4:

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• Walk around and look at your lights. Write down the number of watts per light and
multiply it by 4.25 BTUs. For instance, a 100 watt bulb would generate 425 BTUs. If you
have 10 lights, you would have 4,250 BTUs of energy being given off. Add all the
amounts together and write the sum down.

Step 5:

• Check to see if you have any appliances or machines that will be running in the area to
be air conditioned. See what the maximum wattage is for the appliance and then
multiply it by 3.15. This is the maximum usage, and although you might not always run it
at full capacity, it is better to have an air conditioner unit that can handle more rather
than less than you need. Write this appliance BTUs figure down.

Step 6:

• Add up all the BTUs for each of the 5 Steps. This is the total BTUs you will need your air
conditioner to be able to handle. When you go to shop for an air conditioner, it will
need to be big enough to do at least this amount of cooling.

Choose your AC

Option A

• 9,000-12,000 BTU= 1 HP air-conditioner

• 11,000-13,000 BTU =1.5 HP air-conditioner

• 15,000-25,000 BTU =2 HP air-conditioner

• 20,000-35,000 BTU= 2.5 HP air-conditioner

• 36,000-55,000 BTU = 3 ton air-conditioner

• 60,000-75,000 BTU= 5 ton air-conditioner

Option B
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Manufacturers do not list the air conditioner size on the unit. The system capacity will be coded
into the model number of the outdoor unit. For example, model CKL24-1 is a 2 ton unit. Why?

There are 12,000 Btu's per ton (1 ton= 12,000 Btu/hour). The number 24 in the model number
indicates the unit is 24,000 Btu's, divided by 12,000 Btu's per ton, equals 2 tons.

24,000 Btu's/ 12,000 Btu's per ton = 2 tons

So, use the following conversion information to determine AC system size (use the system model
number NOT the serial number),

1 refrigeration ton = 1 TON = 12,000 Btu/h = 3,025.9 k Calories/h = 12,661 kJ/h

A ton is the amount of heat removed by an air conditioning system that would melt 1 ton (2000
lbs.) of ice in 24 hours: 288,000 BTU/24 hr = 12,000 BTU/hr

Btu per hour Tons of Refrigeration Corresponding Digit(s) in

System Model Number

6000 ½ (0.5) 6

12000 1 12

18000 1 ½ (1.5) 18

24000 2 24

30000 2 ½ (2.5) 30

36000 3 36

42000 3 ½ (3.5) 42

48000 4 48

54000 4 ½ (4.5) 54

60000 5 60

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References:

 ACEEE. "Air Conditioning. 6/10. (6/16/11.) http://www.aceee.org/consumer/cooling

 Air Conditioning Helper. "How Does Air Conditioning Work?" (6/14/11).
http://www.homeimprovementhelper.com/airconditioner/howitworks.htm
 Behar, Susie and Robert Yarham. "Great Inventions." Igloo Books Ltd. 2007
 Casiday, Rachel and Regina Frey. "Phase Changes and Refrigeration: Thermochemistry of
Heat Engines." Washington University. 1/2007. (6/13/11).
http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~courses/genchem/LabTutorials/Thermochem/Fridge.
html
 Castleden, Rodney. "Inventions that Changed the World." Chartwell Books, Inc. 2007
 Central Air Conditioner and Refrigeration. "How Does a Central Air Conditioner or
Central AC Units Works?" (6/14/11). http://www.central-air-conditioner-and-
refrigeration.com/Central_air_conditioner.html
 Cool Documents. "The Birth of the Air Conditioner." 10/91. 6/17/11.
http://cool.conservation-us.org/byorg/abbey/an/an15/an15-6/an15-614.html
 Encyclopedia Britannica. "Air Conditioning." (6/14/11).
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10637/air-conditioning
 Energy Quest. "How Does an Air Conditioner Work?" 4/22/02. (6/14/11).
http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/how_it_works/air_conditioner.html
 EPA. "Chemicals in The Environment: Freon 113 (CAS NO. 76-13-1)." 8/94. (6/14/11).
http://www.epa.gov/chemfact/f_freon.txt
 FreeEd.net. "Fundamentals of Refrigeration: Common Refrigerants." (6/14/11).
http://www.free-
ed.net/sweethaven/MechTech/Refrigeration/coursemain.asp?lesNum=4&modNum=1
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 HIS. "Air as a Refrigerant in Air Conditioning Systems in Buildings. 2001. (6/12/11).

http://products.ihs.com/bre-seo/ip2100.htm
 Minges, Sarah. "Here's the Skinny on Humidity." 5/25/11. (6/14/11).
http://www.theharrison-
press.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1734:heres-the-skinny-on-
humidity&catid=79:columns&Itemid=141
 PCM Energy. "Phase Change Materials (PCMs)." (6/12/11).
http://www.pcmenergy.com/
 Tech-FAQ. "How an Air Conditioner Works." (6/12/11). http://www.tech-faq.com/how-
an-air-conditioner-works.html
 The Great Idea Finder. "Willis Haviland Carrier." 7/28/06. (6/14/11).
http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/carrier.htm
 Time Magazine, "Great Inventions - Geniuses and Gizmos: Innovations in Our Time."
Time Books: New York. 2003. (6/14/11)
 Woodford, Chris, Luke Collins, Clint Witchalls, Ben Morgan and James Flint. "Cool Stuff
and How it Works. Korling Kindersley Limited. 2005.

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