MODULE IN SEGS 15 - ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

UNIT I. INTRODUCTORY FACTS ABOUT CHEMISTRY AND

MEASUREMENT

Unit I Part 2 Module

MEASUREMENT

What is Measurement

 the process of comparing a property of an object to a well-defined and agreed upon

referent/quantity

 it usually involve counting and reading numbers from some instrument/devices.

 when dealing with measurement precision and accuracy are often encountered.

Accuracy – means how close the measurements are to the true value

Data True Value

Ist trial : 0.980 g/ml = 1.000 g/ml
2nd trial : 1.021 g/ml
3rd trial : 0.970 g/ml
average: 2.970÷3 = 0.990 g/ml

Precision refers to the degree to which successive measurements agree with each
other

A B
1st trial: 49.05 cm 1st trial: 20.45 cm
2nd trial: 49.01 cm 2nd trial: 50.76 cm
3rd trial: 48.95 cm 3rd trial: 60.95 cm

Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is simply a method for expressing, and working with, very large
or very small numbers.  It is a short hand method for writing numbers, and an easy method
for calculations.  Numbers in scientific notation are made up of three parts: the coefficient,
the base and the exponent. 

Observe the example below:

5.67 x 105
This is the scientific notation for the standard number, 567 000. 

Now look at the number again, with the three parts labeled.

5.67 x 105 

        coefficient             base        exponent

   In order for a number to be in correct scientific notation, the following conditions must be
true:
1. The coefficient must be greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10.
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2. The base must be 10.
3. The exponent must show the number of decimal places that the decimal needs
to be moved to change the number to standard notation. 
To figure out the power of 10, think "how many places do I move the decimal point?"
If the number is 10 or greater, the decimal point has to move to the left, and the
power of 10 will be positive.
   
If the number is smaller than 1, the decimal point has to move to the right, so the
power of 10 will be negative:

Changing numbers from standard notation to scientific notation

Ex.1  Change 56 760 000 000 to scientific notation

Remember, the decimal is at the end of the final zero. The decimal must be
moved behind the five to ensure that the coefficient is less than 10, but greater than
or equal to one.

The coefficient will then read 5.676.

The decimal will move 10 places to the left, making the exponent equal to 10.

The answer equals 5.676 x 1010

Ex.2  Change 0.000000902 to scientific notation

The decimal must be moved behind the 9 to ensure a proper coefficient.

The coefficient will be 9.02.

The decimal moves seven spaces to the right, making the exponent -7

The answer equals 9.02 x 10-7 

Changing numbers from scientific notation to standard notation

Ex.1  Change 6.03 x 107 to standard notation.

Remember,  107 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 10 000 000

so,    6.03 x 107 = 6.03 x 10 000 000 = 60 300 000
answer = 60 300 000

Instead of finding the value of the base, we can simply move the decimal seven
places to the right because the exponent is 7.
So,  6.03 x 107 = 60 300 000

Ex.2 Change 5.3 x 10-4 to standard notation.

The exponent tells us to move the decimal four places to the left.
So, 5.3 x 10-4 = 0.00053

Calculating with Scientific Notation

Not only does scientific notation give us a way of writing very large and very small
numbers, it allows us to easily do calculations as well.  Calculators are very helpful tools, but
unless you can do these calculations without them, you can never check to see if your
answers make sense.   Any calculation should be checked using your logic, so don't just

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assume an answer is correct.  This page will explain the rules for calculating with scientific
notation.

A. Rule for Multiplication 

When you multiply numbers with scientific notation, multiply the

coefficients together and add the exponents.  The base will remain 10.

Ex 1.  Multiply  (3.45 x 107) x (6.25 x 105)

First rewrite the problem as:  

(3.45 x 6.25) x (107 x 105)

Then multiply the coefficients and add the exponents:  

21.5625 x 1012
Then change to correct scientific notation and round to correct significant
digits: 
2.16 x 1013
NOTE - we add one to the exponent because we moved the
decimal one place to the left.
Remember that correct scientific notation has a coefficient that is less than
10, but greater than or equal to one.     

Ex. 2.  Multiply (2.33 x 10-6) x (8.19 x 103)

Rewrite the problem as:

(2.33 x 8.19) x (10-6 x 103)

        Then multiply the coefficients and add the exponents: 

19.0827 x 10-3
Then change to correct scientific notation and round to correct significant
digits
1.91 x 10-2
Remember that -3 + 1 = -2

B. Rule for Addition and Subtraction 

When adding or subtracting in scientific notation, you must express the

numbers as the same power of 10.  This will often involve changing the decimal
place of the coefficient.

Ex. 1  Add 3.76 x 104 and 5.5 x 102

Move the decimal to change

5.5 x 102 to 0.055 x 104

Add the coefficients and leave the base and exponent the same: 
3.76 + 0.055 = 3.815 x 104
Following the rules for rounding, our final answer is
3.815 x 104
Rounding is a little bit different because each digit shown in the original
problem must be considered significant, regardless of where it ends up in
the answer.

Ex. 2  Subtract (4.8 x 105) - (9.7 x 104)

Move the decimal to change

9.7 x 104 to 0.97 x 105

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Subtract the coefficients and leave the base and exponent the same:
4.8 - 0.97 = 3.83 x 105
Round to correct number of significant digits:
3.83 x 105

C. Rule for Division 

When dividing with scientific notation, divide the coefficients and subtract
the exponents.  The base will remain 10.

Ex. 1: (6.4 x 106)/(8.9 x 102)

= (6.4)/(8.9) x 10(6-2) 
= 0.719 x 104 
= 7.2 x 103

Ex. 2: (3.2 x 103)/(5.7 x 10-2)

= (3.2)/(5.7) x 103-(-2) 
= 0.561 x 105
= 5.6 x 104

Significant Figures

All measurements are approximations—no measuring device can give perfect

measurements without experimental uncertainty. Every measurement has a degree of
uncertainty associated with it. The uncertainty derives from the measuring device and from
the skill of the person doing the measuring.
The number of significant figures in a result is simply the number of figures that are
known with some degree of reliability.

A. Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured quantity:

1. All nonzero digits are significant:

1.234 g has 4 significant figures,

1.2 g has 2 significant figures.

2. Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant:

1002 kg has 4 significant figures,

3.07 mL has 3 significant figures.

3. Leading zeros to the left of the first nonzero digits are not significant; such
zeroes merely indicate the position of the decimal point:

0.001 oC has only 1 significant figure,

0.012 g has 2 significant figures.

4. Trailing zeroes that are also to the right of a decimal point in a number are
significant:

0.0230 mL has 3 significant figures,

0.20 g has 2 significant figures.

5. When a number ends in zeroes that are not to the right of a decimal point, the
zeroes are not necessarily significant:

190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant figures,

50,600 calories may be 3, 4, or 5 significant figures.
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The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the use of standard
exponential, or "scientific," notation. For example, depending on whether the number
of significant figures is 3, 4, or 5, we would write 50,600 calories as:

5.06 × 104 calories (3 significant figures)

5.060 × 104 calories (4 significant figures), or
5.0600 × 104 calories (5 significant figures).

By writing a number in scientific notation, the number of significant figures

is clearly indicated by the number of numerical figures in the 'digit' term as shown
by these examples. This approach is a reasonable convention to follow.

B. Rules for mathematical operations

In carrying out calculations, the general rule is that the accuracy of a

calculated result is limited by the least accurate measurement involved in the
calculation.

1. Addition and Subtraction

The result is rounded off so that it has the same number of digits as the
measurement having the fewest decimal places (counting from left to right).

For example
100 ( 3 significant figures) + 23.643 (5 significant figures)
  = 123.643
which should be rounded to 124 (3 significant figures).

2. Multiplication and Division

The result should be rounded off so as to have the same number of

significant figures as in the component with the least number of significant
figures.

For example

3.0 (2 significant figures ) × 12.60 (4 significant figures)

 = 37.8000
which should be rounded to 38 (2 significant figures).

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM, UNITS AND CONVERSION

A. System of Measurement

Metric System

The "metric" system was based on the French word for measure. The
driving force was the growing importance of weights in the sciences, especially
chemistry. At that time, every country had their own system of weights and
measures.
The modern metric system has been renamed Systeme International
d'Unites (International System of Units) and is denoted by the letters SI.
The metric system is a system of measurement that uses the meter, liter, and
gram as base units of length (distance), capacity (volume), and weight (mass)
respectively. To measure smaller or larger quantities, we use units derived from the
metric units

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 Kilo   Hecto   Deca   Base Unit   Deci   Centi   Milli 

 1000   100   10   1   1/10   1/100   1/1000 

The seven base units

1. Length : meter (m)
2. Mass : kilogram (kg)
3. Time : second (s)
4. Temperature : kelvin K
5. Amount of substance : mole (mol)
6. Electric current : ampere (A)
7. Luminous Intensity : candela (cd)
Source: https://www.nist.gov/pml/weights-and-measures/metric-si/si-
units
Mass – measure the amount of matter in an object and therefore mass of an object is
constant
Time – also called the time method of measuring interval of time.
Temperature – degree of hotness or coldness of a certain object.
Amount of Substance – measure the amount of substance that contain many
elementary entities such as atom, molecules, ions, electrons and other particles.
Luminous Intensity – the degree of amount of quality of light/radiation emitted by
bulb.

Derive Units

Volume : cubic meter (m3)

Density : kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3)
Velocity or Speed : meter per second (m/s)
Concentration : mole per cubic meter (mol/m3)
Force : newton (N) – kilogram-meter per second ( kg.m/s2)
Pressure : Pascal (Pa) – newton per square meter (N/m2)
Energy : Joule (J) – newton-meter (N.m) = kilogram-
square meter per second per second (kg.m 2/s2)
Electricity :– Coulumb (C) = ampere-second (A.s)

Source: https://www.nist.gov/pml/weights-and-measures/metric-si/si-
units

Volume – refers to the amount of space occupied by an object. The SI unit for
volume is cubic meter. (m3)

Density – an important physical property that aids in the identification of

substance. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of a substance to the
volume occupied by mass of a substance per unit volume.

Non- SI Units Frequently Encountered in Chemistry

Physical Quantity Unit Name and Symbol

Volume liter, L
Pressure atmosphere, atm
millimeters of mercury, mmHg
Temperature Celsius degree, 0C
Energy Calorie, cal

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B. CONVERSION OF UNITS

Some hints in problem solving:

Read and analyze the problem over carefully to determine what is given,
unknown including the units.
Try to condense the problem to a simple equality.
Set-up the conversion factor properly.

Conversion Factor
This is the ratio of a quantity stated in one unit to the same quantity
stated in another unit.
Example:
1 ft = 12 in
1 in = 2.54 cm
1 m = 100 cm
1km = 1000 m
1 mi = 1.61 km
1 m = 3.28 ft
The size of an atom is expressed in nanometers (nm) or picometers (pm)
1 nm = 1 x 10-9 m
1 pm = 1 x 10-12m

Sample Problem
1. Convert 5.8 cm to in.
2. Convert 105 yd to m.
1 yd = 3 ft
1 ft = 12 in
1 in = 2.54 cm
100 cm = 1m
3. How many feet does a car go in a 100 m dash?
1m = 3.28 ft
4. How many cm are exactly in a mile?

1 mi = 1.61 km
1 km = 1000 m
1 m = 100 cm
5. A man is 6 ft tall. a) How high is he in cm? and b) in m?
1 ft =12 in
1 in = 2.54 cm
1 m = 3.28 ft
6. The volume of a block of wood is 16 cm3. What is its volume in cubic meters?

Go to the given link for some tutorials.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eK8gXP3pImU

C. CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURE

Formulas for Converting Temperature

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1. Celsius to Fahrenheit
o
F = 9/5 (oC) + 32 or 1.8 (oC) +32
2. Fahrenheit to Celsius
o
C = 5/9 (oF -32) or oF -32
1.8
3. Celsius to Kelvin
K = oC + 273
4. Kelvin to Celsius
o
C = K - 273
5. Fahrenheit to Kelvin
K = 5/9 (oF -32) + 273 or oF -32 + 273
1.8

Useful Temperature Facts

1. Celsius and Fahrenheit are the same at -400

2. Water boils at 1000C or 2120F
3. Water freezes at 00C and 32 0F
4. Absolute zero is 0 Kelvin
5. Celsius and Fahrenheit are in degree scales. The degree symbol is not used to
report temperature using the Kelvin scale

Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/temperature-conversion-formulas-609324

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Convert the temperature of dry ice, −77 °C, into a) degrees Fahrenheit and b)
kelvin.
a) -77 oC to degrees Fahrenheit
o
F = 9/5 (oC) + 32 or 1.8 (oC) +32
= 1.8 ( -77) + 32
= -138.6 + 32
= -106.6 °F
b) -77 oC to Kelvin
K = oC + 273
= -77 + 273
= 196 K

2. Convert the temperature of the coldest area in a freezer, −10 °F, to a)degrees
Celsius and b) kelvin.
a) -10°F to degress Celsius

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o
C = 5/9 (oF -32) or oF -32
1.8
= -10 – 32
1.8
= -23 oC
b) -10°F to Kelvin
K = 5/9 (oF -32) + 273 or oF -32 + 273
1.8
= -10 -32 + 272
1.8
= -23 + 273
= 250K

D. DENSITY

The density of an object is one of its most important and easily-measured physical
properties of matter. The general meaning of density is the amount of anything per unit
volume. ( Stephen Lower, https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Palomar_College/PC
%3A_CHEM100 , 20210

Density compares the mass of an object to its volume

D = mass = g or g
volume mL cm3
3
Note: 1 mL = 1 cm

Sample Problems

1. Osmium is a very dense metal. What is its density in g/cm3 if 50.00 g

of the metal occupies a volume of 2.22cm3?

Given: mass = 50.00 g

volume = 2.22 cm 3
Solution:
D = m = 50.00 g = 22.5 g/ cm3
v 2.22 cm3

2. What is the density of a cube of sugar weighing 11.2 grams measuring 2 cm on a

side?

Given: mass = 11.2 g Note: Remember how to measure the volume

volume = 2 cm on a side of a cube of sugar of regularly- shaped solids wherein volume =
length x width x height (measure the
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volume = length x width x height

= 2 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm
= 8 cm 3
Solution:
D = m = 11.2 g = 1,4 g/ cm3
3
v 8 cm
3. A solution of water and salt contains 25 grams of salt in 250 mL of water. What
is the density of the salt water? (Use density of water = 1 g/mL)
Given: mass of salt = 25 g
volume of water = 250 ml
Find: Density of salt water = ?
Solve first for the mass of water from the given volume of water and the
density of water which is 1g/mL
from : D = m the formula for mass is m = Dv
v
so, mass of water = Density of water x volume of water
m water = 1 g x 250 mL
mL
= 250 g
Then the mass of salt water = mass of salt + mass of water
m saltwater = 25 g + 250 g = 275 g
so D saltwater = msaltwater
vsaltwater
= 275 g
250 mL
= 1.1 g/mL
Source: Helmenstine, Anne Marie, 2020 at https://www.thoughtco.com/how-
to-calculate-density-609604#:~:text=The%20density%20equation%20is
%20density,will%20need%20to%20convert%20them.

Practice Exercises:

1.

2.

3.

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