INST241 Sec2

INST 241 (Temperature and Flow Measurement), section 2
Lab
Temperature measurement loop: Questions 91 and 92, completed objectives due by the end of day 5
Exam
Day 5 – only a simple calculator may be used!
Specific objectives for the “mastery” exam:
• Electricity Review: Calculate voltages and currents in an ideal AC transformer circuit
• Sketch proper wire connections showing how to simulate an RTD or thermocouple input to a temperature
transmitter using simple electronic components
• Calculate temperatures or voltages in thermocouple and RTD circuits given access to thermocouple and
RTD tables
• Calculate instrument input and output values given calibrated ranges
• Solve for a specified variable in an algebraic formula
• Determine the possibility of suggested faults in a Wheatstone bridge circuit given measured values
(voltage, current), a schematic diagram, and reported symptoms
• INST230 Review: Calculate either the full-load current or the horsepower of an electric motor (either
single- or three-phase) given the line voltage and one of the other parameters
• INST250 Review: Calculate Cv rating of control valve for liquid (non-cavitating) service
• INST263 Review: Determine effect of a fault in a selector or override control system
Recommended daily schedule

Day 1
Theory session topic: Thermocouples (continued)
Questions 1 through 20; answer questions 1-9 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice)
Day 2
Theory session topic: Thermocouple and RTD applications
Day 3
Theory session topic: Non-contact pyrometers, temperature switches, calibration standards, and
accessories
Day 4
Theory session topic: Review for exam
Feedback questions (81 through 90) are optional and may be submitted for review at the end of the day
Day 5
Exam
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How To . . .
Access the worksheets and textbook: go to the Socratic Instrumentation website located at
http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/socratic/sinst to find worksheets for every 2nd-year course section
organized by quarter, as well as both the latest “stable” and “development” versions of the Lessons In
Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Download and save these documents to your computer.
Maximize your learning: come to school prepared each and every day – this means completing all your
homework before class starts. Use every minute of class and lab time productively. Follow all the tips
outlined in “Question 0” (in every course worksheet) as well as your instructor’s advice. Don’t ask anyone
to help you solve a problem until you have made every reasonable effort to solve it on your own.
Identify upcoming assignments and deadlines: read the first page of each course worksheet.
Relate course days to calendar dates: reference the calendar spreadsheet file (calendar.xlsx), found
on the BTC campus Y: network drive. A printed copy is posted in the Instrumentation classroom.
Locate industry documents assigned for reading: use the Instrumentation Reference provided by
your instructor (on CD-ROM and on the BTC campus Y: network drive). There you will find a file named
00 index OPEN THIS FILE.html readable with any internet browser. Click on the “Quick-Start Links” to
access assigned reading documents, organized per course, in the order they are assigned.
Study for the exams: Mastery exams assess specific skills critically important to your success, listed near
the top of the front page of each course worksheet for your review. Familiarize yourself with this list and pay
close attention when those topics appear in homework and practice problems. Proportional exams feature
problems you haven’t seen before that are solvable using general principles learned throughout the current and
previous courses, for which the only adequate preparation is independent problem-solving practice every day.
Answer the “feedback questions” (practice exams) in each course section to hone your problem-solving skills,
as these are similar in scope and complexity to proportional exams. Answer these feedback independently
(i.e. no help from classmates) in order to most accurately assess your readiness.
Calculate course grades: download the “Course Grading Spreadsheet” (grades template.xlsx) from
the Socratic Instrumentation website, or from the BTC campus Y: network drive. Enter your quiz scores,
test scores, lab scores, and attendance data into this Excel spreadsheet and it will calculate your course
grade. You may compare your calculated grades against your instructors’ records at any time.
Identify courses to register for: read the “Sequence” page found in each worksheet.
Identify scholarship opportunities: check your BTC email in-box daily.
Identify job openings: regularly monitor job-search websites. Set up informational interviews at
workplaces you are interested in. Participate in jobshadows and internships. Apply to jobs long before
graduation, as some employers take months to respond! Check your BTC email account daily, because your
instructor broadcast-emails job postings to all students as employers submit them to BTC.
Impress employers: sign the FERPA release form granting your instructors permission to share academic
records, then make sure your performance is worth sharing. Document your project and problem-solving
experiences for reference during interviews. Honor all your commitments.
Begin your career: participate in jobshadows and internships while in school to gain experience and
references. Take the first Instrumentation job that pays the bills, and give that employer at least two years
of good work to pay them back for the investment they have made in you. Employers look at delayed
employment, as well as short employment spans, very negatively. Failure to pass a drug test is an immediate
disqualifier, as is falsifying any information. Criminal records may also be a problem.
file howto
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General Values and Expectations
Success in this career requires: professional integrity, resourcefulness, persistence, close attention to
detail, and intellectual curiosity. Poor judgment spells disaster in this career, which is why employer
background checks (including social media and criminal records) and drug testing are common. The good
news is that character and clear thinking are malleable traits: unlike intelligence, these qualities can be
acquired and improved with effort. This is what you are in school to do – increase your “human capital”
which is the sum of all knowledge, skills, and traits valuable in the marketplace.
Mastery: You must master the fundamentals of your chosen profession. “Mastery” assessments challenge
you to demonstrate 100% competence (with multiple opportunities to re-try). Failure to complete any
mastery objective(s) by the deadline date caps your grade at a C−. Failure to complete by the end of the
next school day results in a failing (F) grade.
Punctuality and Attendance: You are expected to arrive on time and be “on-task” all day just as you
would for a job. Each student has 12 hours of “sick time” per quarter applicable to absences not verifiably
employment-related, school-related, weather-related, or required by law. Each student must confer with the
instructor to apply these hours to any missed time – this is not done automatically. Students may donate
unused “sick time” to whomever they specifically choose. You must contact your instructor and lab team
members immediately if you know you will be late or absent or must leave early. Absence on an exam day
will result in a zero score for that exam, unless due to a documented emergency.
Time Management: You are expected to budget and prioritize your time, just as you will be on the job.
You will need to reserve enough time outside of school to complete homework, and strategically apply your
time during school hours toward limited resources (e.g. lab equipment). Frivolous activities (e.g. games,
social networking, internet surfing) are unacceptable when work is unfinished. Trips to the cafeteria for food
or coffee, smoke breaks, etc. must not interfere with team participation.
Independent Study: Successful instrument technicians are able to learn on their own, because the
knowledge base of this field is broad, challenging, and ever-evolving. To build this skill, students learn
in an “inverted” model where independent study replaces lecture, and the instructor challenges students
during class time to explain what they have learned. Most students require a minimum of 3 hours daily
study time outside of school. Arriving unprepared (e.g. homework incomplete) is unprofessional and counter-
productive. Question 0 of every worksheet lists practical study tips.
Independent Problem-Solving: The best instrument technicians are versatile problem-solvers. General
problem-solving is arguably the most valuable skill you can possess for this career, and it can only be built
through persistent effort. This is why you must take every reasonable measure to solve problems on your own
before seeking help. It is okay to be perplexed by an assignment, but you are expected to apply problem-
solving strategies given to you (see Question 0) and to precisely identify where you are confused so your
instructor will be able to offer targeted help. Asking classmates to solve problems for you is folly – this
includes having others break the problem down into simple steps. The point is to learn how to think on your
own. When troubleshooting systems in lab you are expected to run diagnostic tests (e.g. using a multimeter
instead of visually seeking circuit faults), as well as consult the equipment manual(s) before seeking help.
Initiative: No single habit predicts your success or failure in this career better than personal initiative, which
is why your instructor will demand you do for yourself rather than rely on others to do for you. Examples
include setting up and using your BTC email account to communicate with your instructor(s), consulting
manuals for technical information before asking for help, regularly checking the course calendar and
assignment deadlines, avoiding procrastination, fixing small problems before they become larger problems,
etc. If you find your performance compromised by poor understanding of prior course subjects, re-read those
textbook sections and use the practice materials made available to you on the Socratic Instrumentation
website – don’t wait for anyone else to diagnose your need and offer help.
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General Values and Expectations (continued)
Safety: You are expected to work safely in the lab just as you will be on the job. This includes wearing
proper attire (safety glasses and closed-toed shoes in the lab at all times), implementing lock-out/tag-out
procedures when working on circuits with exposed conductors over 30 volts, using ladders to access elevated
locations, and correctly using all tools. If you need to use an unfamiliar tool, see the instructor for directions.
Orderliness: You are expected to keep your work area clean and orderly just as you will be on the job.
This includes discarding trash and returning tools at the end of every lab session, and participating in all
scheduled lab clean-up sessions. If you identify failed equipment in the lab, label that equipment with a
detailed description of its symptoms.
Teamwork: You will work in instructor-assigned teams to complete lab assignments, just as you will work
in teams to complete complex assignments on the job. As part of a team, you must keep your teammates
informed of your whereabouts in the event you must step away from the lab or will be absent for any reason.
Any student regularly compromising team performance through lack of participation, absence, tardiness,
disrespect, or other disruptive behavior(s) will be removed from the team and required to complete all
labwork individually for the remainder of the quarter. The same is true for students found relying on
teammates to do their work for them.
Cooperation: The structure of these courses naturally lends itself to cooperation between students. Working
together, students significantly impact each others’ learning. You are expected to take this role seriously,
offering real help when needed and not absolving classmates of their responsibility to think for themselves or
to do their own work. Solving problems for classmates and/or explaining to them what they can easily read
on their own is unacceptable because these actions circumvent learning. The best form of help you can give
to your struggling classmates is to share with them your tips on independent learning and problem-solving,
for example asking questions leading to solutions rather than simply providing solutions for them.
Grades: Employers prize trustworthy, hard working, knowledgeable, resourceful problem-solvers. The grade
you receive in any course is but a partial measure of these traits. What matters most are the traits
themselves, which is why your instructor maintains detailed student records (including individual exam
scores, attendance, tardiness, and behavioral comments) and will share these records with employers if
you have signed the FERPA release form. You are welcome to see your records at any time, and to
compare calculated grades with your own records (i.e. the grade spreadsheet available to all students).
You should expect employers to scrutinize your records on attendance and character, and also challenge you
with technical questions when considering you for employment.
Representation: You are an ambassador for this program. Your actions, whether on tours, during a
jobshadow or internship, or while employed, can open or shut doors of opportunity for other students. Most
of the job opportunities open to you as a BTC graduate were earned by the good work of previous graduates,
and as such you owe them a debt of gratitude. Future graduates depend on you to do the same.
Responsibility For Actions: If you lose or damage college property (e.g. lab equipment), you must find,
repair, or help replace it. If you represent BTC poorly to employers (e.g. during a tour or an internship),
you must make amends. The general rule here is this: “If you break it, you fix it!”
Non-negotiable terms: disciplinary action, up to and including immediate failure of a course, will
result from academic dishonesty (e.g. cheating, plagiarism), willful safety violations, theft, harassment,
intoxication, destruction of property, or willful disruption of the learning (work) environment. Such offenses
are grounds for immediate termination in this career, and as such will not be tolerated here.
file expectations
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Course Syllabus
INSTRUCTOR CONTACT INFORMATION:

Tony Kuphaldt
(360)-752-8477 [office phone]
(360)-752-7277 [fax]
[email protected]
DEPT/COURSE #: INST 241
CREDITS: 6 Lecture Hours: 26 Lab Hours: 82 Work-based Hours: 0
COURSE TITLE: Temperature and Flow Measurement
COURSE DESCRIPTION: In this course you will learn how to precisely measure both temperature and
fluid flow in a variety of applications, as well as accurately calibrate and efficiently troubleshoot temperature
and flow measurement systems. Pre/Corequisite course: INST 240 (Pressure and Level Measurement)
Prerequisite course: MATH&141 (Precalculus 1) with a minimum grade of “C”
COURSE OUTCOMES: Commission, analyze, and efficiently diagnose instrumented systems measuring
temperature and fluid flow rate.
COURSE OUTCOME ASSESSMENT: Temperature and flow system commissioning, analysis, and
diagnosis outcomes are ensured by measuring student performance against mastery standards, as documented
in the Student Performance Objectives. Failure to meet all mastery standards by the next scheduled exam
day will result in a failing grade for the course.
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STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
• Without references or notes, within a limited time (3 hours total for each exam session), independently
perform the following tasks. Multiple re-tries are allowed on mastery (100% accuracy) objectives, each
with a different set of problems:
→ Calculate voltages and currents in an ideal AC transformer circuit, with 100% accuracy (mastery)
→ Calculate voltages, currents, and phase shifts in an AC reactive circuit, with 100% accuracy (mastery)
→ Sketch proper wire connections showing how to simulate an RTD or thermocouple input to a
temperature transmitter using simple electronic components, with 100% accuracy (mastery)
→ Calculate temperatures or voltages in thermocouple and RTD circuits given access to thermocouple
and RTD tables, with 100% accuracy (mastery)
→ Calculate flow rate and pressure drop for a nonlinear flow element given maximum flow specifications,
with 100% accuracy (mastery)
→ Determine suitability of different flow-measuring technologies for a given process fluid type, with
100% accuracy (mastery)
→ Calculate instrument input and output values given calibrated ranges, with 100% accuracy (mastery)
→ Identify specific instrument calibration errors (zero, span, linearity, hysteresis) from data in an “As-
Found” table, with 100% accuracy (mastery)
→ Solve for specified variables in algebraic formulae, with 100% accuracy (mastery)
→ Determine the possibility of suggested faults in simple circuits and Wheatstone bridge circuits given
measured values (voltage, current), schematic diagrams, and reported symptoms, with 100% accuracy
(mastery)
→ Predict the response of automatic temperature and flow control systems to component faults and
changes in process conditions, given pictorial and/or schematic illustrations
→ Sketch proper power and signal connections between individual instruments to fulfill specified control
system functions, given pictorial and/or schematic illustrations of those instruments
• In a team environment and with full access to references, notes, and instructor assistance, perform the
following tasks:
→ Demonstrate proper use of safety equipment and application of safe procedures while using power
tools, and working on live systems
→ Communicate effectively with teammates to plan work, arrange for absences, and share responsibilities
in completing all labwork
→ Construct and commission a working temperature-measurement “loop” consisting of an electronic
temperature transmitter, signal wiring, and indicator
→ Construct and commission a working flow-measurement “loop” consisting of an electronic flow
transmitter, signal wiring, and flow computer programmed in a text-based programming language
→ Generate accurate loop diagrams compliant with ISA standards documenting your team’s systems
• Independently perform the following tasks with 100% accuracy (mastery). Multiple re-tries are allowed
with different specifications/conditions each time:
→ Research equipment manuals to sketch a complete circuit connecting a loop controller to either a
4-20 mA transmitter or a 4-20 mA final control element, with all components randomly selected by the
instructor
→ Calibrate an electronic RTD temperature transmitter to specified accuracy using industry-standard
calibration equipment
→ Calibrate an electronic thermocouple temperature transmitter to specified accuracy using industry-
standard calibration equipment
→ Accurately simulate a thermocouple signal using a millivoltage source
→ Calculate flow rate and pressure drop for a nonlinear flow element given maximum flow specifications
→ Edit text-based programming code for a flow computer
→ Utilize command-line instructions in a Unix computer operating system environment
COURSE OUTLINE: A course calendar in electronic format (Excel spreadsheet) resides on the Y:
network drive, and also in printed paper format in classroom DMC130, for convenient student access. This
calendar is updated to reflect schedule changes resulting from employer recruiting visits, interviews, and
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other impromptu events. Course worksheets provide comprehensive lists of all course assignments and
activities, with the first page outlining the schedule and sequencing of topics and assignment due dates.
These worksheets are available in PDF format at http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/socratic/sinst
• INST241 Section 1 (Heat, temperature, RTDs, and thermocouples): 4 days theory and labwork
• INST241 Section 2 (Thermocouples, pyrometers): 4 days theory and labwork + 1 day for
mastery/proportional Exams
• INST241 Section 3 (Fluid dynamics, pressure-based flow technologies): 4 days theory and labwork
• INST241 Section 4 (Turbine, magnetic, true mass, and open-channel flow measurement technologies):
4 days theory and labwork + 1 day for mastery/proportional Exams
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION: Course structure and methods are intentionally designed to develop
critical-thinking and life-long learning abilities, continually placing the student in an active rather than a
passive role.
• Independent study: daily worksheet questions specify reading assignments, problems to solve, and
experiments to perform in preparation (before) classroom theory sessions. Open-note quizzes and work
inspections ensure accountability for this essential preparatory work. The purpose of this is to convey
information and basic concepts, so valuable class time isn’t wasted transmitting bare facts, and also to
foster the independent research ability necessary for self-directed learning in your career.
• Classroom sessions: a combination of Socratic discussion, short lectures, small-group problem-solving,
and hands-on demonstrations/experiments review and illuminate concepts covered in the preparatory
questions. The purpose of this is to develop problem-solving skills, strengthen conceptual understanding,
and practice both quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques.
• Lab activities: an emphasis on constructing and documenting working projects (real instrumentation
and control systems) to illuminate theoretical knowledge with practical contexts. Special projects
off-campus or in different areas of campus (e.g. BTC’s Fish Hatchery) are encouraged. Hands-on
troubleshooting exercises build diagnostic skills.
• Feedback questions: sets of practice problems at the end of each course section challenge your
knowledge and problem-solving ability in current as as well as first year (Electronics) subjects. These
are optional assignments, counting neither for nor against your grade. Their purpose is to provide you
and your instructor with direct feedback on what you have learned.
• Tours and guest speakers: quarterly tours of local industry and guest speakers on technical topics
add breadth and additional context to the learning experience.
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS/REQUIREMENTS: All assignments for this course are thoroughly

documented in the following course worksheets located at:
http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/socratic/sinst/index.html
• INST241 sec1.pdf
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EVALUATION AND GRADING STANDARDS: (out of 100% for the course grade)
• Completion of all mastery objectives = 50%
• Mastery exam scores (first attempt) = 10% (2 exams at 5% each)
• Proportional exam scores = 30% (2 exams at 15% each)
• Lab questions = 10% (2 question sets at 5% each)
• Quiz penalty = -1% per failed quiz
• Tardiness penalty = -1% per incident (1 “free” tardy per course)
• Attendance penalty = -1% per hour (12 hours “sick time” per quarter)
• Extra credit = +5% per project (assigned by instructor based on individual learning needs)
All grades are criterion-referenced (i.e. no grading on a “curve”)

100% ≥ A ≥ 95% 95% > A- ≥ 90%
90% > B+ ≥ 86% 86% > B ≥ 83% 83% > B- ≥ 80%
80% > C+ ≥ 76% 76% > C ≥ 73% 73% > C- ≥ 70% (minimum passing course grade)
70% > D+ ≥ 66% 66% > D ≥ 63% 63% > D- ≥ 60% 60% > F
A graded “preparatory” quiz at the start of each classroom session gauges your independent learning
prior to the session. A graded “summary” quiz at the conclusion of each classroom session gauges your
comprehension of important concepts covered during that session. If absent during part or all of a classroom
session, you may receive credit by passing comparable quizzes afterward or by having your preparatory work
(reading outlines, work done answering questions) thoroughly reviewed prior to the absence.
Absence on a scheduled exam day will result in a 0% score for the proportional exam unless you provide
documented evidence of an unavoidable emergency.
If you fail a mastery exam, you must re-take a different version of that mastery exam on a different
day. Multiple re-tries are allowed, on a different version of the exam each re-try. There is no penalty levied
on your course grade for re-taking mastery exams, but failure to successfully pass a mastery exam by the
due date (i.e. by the date of the next exam in the course sequence) will result in a failing grade (F) for the
course.
If any other “mastery” objectives are not completed by their specified deadlines, your overall grade
for the course will be capped at 70% (C- grade), and you will have one more school day to complete the
unfinished objectives. Failure to complete those mastery objectives by the end of that extra day (except in
the case of documented, unavoidable emergencies) will result in a failing grade (F) for the course.
“Lab questions” are assessed by individual questioning, at any date after the respective lab objective
(mastery) has been completed by your team. These questions serve to guide your completion of each lab
exercise and confirm participation of each individual student. Grading is as follows: full credit for thorough,
correct answers; half credit for partially correct answers; and zero credit for major conceptual errors. All
lab questions must be answered by the due date of the lab exercise.
Extra credit opportunities exist for each course, and may be assigned to students upon request. The
student and the instructor will first review the student’s performance on feedback questions, homework,
exams, and any other relevant indicators in order to identify areas of conceptual or practical weakness. Then,
both will work together to select an appropriate extra credit activity focusing on those identified weaknesses,
for the purpose of strengthening the student’s competence. A due date will be assigned (typically two weeks
following the request), which must be honored in order for any credit to be earned from the activity. Extra
credit may be denied at the instructor’s discretion if the student has not invested the necessary preparatory
effort to perform well (e.g. lack of preparation for daily class sessions, poor attendance, no feedback questions
submitted, etc.).
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REQUIRED STUDENT SUPPLIES AND MATERIALS:
• Course worksheets available for download in PDF format
• Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation textbook, available for download in PDF format
→ Access worksheets and book at: http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/socratic/sinst
• Spiral-bound notebook for reading annotation, homework documentation, and note-taking.
• Instrumentation reference CD-ROM (free, from instructor). This disk contains many tutorials and
datasheets in PDF format to supplement your textbook(s).
• Tool kit (see detailed list)
• Simple scientific calculator (non-programmable, non-graphing, no unit conversions, no numeration
system conversions), TI-30Xa or TI-30XIIS recommended
• Portable personal computer with Ethernet port and wireless. Windows OS strongly preferred, tablets
discouraged.
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES:

• The BTC Library hosts a substantial collection of textbooks and references on the subject of
Instrumentation, as well as links in its online catalog to free Instrumentation e-book resources available
on the Internet.
• “BTCInstrumentation” channel on YouTube (http://www.youtube.com/BTCInstrumentation), hosts
a variety of short video tutorials and demonstrations on instrumentation.
• Instrumentation student club meets regularly to set up industry tours, raise funds for scholarships, and
serve as a general resource for Instrumentation students.
• ISA website (http://www.isa.org) provides all of its standards in electronic format, many of which
are freely available to ISA members.
• Instrument Engineer’s Handbook, Volume 1: Process Measurement and Analysis, edited by Béla Lipták,
published by CRC Press. 4th edition ISBN-10: 0849310830 ; ISBN-13: 978-0849310836.
• Purdy’s Instrument Handbook, by Ralph Dewey. ISBN-10: 1-880215-26-8. A pocket-sized field reference
on basic measurement and control.
• Cad Standard (CadStd) or similar AutoCAD-like drafting software (useful for sketching loop and
wiring diagrams). Cad Standard is a simplified clone of AutoCAD, and is freely available at:
http://www.cadstd.com
CAMPUS EMERGENCIES: If an emergency arises, your instructor may inform you of actions to
follow. You are responsible for knowing emergency evacuation routes from your classroom. If police or
university officials order you to evacuate, do so calmly and assist those needing help. You may receive
emergency information alerts via the building enunciation system, text message, email, or BTC’s webpage
(http://www.btc.ctc.edu), Facebook or Twitter. Refer to the emergency flipchart in the lab room (located
on the main control panel) for more information on specific types of emergencies.
ACCOMMODATIONS: If you think you could benefit from classroom accommodations for a disability
(physical, mental, emotional, or learning), please contact our Accessibility Resources office. Call (360)-752-
8345, email [email protected], or stop by the AR Office in the Admissions and Student Resource Center
(ASRC), Room 106, College Services Building
file INST241syllabus
9
Sequence of second-year Instrumentation courses
Core Electronics -- 3 qtrs

including MATH 141 (Precalculus 1)
(Only if 4th quarter was Summer: INST23x)
INST 200 -- 1 wk Offered 1st week of

Prerequisite for all INST24x,
Fall, Winter, and
INST25x, and INST26x courses Intro. to Instrumentation Spring quarters
Summer quarter Fall quarter Winter quarter Spring quarter
INST 230 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr INST 250 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr

Motor Controls Pressure/Level Measurement Final Control Elements Data Acquisition Systems

PLC Programming Temp./Flow Measurement PID Control DCS and Fieldbus

PLC Systems Analytical Measurement Loop Tuning Control Strategies
INST 233 -- 3 cr CHEM&161 -- 5 cr ENGT 134 -- 5 cr

Protective Relays (elective) Chemistry CAD 1: Basics
Prerequisite for INST206
INST 205 -- 1 cr
All courses
Job Prep I
Offered 1st week of
completed?
No Fall, Winter, and
Yes INST 206 -- 1 cr
Spring quarters
Job Prep II
Graduate!!!
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The particular sequence of courses you take during the second year depends on when you complete all
first-year courses and enter the second year. Since students enter the second year of Instrumentation at four
different times (beginnings of Summer, Fall, Winter, and Spring quarters), the particular course sequence
for any student will likely be different from the course sequence of classmates.
Some second-year courses are only offered in particular quarters with those quarters not having to be
in sequence, while others are offered three out of the four quarters and must be taken in sequence. The
following layout shows four typical course sequences for second-year Instrumentation students, depending on
when they first enter the second year of the program:
Possible course schedules depending on date of entry into 2nd year

Beginning in Summer Beginning in Fall Beginning in Winter Beginning in Spring
July Summer quarter Sept. Fall quarter Jan. Winter quarter April Spring quarter
INST 230 -- 3 cr INST 200 -- 1 wk INST 200 -- 1 wk INST 200 -- 1 wk
Motor Controls Intro. to Instrumentation Intro. to Instrumentation Intro. to Instrumentation

PLC Programming Pressure/Level Measurement Final Control Elements Data Acquisition Systems

PLC Systems Temp./Flow Measurement PID Control DCS and Fieldbus

Protective Relays (elective) Analytical Measurement Loop Tuning Control Strategies
Aug. Dec.
CHEM&161 -- 5 cr ENGT 134 -- 5 cr
Sept. Fall quarter Jan. Winter quarter Chemistry CAD 1: Basics
Mar. June
INST 200 -- 1 wk INST 205 -- 1 cr
Intro. to Instrumentation Job Prep I April Spring quarter July Summer quarter
Pressure/Level Measurement Final Control Elements Job Prep I Motor Controls

Temp./Flow Measurement PID Control Data Acquisition Systems PLC Programming

Analytical Measurement Loop Tuning DCS and Fieldbus PLC Systems
Dec.
CHEM&161 -- 5 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr INST 233 -- 3 cr
Jan. Winter quarter Chemistry Control Strategies Protective Relays (elective)
Mar. Aug.
INST 205 -- 1 cr
Job Prep I ENGT 134 -- 5 cr
April Spring quarter CAD 1: Basics Sept. Fall quarter
June
INST 250 -- 5 cr INST 206 -- 1 cr INST 205 -- 1 cr
Final Control Elements Job Prep II July Summer quarter Job Prep I

PID Control Data Acquisition Systems Motor Controls Pressure/Level Measurement

Loop Tuning DCS and Fieldbus PLC Programming Temp./Flow Measurement
CHEM&161 -- 5 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr

Chemistry Control Strategies PLC Systems Analytical Measurement
Mar. Dec.
ENGT 134 -- 5 cr INST 233 -- 3 cr
April Spring quarter CAD 1: Basics Protective Relays (elective) Jan. Winter quarter
June Aug.
INST 206 -- 1 cr INST 206 -- 1 cr
Job Prep II July Summer quarter Sept. Fall quarter Job Prep II
Data Acquisition Systems Motor Controls Job Prep II Final Control Elements

DCS and Fieldbus PLC Programming Pressure/Level Measurement PID Control

Control Strategies PLC Systems Temp./Flow Measurement Loop Tuning
ENGT 134 -- 5 cr INST 233 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr CHEM&161 -- 5 cr

CAD 1: Basics Protective Relays (elective) Analytical Measurement Chemistry
June Aug. Dec. Mar.
Graduation! Graduation! Graduation! Graduation!
file sequence
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General tool and supply list
Wrenches
• Combination (box- and open-end) wrench set, 1/4” to 3/4” – the most important wrench sizes are 7/16”,
1/2”, 9/16”, and 5/8”; get these immediately!
• Adjustable wrench, 6” handle (sometimes called “Crescent” wrench)
• Hex wrench (“Allen” wrench) set, fractional – 1/16” to 3/8”
• Optional: Hex wrench (“Allen” wrench) set, metric – 1.5 mm to 10 mm
• Optional: Miniature combination wrench set, 3/32” to 1/4” (sometimes called an “ignition wrench” set)
Note: when turning any threaded fastener, one should choose a tool engaging the maximum amount of
surface area on the fastener’s head in order to reduce stress on that fastener. (e.g. Using box-end wrenches
instead of adjustable wrenches; using the proper size and type of screwdriver; never using any tool that mars
the fastener such as pliers or vise-grips unless absolutely necessary.)
Pliers
• Needle-nose pliers
• Tongue-and-groove pliers (sometimes called “Channel-lock” pliers)
• Diagonal wire cutters (sometimes called “dikes”)
Screwdrivers
• Slotted, 1/8” and 1/4” shaft
• Phillips, #1 and #2
• Jeweler’s screwdriver set
• Optional: Magnetic multi-bit screwdriver (e.g. Klein Tools model 70035)
Electrical
• Multimeter, Fluke model 87-IV or better
• Alligator-clip jumper wires
• Soldering iron (10 to 40 watt) and rosin-core solder
• Resistor, potentiometer, diode assortments (from first-year lab kits)
• Package of insulated compression-style fork terminals (14 to 18 AWG wire size, #10 stud size)
• Wire strippers/terminal crimpers for 10 AWG to 18 AWG wire and insulated terminals
• Optional: ratcheting terminal crimp tool (e.g. Paladin 1305, Ferrules Direct FDT10011, or equivalent)
Safety
• Safety glasses or goggles (available at BTC bookstore)
• Earplugs (available at BTC bookstore)
Miscellaneous
• Simple scientific calculator (non-programmable, non-graphing, no conversions), TI-30Xa or TI-30XIIS
recommended. Required for some exams!
• Portable personal computer with Ethernet port and wireless. Windows OS strongly preferred, tablets
discouraged.
• Masking tape (for making temporary labels)
• Permanent marker pen
• Teflon pipe tape
• Utility knife
• Tape measure, 12 feet minimum
• Flashlight
An inexpensive source of tools is your local pawn shop. Look for tools with unlimited lifetime guarantees
(e.g. Sears “Craftsman” brand). Check for BTC student discounts as well!
file tools
12
Methods of instruction
This course develops self-instructional and diagnostic skills by placing students in situations where they
are required to research and think independently. In all portions of the curriculum, the goal is to avoid a
passive learning environment, favoring instead active engagement of the learner through reading, reflection,
problem-solving, and experimental activities. The curriculum may be roughly divided into two portions:
theory and practical.
Theory
In the theory portion of each course, students independently research subjects prior to entering the
classroom for discussion. This means working through all the day’s assigned questions as completely as
possible. This usually requires a fair amount of technical reading, and may also require setting up and
running simple experiments. At the start of the classroom session, the instructor will check each student’s
preparation with a quiz. Students then spend the rest of the classroom time working in groups and directly
with the instructor to thoroughly answer all questions assigned for that day, articulate problem-solving
strategies, and to approach the questions from multiple perspectives. To put it simply: fact-gathering
happens outside of class and is the individual responsibility of each student, so that class time may be
devoted to the more complex tasks of critical thinking and problem solving where the instructor’s attention
is best applied.
Classroom theory sessions usually begin with either a brief Q&A discussion or with a “Virtual
Troubleshooting” session where the instructor shows one of the day’s diagnostic question diagrams while
students propose diagnostic tests and the instructor tells those students what the test results would be
given some imagined (“virtual”) fault scenario, writing the test results on the board where all can see. The
students then attempt to identify the nature and location of the fault, based on the test results.
Each student is free to leave the classroom when they have completely worked through all problems and
have answered a “summary” quiz designed to gauge their learning during the theory session. If a student
finishes ahead of time, they are free to leave, or may help tutor classmates who need extra help.
The express goal of this “inverted classroom” teaching methodology is to help each student cultivate
critical-thinking and problem-solving skills, and to sharpen their abilities as independent learners. While
this approach may be very new to you, it is more realistic and beneficial to the type of work done in
instrumentation, where critical thinking, problem-solving, and independent learning are “must-have” skills.
13
Lab
In the lab portion of each course, students work in teams to install, configure, document, calibrate, and
troubleshoot working instrument loop systems. Each lab exercise focuses on a different type of instrument,
with a eight-day period typically allotted for completion. An ordinary lab session might look like this:
(1) Start of practical (lab) session: announcements and planning
(a) The instructor makes general announcements to all students
(b) The instructor works with team to plan that day’s goals, making sure each team member has a
clear idea of what they should accomplish
(2) Teams work on lab unit completion according to recommended schedule:
(First day) Select and bench-test instrument(s)
(One day) Connect instrument(s) into a complete loop
(One day) Each team member drafts their own loop documentation, inspection done as a team (with
instructor)
(One or two days) Each team member calibrates/configures the instrument(s)
(Remaining days, up to last) Each team member troubleshoots the instrument loop
(3) End of practical (lab) session: debriefing where each team reports on their work to the whole class
Troubleshooting assessments must meet the following guidelines:

• Troubleshooting must be performed on a system the student did not build themselves. This forces
students to rely on another team’s documentation rather than their own memory of how the system was
built.
• Each student must individually demonstrate proper troubleshooting technique.
• Simply finding the fault is not good enough. Each student must consistently demonstrate sound
reasoning while troubleshooting.
• If a student fails to properly diagnose the system fault, they must attempt (as many times as necessary)
with different scenarios until they do, reviewing any mistakes with the instructor after each failed
attempt.
file instructional
14
Distance delivery methods
Sometimes the demands of life prevent students from attending college 6 hours per day. In such cases,
there exist alternatives to the normal 8:00 AM to 3:00 PM class/lab schedule, allowing students to complete
coursework in non-traditional ways, at a “distance” from the college campus proper.
For such “distance” students, the same worksheets, lab activities, exams, and academic standards still
apply. Instead of working in small groups and in teams to complete theory and lab sections, though, students
participating in an alternative fashion must do all the work themselves. Participation via teleconferencing,
video- or audio-recorded small-group sessions, and such is encouraged and supported.
There is no recording of hours attended or tardiness for students participating in this manner. The pace
of the course is likewise determined by the “distance” student. Experience has shown that it is a benefit for
“distance” students to maintain the same pace as their on-campus classmates whenever possible.
In lieu of small-group activities and class discussions, comprehension of the theory portion of each course
will be ensured by completing and submitting detailed answers for all worksheet questions, not just passing
daily quizzes as is the standard for conventional students. The instructor will discuss any incomplete and/or
incorrect worksheet answers with the student, and ask that those questions be re-answered by the student
to correct any misunderstandings before moving on.
Labwork is perhaps the most difficult portion of the curriculum for a “distance” student to complete,
since the equipment used in Instrumentation is typically too large and expensive to leave the school lab
facility. “Distance” students must find a way to complete the required lab activities, either by arranging
time in the school lab facility and/or completing activities on equivalent equipment outside of school (e.g.
at their place of employment, if applicable). Labwork completed outside of school must be validated by a
supervisor and/or documented via photograph or videorecording.
Conventional students may opt to switch to “distance” mode at any time. This has proven to be a
benefit to students whose lives are disrupted by catastrophic events. Likewise, “distance” students may
switch back to conventional mode if and when their schedules permit. Although the existence of alternative
modes of student participation is a great benefit for students with challenging schedules, it requires a greater
investment of time and a greater level of self-discipline than the traditional mode where the student attends
school for 6 hours every day. No student should consider the “distance” mode of learning a way to have
more free time to themselves, because they will actually spend more time engaged in the coursework than
if they attend school on a regular schedule. It exists merely for the sake of those who cannot attend during
regular school hours, as an alternative to course withdrawal.
file distance
15
Metric prefixes and conversion constants
• Metric prefixes
• Yotta = 1024 Symbol: Y
• Zeta = 1021 Symbol: Z
• Exa = 1018 Symbol: E
• Peta = 1015 Symbol: P
• Tera = 1012 Symbol: T
• Giga = 109 Symbol: G
• Mega = 106 Symbol: M
• Kilo = 103 Symbol: k
• Hecto = 102 Symbol: h
• Deca = 101 Symbol: da
• Deci = 10−1 Symbol: d
• Centi = 10−2 Symbol: c
• Milli = 10−3 Symbol: m
• Micro = 10−6 Symbol: µ
• Nano = 10−9 Symbol: n
• Pico = 10−12 Symbol: p
• Femto = 10−15 Symbol: f
• Atto = 10−18 Symbol: a
• Zepto = 10−21 Symbol: z
• Yocto = 10−24 Symbol: y
METRIC PREFIX SCALE

T G M k m µ n p
tera giga mega kilo (none) milli micro nano pico
1012 109 106 103 100 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12
102 101 10-1 10-2

hecto deca deci centi
h da d c
• Conversion formulae for temperature

o
• F = (o C)(9/5) + 32
o
• C = (o F - 32)(5/9)
o
• R = o F + 459.67
• K = o C + 273.15
Conversion equivalencies for distance

1 inch (in) = 2.540000 centimeter (cm)
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft)
16
Conversion equivalencies for volume
1 gallon (gal) = 231.0 cubic inches (in3 ) = 4 quarts (qt) = 8 pints (pt) = 128 fluid ounces (fl. oz.)
= 3.7854 liters (l)
1 milliliter (ml) = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3 )
Conversion equivalencies for velocity

1 mile per hour (mi/h) = 88 feet per minute (ft/m) = 1.46667 feet per second (ft/s) = 1.60934
kilometer per hour (km/h) = 0.44704 meter per second (m/s) = 0.868976 knot (knot – international)
Conversion equivalencies for mass

1 pound (lbm) = 0.45359 kilogram (kg) = 0.031081 slugs
Conversion equivalencies for force

1 pound-force (lbf) = 4.44822 newton (N)
Conversion equivalencies for area

1 acre = 43560 square feet (ft2 ) = 4840 square yards (yd2 ) = 4046.86 square meters (m2 )
Conversion equivalencies for common pressure units (either all gauge or all absolute)
1 pound per square inch (PSI) = 2.03602 inches of mercury (in. Hg) = 27.6799 inches of water (in.
W.C.) = 6.894757 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 0.06894757 bar
1 bar = 100 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 14.504 pounds per square inch (PSI)
Conversion equivalencies for absolute pressure units (only)

1 atmosphere (Atm) = 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute (PSIA) = 101.325 kilo-pascals absolute
(kPaA) = 1.01325 bar (bar) = 760 millimeters of mercury absolute (mmHgA) = 760 torr (torr)
Conversion equivalencies for energy or work

1 british thermal unit (Btu – “International Table”) = 251.996 calories (cal – “International Table”)
= 1055.06 joules (J) = 1055.06 watt-seconds (W-s) = 0.293071 watt-hour (W-hr) = 1.05506 x 1010
ergs (erg) = 778.169 foot-pound-force (ft-lbf)
Conversion equivalencies for power

1 horsepower (hp – 550 ft-lbf/s) = 745.7 watts (W) = 2544.43 british thermal units per hour
(Btu/hr) = 0.0760181 boiler horsepower (hp – boiler)
Acceleration of gravity (free fall), Earth standard

9.806650 meters per second per second (m/s2 ) = 32.1740 feet per second per second (ft/s2 )
17
Physical constants
Speed of light in a vacuum (c) = 2.9979 × 108 meters per second (m/s) = 186,281 miles per second
(mi/s)
Avogadro’s number (NA ) = 6.022 × 1023 per mole (mol−1 )
Electronic charge (e) = 1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb (C)
Boltzmann’s constant (k) = 1.38 × 10−23 Joules per Kelvin (J/K)
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ) = 5.67 × 10−8 Watts per square meter-Kelvin4 (W/m2 ·K4 )
Molar gas constant (R) = 8.314 Joules per mole-Kelvin (J/mol-K)
Properties of Water
Freezing point at sea level = 32o F = 0o C
Boiling point at sea level = 212o F = 100o C
Density of water at 4o C = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3 = 1 kg/liter = 62.428 lb/ft3 = 1.94 slugs/ft3
Specific heat of water at 14o C = 1.00002 calories/g·o C = 1 BTU/lb·o F = 4.1869 Joules/g·o C
Specific heat of ice ≈ 0.5 calories/g·o C
Specific heat of steam ≈ 0.48 calories/g·o C
Absolute viscosity of water at 20o C = 1.0019 centipoise (cp) = 0.0010019 Pascal-seconds (Pa·s)
Surface tension of water (in contact with air) at 18o C = 73.05 dynes/cm
pH of pure water at 25o C = 7.0 (pH scale = 0 to 14)
Properties of Dry Air at sea level

Density of dry air at 20o C and 760 torr = 1.204 mg/cm3 = 1.204 kg/m3 = 0.075 lb/ft3 = 0.00235
slugs/ft3
Absolute viscosity of dry air at 20o C and 760 torr = 0.018 centipoise (cp) = 1.8 × 10−5 Pascal-
seconds (Pa·s)
file conversion constants
18
Question 0
How to get the most out of academic reading:

• Articulate your thoughts as you read (i.e. “have a conversation” with the author). This will develop
metacognition: active supervision of your own thoughts. Write your thoughts as you read, noting
points of agreement, disagreement, confusion, epiphanies, and connections between different concepts
or applications. These notes should also document important math formulae, explaining in your own
words what each formula means and the proper units of measurement used.
• Outline, don’t highlight! Writing your own summary or outline is a far more effective way to comprehend
a text than simply underlining and highlighting key words. A suggested ratio is one sentence of your
own thoughts per paragraph of text read. Note points of disagreement or confusion to explore later.
• Work through all mathematical exercises shown within the text, to ensure you understand all the steps.
• Imagine explaining concepts you’ve just learned to someone else. Teaching forces you to distill concepts
to their essence, thereby clarifying those concepts, revealing assumptions, and exposing misconceptions.
Your goal is to create the simplest explanation that is still technically accurate.
• Write your own questions based on what you read, as though you are a teacher preparing to test
students’ comprehension of the subject matter.
How to effectively problem-solve and troubleshoot:

• Study principles, not procedures. Don’t be satisfied with merely knowing how to compute solutions –
learn why those solutions work. In mathematical problem-solving this means being able to identify the
practical meaning (and units of measurement) of every intermediate calculation. In other words, every
step of your solution should make logical sense.
• Sketch a diagram to help visualize the problem. When building a real system, always prototype it on
paper and analyze its function before constructing it.
• Identify what it is you need to solve, identify all relevant data, identify all units of measurement, identify
any general principles or formulae linking the given information to the solution, and then identify any
“missing pieces” to a solution. Annotate all diagrams with this data.
• Perform “thought experiments” to explore the effects of different conditions for theoretical problems.
When troubleshooting real systems, perform diagnostic tests rather than visually inspecting for faults.
• Simplify the problem and solve that simplified problem to identify strategies applicable to the original
problem (e.g. change quantitative to qualitative, or visa-versa; substitute easier numerical values;
eliminate confusing details; add details to eliminate unknowns; consider simple limiting cases; apply an
analogy). Often you can add or remove components in a malfunctioning system to simplify it as well
and better identify the nature and location of the problem.
• Work “backward” from a hypothetical solution to a new set of given conditions.
How to create more time for study:

• Kill your television and video games. Seriously – these are incredible wastes of time. Eliminate
distractions (e.g. cell phone, internet, socializing) in your place and time of study.
• Use your “in between” time productively. Don’t leave campus for lunch. Arrive to school early. If you
finish your assigned work early, begin studying the next day’s material.
Above all, cultivate persistence. Persistent effort is necessary to master anything non-trivial. The keys
to persistence are (1) having the desire to achieve that mastery, and (2) realizing challenges are normal and
not an indication of something gone wrong. A common error is to equate easy with effective: students often
believe learning should be easy if everything is done right. The truth is that mastery never comes easy!
file question0
19
Creative Commons License
This worksheet is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, version 1.0. To view
a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/ or send a letter to Creative
Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, California 94305, USA. The terms and conditions of this
license allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modification of all licensed works by the general public.
Simple explanation of Attribution License:

The licensor (Tony Kuphaldt) permits others to copy, distribute, display, and otherwise use this
work. In return, licensees must give the original author(s) credit. For the full license text, please visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/ on the internet.
More detailed explanation of Attribution License:

Under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License, you may make freely
use, make copies, and even modify these worksheets (and the individual “source” files comprising them)
without having to ask me (the author and licensor) for permission. The one thing you must do is properly
credit my original authorship. Basically, this protects my efforts against plagiarism without hindering the
end-user as would normally be the case under full copyright protection. This gives educators a great deal
of freedom in how they might adapt my learning materials to their unique needs, removing all financial and
legal barriers which would normally hinder if not prevent creative use.
Nothing in the License prohibits the sale of original or adapted materials by others. You are free to
copy what I have created, modify them if you please (or not), and then sell them at any price. Once again,
the only catch is that you must give proper credit to myself as the original author and licensor. Given that
these worksheets will be continually made available on the internet for free download, though, few people
will pay for what you are selling unless you have somehow added value.
Nothing in the License prohibits the application of a more restrictive license (or no license at all) to
derivative works. This means you can add your own content to that which I have made, and then exercise
full copyright restriction over the new (derivative) work, choosing not to release your additions under the
same free and open terms. An example of where you might wish to do this is if you are a teacher who desires
to add a detailed “answer key” for your own benefit but not to make this answer key available to anyone
else (e.g. students).
Note: the text on this page is not a license. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the Legal
Code (the full license) - it is a human-readable expression of some of its key terms. Think of it as the
user-friendly interface to the Legal Code beneath. This simple explanation itself has no legal value, and its
contents do not appear in the actual license.
file license
20
Questions
Question 1
Read and outline the “Reference Junction Compensation” subsection of the “Thermocouples” section
of the “Continuous Temperature Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation
textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other
relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts
and examples explored in this reading.
file i03990
Question 2
Read and outline the “Law of Intermediate Metals” subsection of the “Thermocouples” section of the
“Continuous Temperature Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook.
Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant
details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and
examples explored in this reading.
file i03991
Question 3
Read and outline the “Software Compensation” subsection of the “Thermocouples” section of the
file i03992
Question 4
Read and outline the “Extension Wire” subsection of the “Thermocouples” section of the “Continuous
Temperature Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page
numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found.
Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in
this reading.
file i03993
Question 5
Read and outline the “Side-Effects of Reference Junction Compensation” subsection of the
“Thermocouples” section of the “Continuous Temperature Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In
Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs,
equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor
and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading.
file i03994
Question 6
Read and outline the “Burnout Detection” subsection of the “Thermocouples” section of the
file i03995
21
Question 7
The relationship between the amount of voltage produced by a thermocouple’s measurement junction
(Emeas ), the voltage produced by the reference junction (Eref ), and the voltage received by the measuring
instrument (Emeter ) is stated by the following equation:
Eref
Emeas
Voltmeter
Thermocouple wire Copper wire
Thermocouple Emeter
Emeter = Emeas − Eref

In a hardware-compensated thermocouple measuring instrument, the reference junction’s voltage is
canceled by the addition of a variable voltage source inside the instrument which we will designate as
Ecomp . An alternative approach is to connect an external device called an electronic ice-point between the
voltage-measuring instrument and the thermocouple, such that the “ice point” device adds the necessary
voltage to compensate for the reference junction:
Eref
Emeas Electronic ice-point Voltmeter
Compensating
Thermocouple circuit Emeter
Re-write the thermocouple circuit equation to include this “compensating” voltage, and identify both
the magnitude and the polarity this voltage must have in order to successfully cancel Eref .
Suggestions for Socratic discussion
• Why can’t we just somehow build the thermocouple circuit so it doesn’t have a reference junction at
all? That way we wouldn’t have to concern ourselves with compensation for this junction!
• Should we use thermocouple extension wire to connect the voltmeter to the ice-point circuit, or is copper
wire sufficient?
• Can we get away with using copper extension wire all the way to the thermocouple so long as we’re
using an ice-point circuit? Why or why not?
file i00385
22
Question 8
Thermocouple-based temperature instruments work on the principle of measuring voltage output by a
thermocouple:
Instrument in use
Temperature instrument
Process
+ Iron + Cu
+ -
(Type J)
Cu
T
- Constantan - Cu
Cu
If we try to simulate a thermocouple by using a precision potentiometer circuit to send a precise millivolt
signal to a temperature instrument, however, the instrument will not register the way we might expect. For
instance, thermocouple tables for type J thermocouples tell us that 500 o F corresponds to a voltage signal
of 14.110 mV. However, if we were to input this amount of signal voltage to a type J instrument, it would
probably not register 500 o F:
Precision Instrument in calibration

potentiometer
Cu + Cu + Cu
+ -
Cu
T
Cu - Cu - Cu
Cu
Describe what the problem is, and determine the amount of voltage we would have to “dial up” on the
precision potentiometer in order to get the thermocouple instrument to register 500 o F, assuming an ambient
temperature of 72 o F.
• Express in general terms how one could solve a problem such as this one. In other words, think of a
way to express a general step-by-step solution you could give to someone in the form of an instruction
list, to show them how much voltage they would need to input to a temperature instrument to make it
“think” it was connected to a thermocouple of any given temperature.
• Should the thermistor in the compensation bridge possess a positive or a negative coefficient of resistance?
file i00386
23
Question 9
Determine the correct potentiometer millivoltage setting to generate the following temperature
indications on the following instruments:
Precision
potentiometer Temp. = 76o F
(type K thermocouple)
Cu + Cu + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu Cu
Cu
Temp. = 65o F
• 0o F ; Potentiometer setting = ???

Precision
(type J thermocouple)
Cu + Cu + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu Cu
Cu
o
Temp. = 73 F

24
Precision
Cu + Iron + Cu
+ -
T
- Constantan - + -
Cu
Cu
Temp. = 50o F

• In each of these example circuits, only one of the ambient temperatures given is relevant. Identify which
one that is, and explain why the other one doesn’t matter.
• What would have to be different in each circuit for the irrelevant temperature to matter?
• Explain what you would have to alter in each circuit in order to disable the temperature instrument’s
cold junction compensation (CJC).
file i00388
Question 10
It is important for a thermocouple-based temperature instrument to have a high input impedance. What
does this mean, and why is it important in a thermocouple circuit?
Modern digital voltmeter designs all exhibit high input impedance – high enough for measuring
thermocouple junction voltage, at least. Suppose, though, you were asked to measure the output of
a thermocouple without using any digital instruments. You have plenty of analog voltmeter movements
available, but they all have input impedances that are too low for this task.
Describe how you could build your own super-high input impedance voltmeter using readily available
components. Extra points for doing so without using an electronic circuit!
file i00394
25
Question 11
Write an equation for each circuit shown, showing how all the voltages in each circuit relate to each
other:
Process (primitive)
+ TC wire + Cu
+ -
Ereference
- TC wire - Cu
Einstrument
Emeasurement
Equation:
Process
+ TC wire + Cu
+ -
Ereference
T
- - + -
TC wire
Cu
Emeasurement Einstrument
Ecompensation
Equation:
26
Precision
potentiometer
Cu + Cu + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Epotentiometer Cu Cu
Cu
Einstrument
Ecompensation
Equation:
Precision
potentiometer
Cu + TC wire + Cu
+ -
Ereference
T
- TC wire - + -
Epotentiometer Cu
Cu
Ecompensation
Equation:
• You should notice a definite progression in complexity from the first circuit to the last in this question.
Why do you suppose these circuits were arranged in this order? How might this help you figure out
the equation for a realistic calibration circuit (such as the last two) in the future if you do not have a
reference at hand to remind you how thermocouple circuits work?
file i00387
27
Question 12
The following diagram is a simplified schematic for a 2-wire, loop-powered, 4-20 mA analog temperature
transmitter:
Loop-powered 4-20 mA temperature transmitter
Out Voltage In
regulator
+V
Gnd Rlimit
Thermocouple Rbias
Amplifying
and scaling
circuitry
Out + +V
Op-amp
Gnd
Rfeedback −
Gnd
(ground)
Rsense
The rest of the circuit, of course, looks something like this:
2-wire cable 24 VDC

Thermocouple
Loop-powered
−
+
transmitter
Calculate the amount of current through the emitter of the transistor inside the temperature transmitter
given the following conditions:
• Calibrated temperature range = 50 to 250 degrees C
• Thermocouple temperature = 100 degrees C
• Loop power supply = 24.0 volts
• Loop resistance = 250 ohms
• Voltage regulator input current = 3.7 mA (constant)
Also, trace the directions of all currents in the temperature transmitter circuit using both conventional
and electron flow notations.
file i00397
28
Question 13
The HART protocol was an early attempt at establishing a digital communications standard for field
process instruments, designed as an extension of the already-popular 4 to 20 mA DC current signal standard.
The basic idea of HART is that serial digital data could be encoded as bursts of high-frequency AC voltage
superimposed on the DC voltage present in a 4-20 mA loop-powered circuit:
Loop-powered
transmitter 4-20 mA DC DC power source
250 Ω 24 VDC
(HART-compatible)
Indicator
C
(1-5 VDC)
HART communicator
A microprocessor inside the loop-powered transmitter detects the digital data signals from the HART
communicator as pulses of low-voltage AC dropped across the transmitter terminals. The transmitter, in
turn, has the ability to send digital data out in the same format, being detected by the communicator as
AC voltage pulses across its terminals.
Apply the Superposition Theorem to this circuit, showing the circuit as “seen” by the AC signals sent
between the transmitter and communicator, and showing the circuit as “seen” by the DC signals sent between
the transmitter and the indicator.
Also, identify where in the circuit the communicator may be connected and still be able to “talk” with
the smart instrument. What advantage(s) may there be in being able to connect the communicator at
different points in the circuit?
file i00400
29
Question 14
Write equations expressing the total voltage sensed by the indicating instrument, as functions of the
voltages shown in the diagrams. Assume that all junctions form the same thermocouple type (e.g. all type
J, all type K, etc.):
Series thermocouple junctions
Vmeter = ???
V1
V2
V3 Vref
V4
V5
Parallel thermocouple junctions

Vmeter = ???
V1 Vref
V2
V3
file i00399
Question 15
Differential thermocouple circuits are used to measure the difference in temperature between two points:
Indicator
T1 T2
Does the indicating instrument require reference junction compensation or not? Explain your answer.
file i00401
30
Question 16
When using a thermocouple calibrator (simulator), where you simply set it to simulate a thermocouple
at a specified temperature, is it important to use the correct thermocouple or extension wire to connect the
calibrator with the transmitter, or is the wire type irrelevant?
Loop-powered Power supply

temperature
transmitter 24 V
Z S
4-20 mA cable
Thermocouple Ammeter
wire
???
mA
K
o
V A
F
J K E T S
7 8 9 V A
o OFF
4 5 6 C
o
1 2 3 F
0 Enter A COM
Calibrator
Be sure to explain your answer, based on the presence of dissimilar-metal junctions and junction-
compensation circuitry in both the calibrator and transmitter.
file i00396
Question 17
Terminal blocks used in thermocouple circuits are designed to be isothermal. For example, the dual-
terminal connection block found inside a thermocouple “head” box is a prime example of an isothermal
block.
Explain what this term “isothermal” means, how it is physically designed, and also why it is an important
feature.
file i00402
31
Question 18
Determine the correct potentiometer millivoltage setting to generate the following temperature
indications on the following instruments:
Precision
Cu + iron + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu constantan
Cu
Temp. = 71o F
• -100o F ; Potentiometer setting = ???

Precision
(type E thermocouple)
Cu + chromel + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu constantan
Cu
Temp. = 45o F

32
Precision
Cu + chromel + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu alumel
Cu
Temp. = 105o F
• -50o F ; Potentiometer setting = ???

file i00422
Question 19
Suppose someone were to connect a precision potentiometer to a temperature instrument using
thermocouple wire, except that they chose the wrong type of thermocouple wire:
Precision
Pt90%-Rh10%
Cu + + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu Pt
Cu
o
Temp. = 94 F
The instrument technician performing the calibration sets the potentiometer to an output of 20.871
millivolts, hoping to simulate a temperature of 1000o F for the temperature instrument to measure. However,
since the wrong type of thermocouple wire is being used (type S instead of type K), the instrument will
actually register something else.
Assuming the instrument is already properly calibrated, what temperature will it indicate with a
potentiometer output of 20.871 mV and the indicated ambient temperatures?
file i00423
33
Question 20
Determine the correct potentiometer millivoltage settings to generate the following temperature
indications at the instrument:
Precision
Cu + Cu + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu Cu
Cu
Temp. = 75o F
• -93o F ; Potentiometer setting = mV

o
• 157 F ; Potentiometer setting = mV
o
o
file i02976
34
Question 21
Read pages 10-13 of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s “Three Mile Island – A Report to the
Commissioners and to the Public” for an overview of the nuclear reactor power generating system, and
pages 30-31 (Section 5 of the accident narrative) highlighting instrument technicians’ roles on the day of the
March 28, 1979 accident, then answer the following questions:
The normal operating temperature of water inside the reactor vessel is 575 o F, but yet the water does
not boil even when the reactor is operating at full power. Explain how boiling is prevented with such a high
operating temperature (see page 10), referencing a steam table and a phase diagram if necessary.
On pages 40-41 of the report, it states that measured reactor steam temperatures in excess of 600 degrees
F at a measured pressure of 495 PSI were clues that the heat-generating reactor core was “uncovered” (no
longer fully submerged in water inside the reactor vessel), because these figures imply superheated steam.
Explain this reasoning, based on what you know about phase changes in general and steam in particular.
Refer to a steam table and a phase diagram if necessary.
At the heart of the accident was a stuck-open pressure relief valve called a PORV. This open valve allowed
cooling water to escape from the primary (reactor) coolant loop, eventually leading to a condition where
about half of the reactor core (normally submerged in cooling water) was uncovered. Instrument technicians
were sent to manually measure reactor core temperatures by taking electrical measurements off the “incore”
thermocouple wires (pp. 30-31 of the Report). Based on what you know about thermocouples, explain
exactly the steps these instrument technicians would have taken to obtain the temperature measurements.
According to the Report, what subsequent action(s) were taken following the instrument technicians’
measurements?
Hint: the Socratic Instrumentation website contains a page where you may download public-domain
textbooks, one of which is a set of steam tables published in 1920. The Fisher Control Valve Handbook also
has a (less comprehensive) set of steam tables in the Appendix section.
• Some of the millivoltage measurements taken of “incore thermocouples” by the technicians were “too
low to be believable,” and this is one of the reasons the high millivoltage measurements were dismissed.
Based on what you know of thermocouples, is there any way a very hot thermocouple could produce
unreasonably small millivoltage signals?
• Identify the ways in which heat is transferred from a nuclear reactor core to do useful work.
• Identify the point on a phase diagram for water where a pressurized-water reactor such as TMI is
supposed to operate.
• An insightful paragraph from this report reads, “Nuclear physics, as all science, is logical, and
those instruments are speaking the truth to anyone logical enough to recognize it. Defeat awaits the
individual who even subconsciously ascribes human qualitites like crankiness to functioning meters and
thermocouples simply because they are bringing bad news. The answer in science is never to shoot the
messenger.” (page 27). Discuss how you might very well encounter such attitudes on the job, and from
whom these attitudes might come.
• On pages 42-43 of the report, it documents a “hydrogen burn” inside the concrete containment building,
fueled by flammable hydrogen gas released by the overheated reactor through the stuck-open PORV.
Explain how people were able to determine this was in fact a real explosion that occurred inside the
building, and also identify what they assumed the instruments’ readings meant when it first happened
(i.e. not an explosion!).
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35
Question 22
Determine what type of temperature sensor is shown in this pictorial diagram, and then sketch wires
showing how to correctly connect the sensor to the temperature transmitter:
Temperature
transmitter Panel-mounted indicator
(1-5 VDC input)
24 VDC power supply
Loop power
Sensor
250 Ω
± 0.1%
Blue
Temperature sensor
Red
Note what types of metal each of the connecting wires should be (e.g. copper, chromel, alumel,
constantan, iron, platinum, etc.).
• A problem-solving technique useful for making proper connections in pictorial circuit diagrams is to
first identify the directions of all DC currents entering and exiting component terminals, as well as the
respective voltage polarity marks (+,−) for those terminals, based on your knowledge of each component
acting either as an electrical source or an electrical load. Discuss and compare how these arrows and
polarity marks simplify the task of properly connecting wires between components.
• Suppose the wire colors on the thermocouple were rubbed off, so you could not visually discern positive
from negative. A tag on the thermocouple still tells you the type, though. Is there some other way we
could determine thermocouple polarity?
• Suppose all labels and wire colors on the thermocouple were rubbed off, so you could not even tell what
kind of sensor it was: thermocouple, RTD, or thermistor. Devise a simple test by which you could
ascertain the identify of the temperature sensor.
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36
Question 23
Temperature
(4-20 mA input)
24 VDC power supply
Loop power
Sensor
Red
Temperature sensor
Yellow
• Explain why you used thermocouple-metal wires where you did, and why you used copper wires where
you did.
• Suppose all labels and wire colors on the thermocouple were rubbed off, so you could not even tell what
kind of sensor it was: thermocouple, RTD, or thermistor. Devise a simple test by which you could
ascertain the identify of the temperature sensor.
file i03998
37
Question 24
Temperature
transmitter
Panel-mounted indicator
(4-20 mA input)
24 VDC power supply
Loop power
Sensor
Red
Temperature sensor
White
White
• Identify the possible result of connecting the DC loop power supply to the wrong + and − terminals on
the temperature transmitter, explaining how we know this is bad for the circuit.
• Students very commonly mis-interpret the symbols drawn next to the input terminals of an RTD
transmitter, especially the terminals which must be made common to each other at the sensor. One of
the most popular misconceptions is to think that those terminals shown common to each other by the
symbol are already joined together inside the transmitter. Explain why this interpretation cannot be
true, based on how you know 3-wire and 4-wire RTD circuits are designed to work.
file i03999
38
Question 25
The sensor in this diagram is a platinum RTD. Sketch wires showing how to correctly connect this RTD
sensor to the temperature transmitter so that the wire resistance is canceled and will produce absolutely no
measurement error:
Temperature
Panel-mounted indicator transmitter
(4-20 mA input)
24 VDC power supply
Loop power
Sensor
Platinum RTD
• Explain how and why the presence of four wires eliminates wire resistance errors.
• If we were connecting a “decade box” precision resistance to the transmitter for the purposes of
simulating an RTD at temperature, would we still need to use four wires, or could we get away with
using only two wires?
• Suppose all labels and wire colors on the RTD were rubbed off, so you could not even tell what kind
of sensor it was: thermocouple, RTD, or thermistor. Devise a simple test by which you could ascertain
the identify of the temperature sensor.
file i04000
39
Question 26
Suppose a precision voltage source (“precision potentiometer”) is used to simulate a thermocouple signal
into a temperature transmitter as such:
To 24 VDC
loop power
Loop power
Temperature
transmitter
Sensor
mV
J K E T S copper-wire cable
7 8 9 mV
o
4 5 6 C
o
1 2 3 F
0 Enter
Millivolt source
Calculate the amount of voltage this precision source would have to output in order to simulate the
following thermocouple temperatures:
• Simulate 112 o F ; source voltage =

Assume an ambient temperature near the transmitter of 75 o F, and a type K configuration with reference
junction compensation active.
Examine the keypad of the calibration instrument being used here, and determine how this three-point
calibration could be done much easier than looking up millivoltage values in thermocouple tables.
• Explain the relevance of compensation being “active” in the transmitter. How would our calibration
differ if the compensation were turned off?
• What would happen if one of the wires inside the copper cable broke open during the calibration?
• How would the calibration procedure differ if type “KX” extension wires were used to connect the
calibrator to the transmitter rather than copper wires?
• Does the burnout mode of a thermocouple transmitter matter during a calibration such as this?
file i04001
40
Question 27
Suppose a decade box resistance unit is used to simulate an RTD signal into a temperature transmitter
as such:
To 24 VDC
loop power
Loop power
Temperature
transmitter
Sensor
1 6 0 4 3
hundreds tens ohms tenths hundredths
Decade resistance box
Calculate the amount of resistance this decade box would have to be set to in order to simulate the
following RTD temperatures:
• Simulate 84 o F ; resistance =

Assume a 100 ohm platinum (α = 0.00385 Ω/Ωo C) RTD configuration for the transmitter.
• Explain why four wires are being used here for this RTD transmitter calibration.
• If you consult a table for resistance values of a 100 ohm platinum RTD with an alpha value of 0.00385,
you will find the numbers slightly disagree with those predicted by the equation. Explain why.
file i04002
41
Question 28
Suppose you walk up to this thermocouple, installed to measure the temperature of an enclosed process
vessel, and connect a sensitive voltmeter to the terminals at the junction head:
Ambient temp = 87 oF
Transmitter
Head Z S
(long length of extension cable) 4-20 mA cable
Vio Red Ambient temp = 71 oF
mV
V A
Process vessel
V A
OFF
Temp = ???
A COM
First, determine which lead of the voltmeter should contact which lead of the thermocouple (red to
red?), then determine the temperature of the process vessel if the measured voltage is 15.830 mV.
• Will the transmitter’s measurement of temperature be affected when the voltmeter probes touch the
thermocouple leads? In other words, will this influence the temperature measurement for an operator
(or an automatic controller) during your test?
• Suppose the technician touches the multimeter probe tips to the thermocouple wires directly, rather than
to the copper terminals inside the junction head. Will this make any difference in the measurement?
Explain why or why not.
• Suppose the technician mistakenly sets the multimeter up to measure current instead of voltage. Will
this affect the transmitter’s measurement of temperature when the meter probes touch the thermocouple
leads?
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42
Question 29
Read the report “Improving Thermocouple Service Life in Slagging Gasifiers” written by James Bennett
of the US Department of Energy (DOE) Albany Research Center (document DOE/ARC-2005-043), and
answer the following questions:
What exactly does a gasifier do? What “feedstocks” does it input, and what products does it output?
How do these facts make gasification a technology of interest for future energy production?
Identify the typical pressures and temperatures encountered in the interior of a slagging gasifier. Express
these pressure and temperature ranges in bar and o F, respectively.
What type of thermocouple has traditionally been applied to this service? Explain why this choice is
more appropriate than some other thermocouple types.
How long have thermocouples typically lasted in this type of severe service, and how much does each
one cost to replace?
One of the alternative temperature-measurement technologies cited in this report is the use of sapphire
process probes with fiber-optic cables to conduct light to a remote location where it may be sensed. Explain
how this novel temperature-measurement technology works, based on the description alone (and/or your
own independent research on the topic).
An interesting style of thermocouple experimented with for gasifier applications is the so-called open
thermocouple. Explain how this sensing device is constructed, and how it differs from a regular thermocouple.
Identify some of the specific modes of thermocouple failure (i.e. how exactly is it that they are failing?).
Explain how “bridging” inside a gasifier may lead to incorrect thermocouple EMFs (millivolt signals).
• Examine the graph of thermocouple readings over a 3-hour test period as shown in figure 10. Which
slag thermocouple performed better as the sample warmed up? Which slag thermocouple performed
better after the sample had reached 880 o C?
• Explain how “syngas analysis” may be alternatively used to infer temperatures inside the gasifier, and
why this technique is not suitable for all phases of gasifier operation.
• Explain chemical interactions between thermocouple wires and compounds inside the gasifier can lead
to measurement errors, even before complete failure of the thermocouple.
• Explain what it means to sequester carbon dioxide gas from a process, and why this is important from
the perspective of environmental impact.
• Under what operating conditions may a gasifier be carbon-neutral (i.e. no net release of carbon dioxide
gas to the atmosphere)?
• Under what operating conditions may a gasifier be carbon-negative (i.e. it removes more carbon dioxide
gas from the atmosphere than it releases)?
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43
Question 30
Calculate VBC and VF G in this two-wire RTD circuit:
Voltmeter
A Cable (Rconductor = 1.8 Ω each)
B
0.45 mA
C
E
Rref = 100 Ω ; α = 0.00392
F
o G
Temp = 233 F
H
file i02330
Question 31
Calculate VAC and VBC in this three-wire RTD circuit:
Rwire = 2.3 Ω
A
Rwire = 2.5 Ω
D B
Rref = 100 Ω ; α = 0.00392
0.52 mA
T = 133 oC
Rwire = 2.6 Ω
C
E
file i02317
44
Question 32
Given the choice between these two wiring options (keeping the transmitter close to the process versus
far away), which is best, and why?
4-20 mA cable
Transmitter Indicator
Z S
Extension wire
Head
(long) (short)
Yel Red
Type K
thermocouple
(Yellow + Red
wires)
Extension wire
Transmitter Indicator
Z S
4-20 mA cable
Head
(short) (long)
Yel Red
Type K
thermocouple
(Yellow + Red
wires)
• If the longer wire in each case were shielded, how should we ground the shield for best results?
• How could we use a loop calibrator to “trick” the indicator into thinking the thermocouple was at some
particular temperature when in fact it was not?
file i00392
45
Question 33
Calculate VBC , VEH , and VF G in this four-wire RTD circuit:
Tambient = 73 oF
A
Blk
B Brn
0.7 mA C Red
D Org
Rwire = 1.34 Ω
(each conductor)
E
Blk Red
Brn
F Red
100 Ω RTD, α = 0.00385
G Wht
Red
H
Wht Temp = 473 oF
Org
file i02315
46
Question 34
An RTD measures the temperature of saturated steam at the steam drum of a boiler:
Exhaust stack
TT
RTD
Steam drum
Ho
tg
as
es
Hot gases Flame Fuel
"Mud" drum
The RTD connects to a bridge circuit via three wires, to register temperature at a sensitive voltmeter
mechanism in the control room:
R1 R3
Vexcitation +
−
RTD
R2 100 Ω
Suppose the boiler operator decides to increase the pressure of the boiler over a period of time. Identify
the effects this pressure change will have on these voltage drops in the RTD circuit:
• VR1 will increase, decrease, or stay the same?
• VRT D will increase, decrease, or stay the same?
• Explain the relationship between boiler pressure and boiler temperature:
file i04252
47
Question 35
Calculate the following voltage drops in this circuit assuming a thermocouple tip temperature of 718o
F, perfect calibration of all other instruments in the loop (Temp. range = 500 to 1000o F; current range =
4 to 20 mA), and a DC power supply voltage of exactly 28 volts:
Loop Diagram: #3 retort temperature Revised by: T. Couple Date: April 1, 2002
Field process area Field P5 Field P30 Control room

panel panel
TB64 TB27 TB40

CBL 9 CBL 41 CBL 22
+ TT + 8 15 3 ES +28 VDC
- 14 - 9 250Ω 16 4
TE 10 + TIR
14 CBL 10 11 250Ω 14
TY L1
TY
TI + 14a L2
14b
14 - G
ES DC Gnd
ES 120VAC
60 Hz
Tag number Description Manufacturer Model Calibration Notes

TE-14 Type K thermocouple Gordon Ungrounded tip
500 - 1000o F
TT-14 Temperature transmitter Rosemount 444 4-20 mA Downscale burnout
1 - 5 VDC
TI-14 Local indicator 500 - 1000o F
TY-14a,b 250 Ω resistor n/a +/- 0.1 %

TIR-14 Paperless chart recorder Eurotherm 1-5 VDC
• Voltage between terminals TB64-8 and TB64-9 =

Also, determine where you could connect a loop calibrator device to substitute for the transmitter, and
what mode the calibrator should be set to in order to control the loop current.
• Demonstrate how to estimate numerical answers for this problem without using a calculator.
• Discuss the options we have for thermocouple tip styles, and how this particular thermocouple’s tip
characteristics compare with others.
• Explain what “downscale burnout” means and why this transmitter configuration might be significant.
• What exactly is a “paperless” chart recorder?
• What would happen in this system if the local indicator (TI-14) were to electrically fail open?
file i00393
48
Question 36
In this system, an Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLC acts as a temperature controller, turning a cooling water
solenoid valve on and off to modulate water flow to the heat-exchange jacket of a chemical reactor vessel.
A thermocouple monitors the temperature of the fluids within the vessel. This diagram shows only the
electrical connections (no piping, no other components represented) for simplicity:
Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLC

Processor Input Input Output
Power 0 4 0 4
From CB-5 supply 1
2
5
6
1
2
5
6 1
panel P-22 3 7
Thermocouple 3 7
2
GrnWht Blk IN0
CJC A+
VAC 1
CJC A- 0+ 3
IN1 OUT0
0-
IN2 OUT1 4
1+
IN3 OUT2
1- 5
IN4 OUT3
2+
IN5 VAC 2 6
2-
L1 IN6 OUT4
CJC B+ 3+ 7
IN7 OUT5
L2/N CJC B- 3-
COM OUT6 8
Com
Gnd COM OUT7
Installed in thermowell
inside reactor vessel
Brn Blu
Blu Blu Blu
33 10
Red 34 11
Red Red
35 12
36 13
37 14
38 15
Blk Blk
39 16
Wht Wht
40 17
Cooling water
solenoid
One day the operator of this reactor contacts you to say the reactor is overheating, based on the
indication of a temperature gauge installed in the reactor near the PLC’s thermocouple. The reactor
temperature high/low setpoint values programmed in the PLC are 85 deg C and 80 deg C, respectively.
The temperature gauge is registering 91 deg C and slowly climbing.
Identify some likely faults that could cause this situation to occur, and also identify what tests you
would begin to conduct in order to diagnose the problem.
file i03112
49
Question 37
In this circuit, a type of temperature sensor called an RTD is used to generate a DC voltage signal that
is read by a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) – a specialized type of computer built to acquire and
process information from industrial sensors – to be displayed on a graphic screen called a Human-Machine
Interface (HMI):
C0-02DD1-D
CLICK
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) Koyo
C1
X1
X2
X3
PWR X4
RUN C2
RUN
Human-Machine Interface (HMI) ERR STOP Y1
Y2
le
owe r cab PORT 1 Y3
n/p Y4
icatio
TX1
mun +V
Com
RX1
Temperature = AD1V
TX2 AD1I
deg C RX2 AD2V
PORT 2 AD2I
ACOM
PORT 3 RS-485
DA1V
TX3 DA1I
120 VAC RX3 DA2V

LG
DA2I
0 24V
24 VDC +
−
RTD
3.3 kΩ
DC/DC converter
(100 Ω @ 0 oC)
24 VDC 5 VDC
The electrical resistance of this RTD changes with temperature according to the following formula, with
R being the RTD’s resistance in ohms and T being the RTD’s temperature in degrees Celsius:
R = 1000(1 + 0.00385T )
The analog input module of the PLC senses the voltage dropped across the 3.3 kΩ resistor, converting
this signal into a digital number inside the PLC’s memory directly representing volts DC. However, no human
operator looking at the HMI display will know what “DC volts” is supposed to mean – he or she needs to
see a display in units of degrees Celsius, not volts.
Fortunately, PLCs are programmable. That is, you as a technician can enter a mathematical formula
into the memory of the PLC to convert the voltage value into a temperature value (in degrees C). Your task
is to take the RTD formula shown above, combine it with the voltage divider formula you know from your
studies of DC circuits, and write a custom formula for this application solving for T in terms of V :
T =
• A useful technique for double-checking your answer is to work the problem backwards: begin with your
answer, working the problem in reverse to see if you arrive at the original (given) values. Explain how
to apply this technique to double-checking your answer on this particular problem.
• Identify which fundamental principles of science, technology, and/or math apply to each step of your
solution to this problem. In other words, be prepared to explain the reason(s) “why” for every step of
your solution, rather than merely describing those steps.
• As the RTD temperature rises, does the voltage signal input to the PLC increase or decrease?
50
file i03402
Question 38
An automotive performance shop is testing an engine they just built for a race car. The engine is
removed from the car, attached to a dynamometer for measuring its horsepower and other performance
parameters. For temperature measurement, a type K thermocouple has been attached to the metal block
of the engine, thermocouple wires run all the way back to the control room where mechanics operate the
dynamometer, and and a voltmeter connected to those thermocouple wires inside the control room (which
happens to be at a temperature of 58 degrees F).
Before the engine is started up, the voltmeter reads 0.0 millivolts. The mechanics start up the engine,
run it for several seconds, and then shut it down because they realized they forgot to hook up some other
sensor for their main test. In that short run time, the voltmeter’s indication increased to 0.089 millivolts.
How hot did the engine get in that short period of time?
Assuming the engine is made of 300 pounds of iron, and filled with 2.5 gallons of water (in the cooling
system), how much heat did the engine absorb within its own mass during those few seconds of run time?
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51
Question 39
DANGER! The following question will probably shatter your fundamental conceptions about how
thermocouples work! If you find the topic confusing enough already, please turn the page and skip past
this question!!
Everything you thought you knew about thermocouples is wrong. Well, maybe not everything, but just
the fundamental principle upon which they operate. In school you probably learned that the Seebeck effect
depends on a junction of dissimilar substances, usually two different metals or metal alloys.
Wrong.
In point of fact, the Seebeck effect exists along the length of any one substance that is differentially
heated. Take this length of copper wire for example, with one end held at the freezing point of water and
the other end held at the boiling point of water:
Cold end Hot end

Copper wire
0o F 212o F
Seebeck voltage
The Seebeck coefficient (σ) is equal to the derivative of voltage (V ) with respect to temperature (T ):
∆V
σ = lim
∆T →0 ∆T
dV
σ=
dT
Different substances have different Seebeck coefficients. The following table shows several common
examples:
Substance σ @ 0o C σ @ 100o C
Copper 1.72 µV / o C 2.23 µV / o C
Silver 1.42 µV / o C 1.84 µV / o C
Gold 2.3 µV / o C 2.0 µV / o C
Tungsten 1.9 µV / o C 6.7 µV / o C
Nickel -7.0 µV / o C -12.4 µV / o C
Kovar 0.20 µV / o C 0.19 µV / o C
Silicon -408 µV / o C -455 µV / o C
However, it is impossible to measure this voltage by connecting a real voltmeter across the ends of
this copper wire. Explain why. Furthermore, explain how a junction of dissimilar materials may produce a
thermal voltage that is easily measured.
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52
Question 40
Identify the problem(s) with this temperature measurement circuit:
Temperature
transmitter
(4-20 mA input)
24 VDC power supply
Loop power
Sensor
Red
Temperature sensor
White
White
file i02895
Question 41
Read and outline the “Non-Contact Temperature Sensors” section of the “Continuous Temperature
Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers
where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare
to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this
reading.
file i04017
Question 42
Read and outline the “Temperature Switches” section of the “Discrete Process Measurement” chapter in
your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations,
photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with
your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading.
file i04004
53
Question 43
Explain what the following “ladder-logic” circuit does, and identify the meaning of each symbol in the
diagram:
L1 L2
TSHH
Temp. high
TSH Cooling water

solenoid
TSL
Temp. low
• Explain why the TSH uses a normally-open contact instead of a normally-closed contact.
• Explain why the TSL uses a normally-closed contact instead of a normally-open contact.
• Based on what we see in this diagram, determine whether the electric solenoid valve allows cooling water
to flow when energized, or when de-energized.
• What do the designations “L1” and “L2” refer to in ladder-logic electrical diagrams?
• Suppose switch TSL has a trip setting of 105 o F (falling) and a deadband value of 2 o F. Explain how
this switch will respond to a rising and falling temperature.
• Suppose we wished to have switch TSHH activate two different alarm lights instead of just one. Modify
the circuit diagram accordingly.
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54
Question 44
The “Site Programmable Transmitter” (model SPT) manufactured by Moore Industries is an electronic
device capable of receiving input from an RTD or thermocouple, and outputting a discrete switch contact
signal useful as an alarm (in addition to outputting an analog 4-20 mA signal representing temperature
measurement):
Yel Red
Ready Trip Input
View
SPT
Select
AC light bulb
T/C
AC power plug
Based on analysis of this instrument’s datasheet, sketch the necessary wire connections so that the light
bulb will turn on when a certain temperature limit is exceeded. Also, determine what type of thermocouple
is shown in the diagram.
• Where is it appropriate to use copper wires in this circuit, and where should we use thermocouple or
thermocouple extension wire?
• A cheaper alternative to the “SPT” is a simple temperature switch, such as the type directly actuated
by a bi-metal spring. Justify the extra expense and complexity of an SPT unit, in terms of what it can
do that a simple temperature switch cannot.
file i04009
Question 45
Read and outline the “Temperature Standards” subsection of the “Practical Calibration Standards”
section of the “Instrument Calibration” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook.
file i04006
55
Question 46
Read and outline the “Temperature Sensor Accessories” section of the “Continuous Temperature
Measurement” chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers
where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare
to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this
reading.
file i04007
Question 47
Read portions of the Rosemount datasheet for high-temperature thermocouple assemblies (document
00813-0401-2654) and answer the following questions:
Identify some of the different materials used in the construction of “protective tubes” (thermowells)
offered by Rosemount for high-temperature measurement applications.
Ceramic thermowells may be damaged by a phenomenon called thermal shock. Explain what “thermal
shock” is, how it may occur during thermocouple installation, and what precaution(s) to take to avoid this.
What are some of the factors to consider when selecting a thermowell material for a particular process
application?
Explain what a multipoint gradient thermocouple assembly is, and what one might be used for.
Explain what limit tolerance class refers to, according to the DIN EN 60584-2 standard. Which class
has a tighter tolerance, Class 1 or Class 2?
• Why should thermowells in high-temperature applications be inserted vertically rather than horizontally
whenever possible?
• A section on page 6 of this document explains why type B thermocouples (where both wires are a
platinum-rhodium alloy) tend to be more stable over time than type S or R thermocouples which both
use pure platinum for one of their wires. Re-phrase this explanation in your own words, articulating
why type B thermocouples are more stable than types R and S.
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56
Question 48
In this process, steam heat is supposed to maintain the temperature of solvent in the tank at 105 o F:
LAH
234
Set @ Set @
10 oz. 8 oz. LSH LT WirelessHART LI H
press. vac.
234 305 305
2"
PSV 3"
14 2"
PG PG
364 363 4"
Solvent unloading 1-1/2"
S-403 thick
Dwg. 45231 Solvent storage tank
TT TI
1" 109 109
PG TCV
365 105 12"
30 PSI steam TI H
Dwg. 11032 304 L
PG 24"
361 MW
WirelessHART
TG
205 2" H
LSL TT PIR
T 233 304 271
4" 2"
ET
PT
PG TG PG 271
367 209 368
Solvent wash
ET Dwg. 32451
PG PSH
Condensate header
366 231
Dwg. 11032 HC
I
ET
PSL
232
P-25
Suppose the steam pressure indicated by PG-365 is 30 PSIG, and we know that this steam is saturated
(i.e. it’s right at the boiling/condensing temperature for that pressure). Condensate (water) exits the heating
loop at 145 o F as indicated by TG-205. PG-361 shows the condensate line to be at atmospheric pressure (0
PSIG).
Assuming a steam flow rate of 15 pounds per hour, calculate the approximate amount of time required
to heat a new batch of solvent from ambient temperature (50 o F) up to 105 o F, if the stored volume of
solvent is 4300 gallons, and the solvent happens to have a density of 57 lb/ft3 and a specific heat of 0.73.
Feel free to neglect details such as heat loss through the insulation of the tank wall, and simply treat this as
a heat input / temperature rise thermodynamics problem.
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Question 49
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law of radiated energy tells us that the rate of heat lost by radiant emission
from a hot object is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature:
dQ
= eσAT 4
dt
Where,
dQ
dt = Radiant heat loss rate, in watts (W)
e = Emissivity factor, unitless
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10−8 W / m2 · K4 )
A = Surface area, in square meters (m2 )
T = Absolute temperature, Kelvin (K)
Algebraically manipulate this equation to solve for T in terms of all the other variables.
file i00421
Question 50
A radiation-style pyrometer measuring the temperature of a piece of glowing-hot steel coming out of
a furnace at a steel mill produces a millivolt signal (at the thermopile sensing element) of 12.69 mV when
the steel is at a temperature of 1400 o F. Calculate the approximate millivolt output signals at the following
target temperatures:
• 1600 o F ; Output = mV
o
• 800 C ; Output = mV
• 1000 K ; Output = mV
file i00649
58
Question 51
This electrically-heated oven has a problem: instead of cycling between 340 o F and 350 o F as it is
designed to, the temperature cycles between 349 o F and 351 o F:
Oven Control circuit diagram

350o F
L1 L2
TSH
340o F 350o F
o
340 F TSL TSH TC
C D
A E
TSL Cookies
TC-1
B
F
TC-2 Element
G
TC H
Electric heating
element terminals
Identify the likelihood of each specified fault for this circuit. Consider each fault one at a time (i.e. no
coincidental faults), determining whether or not each fault could independently account for all measurements
and symptoms in this circuit.
Fault Possible Impossible

TSL contact failed open
TSL contact failed shorted
TSH contact failed open
TSH contact failed shorted
TC-1 contact failed open
TC-1 contact failed shorted
TC relay coil failed open
TC relay coil failed shorted
Broken wire between points C and F
Broken wire between points A and B
Finally, identify the next diagnostic test or measurement you would make on this system. Explain how
the result(s) of this next test or measurement help further identify the location and/or nature of the fault.
file i00296
59
Question 52
An operator tells you the stack temperature of this incinerator is running high as indicated by TIC-37.
The setpoint is set at 1400 degrees F, but the PV display shows a steady 1489 o F:
F-1
INCINERATOR
DP Atmosphere
DT 1650 oF
Res Time 1.5 sec minimum
(3) - 3" nozzles

90o apart at
elev. 50’ 6"
67’ above
grade SO2
AE AT AAH
35 35 35
1" 1"
NOTES: O2
AE AT AIR
1. Gas safety vent pipes to extend 10 feet above grade, 34 34 34/35
situated at least 30 feet from any source of ignition. 1"x1/2" 1/2"
2. Burner management system supplied by vendor, located ET
in NEMA4X enclosure at base of incinerator tower. See

drawing 17003 for wiring details.
3. Gas chromatograph supplied by vendor, located in Rain shield
analyzer shack at base of incinerator tower. See TIR TAL TAH from 24’ to 67’
drawing 17059 for wiring and tubing details. 36 36 36
3/4" 3/4"
TT TE TE TT TIC
36 36 37 37 37
PG
41
34’ 6"
Waste stream #1 above grade 1"
Dwg. 12022 ST
2"
PG 2" thick
42 from grade
ET
to 24’ 0"
Waste stream #2
Dwg. 12022 ST 1" 1"
2" F-1
PG
43
6"x2" 6"x2"
Waste stream #3
Dwg. 12022 ST ET
2" 6"x2" 1" 1"
2"x3/4"
2"
24" MW
SV NE
115
BAL
106
SV BE
101 PSH D I RSP
/P
107 108 GC
FY FIC AT RS-485
Vent 2" PSH 38b 38 Modbus

BE 33
(Note 1) 110 (Note 3)
109
SV SV SV FV Gateway
102 SV 111 112 38 AY

103
2" 33
Ethernet
2" FC
PG
PSL BMS SV
104
105 (Note 2) 113 BMS AIR AIR AIR AIR AIR
PCV (Note 2) 33a 33b 33c 33d 33e
PG PSL H2S C2H2 NH3 HNO3 CH4
39
44 Vent 114
From natural
gas header (Note 1)
Dwg. 32915 2"
2"x1" 2"x1" 2"
HART
FY HART to analog DIR
ZS
From fuel 38 FT 38c 38
gas header
Dwg. 32915 38
2"
PCV FIQ TIR
40 38 38
FY
38a
Identify the likelihood of each specified fault in this process. Consider each fault one at a time (i.e. no
and symptoms in this process.

TT-37 miscalibrated (reading too low)
TT-37 miscalibrated (reading too high)
TIC-37 in manual mode
TIC-37 in auto mode
FIC-38 in manual mode
FIC-38 in auto mode
FIC-38 in cascade mode
FT-38 miscalibrated (reading too low)
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60
Question 53
Calculate the pressure of gas inside an enclosed vessel using the Ideal Gas Law, if the vessel volume is
1500 liters, the vessel and gas temperature is 125 o F, and the molecular quantity of gas inside the vessel is
80 moles. Express this pressure in units of atmospheres and also kPaG (kilopascals, gauge pressure).
• The “Ideal Gas Law” is called ideal for a reason – it does not perfectly describe the behavior of real
gases. Identify some scenarios where the Ideal Gas Law may yield erroneous results.
file i04014
Question 54
Two temperature switches sense the temperature inside an electrically-heated oven, each one with its
own “trip” value. Examine the schematic diagram for the control circuit, and then explain how it is supposed
to function:
L1 L2
250 oF 285 oF CR1
CR1 Heating element
Suppose relay contact CR1 were to fail open. Identify the effect this fault would have on the operation
of the temperature control circuit.
• This type of control system is sometimes called differential gap. Explain why this label is appropriate
for describing the system’s operation.
• Sketch a modified version of this circuit whereby the same temperature switches and relay control power
to a three-phase electric heating element powered by 480 VAC.
• Explain the effect(s) of the vertical wire connecting between the two temperature switches were to fail
open.
• Explain the effect(s) of the 285 o F temperature switch failing open.
• Explain the effect(s) of the 285 o F temperature switch failing shorted.
• Explain the effect(s) of the 250 o F temperature switch failing open.
• Explain the effect(s) of the 250 o F temperature switch failing shorted.
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61
Question 55
Suppose two temperature-measuring instruments are measuring the exact same process temperature,
providing redundant indications inside a control room:
Control room
(voltmeter)
Operator
o
F
Process thermocouple
vessel
bulb (bourdon tube gauge)
o
F
Both instruments are rather primitive: the thermocouple indicator is nothing more than an analog
milli-voltmeter movement, and the filled-bulb system is a Class V arrangement with a simple bourdon tube
pressure gauge mechanism used as the temperature indicator.
Now, suppose that the operator accidently bumps the thermostat in the control room, causing the
control room’s ambient temperature to increase by 20o F. Assuming the process vessel temperature remains
the same, describe the effect of elevated control room temperature on both temperature indicators, being
sure to explain why for both cases.
• Some Class V filled-bulb temperature instruments are compensated to eliminate calibration errors
resulting from changes in ambient temperature. Explain how such a “compensating” mechanism might
function – how exactly would it sense and then compensate for room temperature?
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62
Question 56
A technique to measure average temperature using multiple sensors involves paralleling multiple
thermocouples, using “swamping resistors” to join them to a single transmitter:
Transmitter
Z S
4-20 mA cable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Rswamp Rswamp Rswamp
T/C #1
T/C #2
T/C #3
First, explain what the purpose of these swamping resistors is – why not just simply parallel the three
thermocouples directly? Second, determine what will happen if one of these swamping resistors were to fail
open.
• Describe a practical application where we might need to have an average temperature measurement of
three different locations than a single-point measurement.
• Where should thermocouple wire be used in this circuit, and where is it appropriate to use copper wire?
• Will the presence of these swamping resistors impact the reference junction compensation? Why or why
not?
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63
Question 57
Read the datasheet for “The WORM” flexible temperature sensor marketed by Moore Industries and
answer the following questions:
Explain how this sensor design ensures good thermal contact with the thermowell.
Identify some of the sensor types available in this product line.
Note which specific types of thermocouple sensor offered in this sensor respond fastest to changes in
process temperature, and explain why.
Note the accuracy specified for RTD sensors, and compare this to the accuracy specifications you’ve
seen for thermocouples.
file i04008
Question 58
Determine the following test point voltages (all with reference to ground) at the following temperatures,
for the following 4-wire RTD circuit:
1.7 Ω − 22 kΩ 22 kΩ
1.7 Ω
TP1 + TP3
−
100 Ω
1.5 mA RTD Vout
European α + TP5
TP2
+
22 kΩ 22 kΩ
1.8 Ω TP4
1.6 Ω −
• Voltage at TP1 (VT P 1 ), with RTD at 0o C = V

o
• Voltage at TP2 (VT P 2 ), with RTD at 10 F = V
• Voltage at TP3 (VT P 3 ), with RTD at 12o C = V
• Voltage at TP5 (VT P 5 ), with RTD at -20o C = V
file i00652
Question 59
Question 60
64
Question 61
Identify any area(s) of your study in which you would like to become stronger. Examples include
technical reading, electrical circuit analysis, solving particular types of problems, time management, and/or
skills applied in the lab. Cite specific examples if possible, and bring these to your instructor’s attention so
that together you may target them for improvement. As a starting point, try consulting the list of topics
on the first page of the worksheet for the upcoming mastery exam, as well as the “General Values and
Expectations” list near the beginning of the worksheet identifying the habits and qualities necessary for
success in this career.
Next, identify practical strategies you will use to strengthen these areas. Examples include focusing on
specific types of problem-solving whenever those types appear in the homework, working through practice
problems for a particular subject, and/or coordinating with your lab team to give you more practice on
specific skills.
• One useful strategy is to maintain a journal of all you’ve learned in a course of study. Explore ways
you could take the work you’re already doing to prepare for homework (daily discussions with your
instructor) and turn this into a journal or even a weblog (“blog”) for your own reflection and eventual
use as a portfolio to showcase your capabilities to employers.
• Where exactly are the practice problem worksheets located on the Socratic Instrumentation website?
• Peruse the “feedback questions” for this (and/or past) course sections to identify any questions related
to areas you would like to strengthen.
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65
Question 62
Determine how either of the potentiometers may be connected to the temperature transmitter in order
to simulate a 4-wire RTD:
Temperature
(1-5 VDC input)
Loop power
- - - -
+ + + +
Sensor
6V 6V 6V 6V
250 Ω
± 0.1%
• Perhaps the most difficult part of this problem is deciding how to connect the potentiometer to the
transmitter. One way to help you solve this problem is to apply the technique of simplifying the
problem so that it is easier to solve, then use that solution as a starting point for the final solution of
the given (complex) problem. Show how you would first simplify the given problem here, and what that
simple(r) solution would look like.
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66
Question 63
Connect the necessary wires so that this temperature transmitter sends a 4-20 mA current signal to
channel 1 of the analog input card on the PLC, assuming the temperature transmitter will be configured for
a 3-wire RTD sensor:
Allen-Bradley SLC 500 PLC

Processor Input Input Output
Power 0 4
supply 1
2
3
5
6
7 Analog Analog
IN0 IN 0+ +24 VDC
IN1 IN 0- DC COM
ANL COM
IN2 IN 1+
IN3 IN 1- I OUT 0 24 VDC power supply
ANL COM ANL COM
IN4
IN 2+ I OUT 1
IN5 IN 2- ANL COM
L1 IN6 ANL COM I OUT 2
IN7 IN 3+ ANL COM
L2/N IN 3- I OUT 3
COM ANL COM ANL COM
Gnd COM
Loop power
Temperature
transmitter
Sensor
Platinum RTD
• What type(s) of wire should be used to connect the RTD to the input terminals on the transmitter?
Should platinum wires be used (to match the RTD’s wire type) or may regular copper wires be used?
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67
Question 64
Read portions of the Moore Products model 33 “Nullmatic” pneumatic temperature transmitter service
manual and answer the following questions:
Identify the upper operating temperature limit of this instrument, and compare this against common
thermocouples.
Describe a typical calibration procedure for this transmitter.
Determine whether this is a force-balance or a motion-balance instrument, based on an examination of

its cut-away diagram.
• Explain how the “zero” adjustment works in this temperature transmitter.

• Explain how the span of this temperature transmitter could be altered.
• Identify at least one fault that could cause the pneumatic output of this instrument to saturate low
(below 3 PSI)
• Identify at least one fault that could cause the pneumatic output of this instrument to saturate high
(above 15 PSI)
• If the ambient temperature of this instrument increases, what effect (if any) will it have on the output
signal?
• If you were to classify this filled-bulb instrument by number, which one would it be (e.g. Class I, II, III,
V)?
file i04016
Question 65
A company named GlassPoint designed and built a rather ingenious solar-powered steam generating
system for enhanced oilfield recovery cost-competitive to natural gas in regions with plentiful direct sunshine.
Their website in 2011 claimed these performance figures:
• Steam pressure = 2500 PSIG
• Steam temperature = 750 degrees Fahrenheit
• Steam volume = 90 barrels of boiler feedwater consumption per day, per acre of collection area
Based on these performance metrics, answer the following questions:
Is this saturated steam or superheated steam? How can you tell?
Calculate the water flow rate in units of gallons per minute (per acre of collection). Hint: one “barrel” is
equal to 42 gallons. Assume the unit operates for 12 hours each day, not 24 hours since the sun does not
shine at night.
Calculate the heat output rate in units of BTU per minute per acre of collection, assuming the boiler
feedwater starts at an ambient temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit.
Calculate the heat output rate in units of horsepower per acre of collection.
Hint: the Fisher Control Valve Handbook has a set of steam tables in the Appendix section covering the
pressures and temperatures experienced in the GlassPoint process.
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68
Question 66
Calculate VBC , VEH , and VF G in this four-wire RTD circuit, assuming the RTD transmitter uses a 0.35
mA current source to “excite” the RTD circuit:
Transmitter
Rwire = 2.3 Ω
Rwire = 2.5 Ω E ADC

F
Rwire = 2.6 Ω G
0.35 mA
H
Rwire = 2.2 Ω
A B C D
T = 320 oF
10 Ω copper RTD
α = 0.00427 Ω/Ω/oC
Note: reference a table for this RTD to determine its resistance at the specified temperature.
Also, determine which of the four wires should be colored red, and which should be colored white.
• Does it matter to the accuracy of this system that the four wires have unequal resistances?
• Which of the two requested voltages have the same value, and why?
• When you look at the table of resistance values for a 10 ohm copper RTD, you will note it differs from
platinum RTDs in terms of its “10 ohm” reference temperature. What is the reference temperature for
a 10 ohm copper RTD?
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69
Question 67
Read selected portions of the US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board’s analysis of the 1998
chemical manufacturing incident at the Morton International manufacturing facility in Paterson, New Jersey
(Report number 1998-06-I-NJ), and answer the following questions:
Based on the incident summary and key findings presented on pages 1 through 5, summarize how the
process is supposed to work and then describe what went wrong to produce the explosion.
A graph on page 31 of the report contrasts heat production of the chemical reaction versus heat removal
of the process cooling system. Identify where the “danger” point is on this graph, and explain why it is
dangerous based on your knowledge of specific heat and heat transfer.
The chemical reactions involved in this process were primarily exothermic. Explain what this term
means, and why it is important to the cause of this accident.
• Identify some of the discrepancies found in Morton’s MSDS datasheet for the Yellow 96 dye product (page
3) and explain how MSDS datasheets (more commonly known now as SDS datasheets) are generally
useful.
• Explain why the “heat removal” graph is a linear function, based on your knowledge of heat transfer
equations.
• Pick any point on the “heat removal” graph and explain how the temperature of the kettle will naturally
proceed from that temperature, based on a comparison of heat generation versus heat removal rates.
Identify the two points on this graph where the temperature will settle at an equilibrium value.
• Identify the shape of the “heat removal” graph if the dominant mode of heat transfer were radiation
instead of conduction/convection.
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70
Question 68
Read selected portions of the US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board’s analysis of the 1998
chemical manufacturing incident at the Morton International manufacturing facility in Paterson, New Jersey
(Report number 1998-06-I-NJ), and answer the following questions:
Pages 14 and 16 of the report describe the construction of the “kettle” batch process used by Morton
to produce “Yellow 96” dye. Page 16 in particular shows a simplified P&ID of the batch process. Based on
what you find in this section of the report, identify and explain all the modes of heat addition to and heat
removal from the process vessel. Also identify all measurement instrumentation for the kettle.
An important factor leading to this event was a failure to heed established Management of Change
(MOC) procedures, as described on page 7, on pages 45-46, and also on pages 57-58. Explain what
“Management of Change” refers to and why it is important for process safety.
Supposing the kettle was heated by a flow of saturated steam at 15 PSIG boiler pressure at a mass flow
rate of 3 pounds per minute and cooling to become condensate (water) at atmospheric pressure and 200
degrees F, calculate the amount of heat transferred to the kettle by this steam, in units of BTU per minute.
• An important safety policy at many industrial facilities is something called stop-work authority, which
means any employee has the right to stop work they question as unsafe. Explain how stop-work authority
could have been applied to this particular incident.
• Explain why the transition from a 1000 gallon kettle to a 2000 gallon kettle resulted in diminished
heat-removal capacity, based on what you know about thermodynamics.
• If the pressure of the saturated steam used to heat the kettle increased, would this result in more heat
delivered to the kettle, less heat delivered to the kettle, or the same amount of heat delivered to the
kettle?
• Do you suppose most of the heat transferred in the “condenser” took place via specific (sensible) heat
or via latent heat?
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71
Question 69
Once upon a time, an instrument technician (and BTC graduate!) stumbled upon this temperature
measurement circuit at a biopharmaceutical manufacturing facility, used to measure the temperature of
storage freezers:
4-20 mA to
indicator
...
...
RTD 4-conductor cable

+excit Wht
Loop
+sense Wht
-sense Red
-excit Red
RTD
Identify the type of calibration error introduced by this improper wiring (e.g. zero shift, span shift,
linearity, hysteresis), and also explain how the wiring error may be corrected for improved measurement
accuracy.
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72
Question 70
Read “Case Number 1” (pages 1-4) of the US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board’s safety
bulletin on “Management of Change” (Bulletin number 2001-04-SB) discussing the 1998 coker fire at the
Equilon refinery in Anacortes (Washington), and answer the following questions:
Explain in general terms what happened in the Coker unit of the refinery following a power outage, that
led to this accident. Specifically, identify how temperature measurement played a crucial role in the decision
to drain the coke drum.
Identify how the temperature sensors would have had to be built differently in order to provide better
information to operations about the status of the coke drum under these abnormal conditions. Explain why
their existing design was adequate to measure temperature under normal operating conditions.
Page 2 describes how a similar incident (though not lethal) occurred in 1996. Describe the follow-up to
that incident, and how better “Management of Change” (MOC) procedures might have prevented the 1998
disaster.
A significant number of industrial accidents may be traced back to insufficient or non-existent MOC
policies. Identify some of the reasons MOC might not be adequately applied at an industrial facility, and
what you as a technician might be able to do to increase the likelihood MOC procedures are respected.
• An important safety policy at many industrial facilities is something called stop-work authority, which
means any employee has the right to stop work they question as unsafe. Explain how stop-work authority
could have been applied to this particular incident.
• An ironic hazard within many chemical processing operations is that of a power failure. This seems
odd at first, because we typically associate the lack of electrical power with safety (lock-out, tag-out)
rather than with danger. However, a chemical processing operation may become very dangerous when
electrical service is disrupted. Try to generalize why this is, based on this particular case at the Equilon
refinery and/or on any industrial accident examples you may be familiar with.
• The report notes that “heat transfer calculations” would have shown a much longer cooling time
necessary than what operators assumed. Identify which heat transfer equations might apply to this
type of scenario, identifying the important variables dictating rate of cooling for the coke drum.
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73
Question 71
Suppose you are asked to configure the instruments in this pressure control loop to sense and display
process pressure over a range of 0 to 150 kPa, with the loop controller actuating two split-ranged control
valves in a progressive sequence:
Input LRV: ? Output range: AI function block AI function block PID function block
Input URV: ? 4 to 20 mA XD_Scale: 0 to 100% OUT_Scale: ? PV_Scale: ?
L_Type: Indirect
Emerson DeltaV DCS

PIC
PT PV
Output AO function block

PV_Scale: 0 to 100%
Input range: Output range:
? ?
Input range: Stem stroke:

? ?
PY
A
P IAS
PV
A
PY
Input range: Stem stroke: B
? ?
Desired control valve sequencing:
IAS 0% 50% 100%
PV-A (shut) (open)

P
PV
? ?
PV-B (shut) (open)
B
Write the proper range values inside the boxes near each instrument, showing the proper configuration
for each instrument needed to achieve the desired result.
• Suppose the controller displayed a pressure of 80 kPa when the actual process pressure was 87 kPa
PSIG. First, identify two possible locations in this loop for a calibration error that would account for
this discrepancy. Then, assuming only one fault, explain how you could positively determine the location
of this calibration error with a single diagnostic test.
• Suppose valve PV-A was 100% open and PV-B was 60% open when the controller output displayed 75%.
First, identify three possible locations in this loop for a calibration error that would account for this
discrepancy. Then, assuming only one fault, explain how you could positively determine the location of
this calibration error with no more than two diagnostic tests.
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74
Question 72
The reference manual for the Rosemount model 3144 temperature transmitter states that the default
(factory) configuration for this transmitter is for the failure mode to be “high”. Explain what this means,
and why the “failure mode” is an important parameter for a thermocouple instrument.
Also, comment on the “NAMUR” signal levels differentiating a saturated condition from a detected
failure, and why this standard might be important in a control system.
• Are NAMUR signals used only for temperature instruments, or for other types of instruments as well
(e.g. pressure, level, flow)?
file i04015
Question 73
Suppose you measured the output of a type J thermocouple inserted into a process vessel and read 12.53
millivolts on your digital multimeter. Knowing the ambient temperature at the connection point (using a
portable thermometer) is 54 degrees Fahrenheit, how hot is the tip of the thermocouple inside the process
vessel?
Suppose you measured the output of a type E thermocouple inserted into a process pipe and read 23.85
millivolts on your digital multimeter. Knowing the ambient temperature at the connection point (using a
portable thermometer) is 33 degrees Celsius, how hot is the tip of the thermocouple inside the pipe?
file i03734
Question 74
Suppose you wish to simulate a type S thermocouple at a temperature of 2670 degrees Fahrenheit for a
temperature transmitter with reference junction compensation enabled. Knowing the ambient temperature
at the transmitter (using a portable thermometer) is 73 degrees Fahrenheit, how many millivolts must you
send to the transmitter’s input terminals?
Suppose you wish to simulate a type T thermocouple at a temperature of 155 degrees Celsius for a
temperature transmitter with reference junction compensation enabled. Knowing the ambient temperature
at the transmitter (using a portable thermometer) is 20 degrees Celsius, how many millivolts must you send
to the transmitter’s input terminals?
file i03733
75
Question 75
How many reference junctions does this thermocouple circuit have, and where exactly are they located?
Indicator
Type KX Type KX
extension wire extension wire
Yel
Red
Yel Red
Type K
thermocouple
(Yellow + Red
wires)
file i02972
76
Question 76
Determine the correct potentiometer millivoltage settings to generate the following temperature
indications at the instrument:
Precision
Cu + Cu + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu Cu
Cu
Temp. = 70o F
• 0o F ; Potentiometer setting = mV
o
o
o
file i00651
77
Question 77
An RTD measures the temperature of saturated steam at the steam drum of a boiler:
Exhaust stack
TT
RTD
Steam drum
Ho
tg
as
es
Hot gases Flame Fuel
"Mud" drum
The RTD connects to a bridge circuit via three wires, to register temperature at a sensitive voltmeter
mechanism in the control room:
R1 R3
Vexcitation +
−
RTD
R2 100 Ω
Suppose the boiler operator decides to decrease the pressure of the boiler over a period of time. Identify
the effects this pressure change will have on these voltage drops in the RTD circuit:
• VRT D will increase, decrease, or stay the same?
file i00653
78
Question 78
Suppose we needed to measure the temperature of a batch “reactor” vessel at a biopharmaceutical
manufacturing facility. We know the temperature of this particular vessel may range between 20o F and
300o F, and we also know we need the temperature measurement to be as precise and accurate as possible
at all points within this range.
Choose the best temperature sensing element for this application from the list below, and then explain
why it will provide the best accuracy for this application:
• 100 ohm platinum RTD
• Type S thermocouple
• Type J thermocouple
• Class III filled-bulb (with pneumatic transmitter)
file i00650
79
Question 79
Industrial operations using large quantities of steam often distribute it at different pressures, much like
an electrical utility system distributing power at several different voltages:
600 PSI header
Power turbine
Condensate
150 PSI header
Turbine Process Heating

Condensate
Condensate
30 PSI header
Process Process Heating
Condensate
It may not always be practical to have a separate boiler (or set of boilers) for each header pressure (e.g.
one boiler outputting 600 PSI, one outputting 150 PSI, and one outputting 30 PSI). So, often there is a need
to “let down” high-pressure steam to a lower pressure.
Although it is possible to simply use control valves to throttle high-pressure steam into a lower-pressure
headers, this would be a waste of energy. Such a strategy would be analogous to using resistive voltage
dividers to step high voltage down to lower values in an electric power system:
A very inefficient way to get different steam pressures!
600 PSI 600 PSI header

boiler(s)
LSP = 150
Let-down valve PC PT
150 PSI header
LSP = 30
Let-down valve PC PT
30 PSI header
An improvement over the plain let-down strategy is to use special desuperheating valves instead of
normal throttling valves. Desuperheating is a process whereby water is sprayed into the throttled steam:
80
A better way to get different steam pressures!
600 PSI 600 PSI header

boiler(s)
LSP = 150
Water PC PT
Desuperheating
valve
150 PSI header
LSP = 30
Water PC PT
Desuperheating
valve
30 PSI header
Desuperheaters may be thought of as the steam equivalent of electrical transformers: a much more
efficient means of reducing pressure (voltage) than throttling with a restrictive (resistive) element. Explain
how desuperheating works, and why the electrical transformer analogy is appropriate.
file i01801
81
Question 80
One simple way to build a “reference junction compensation” circuit is to use a bridge with a thermistor
(temperature-sensitive resistor) in one arm like this:
Temperature indicator
instrument
Cu Cu Voltmeter
+ -
Cu
T
As the terminal block warms up and cools down, the resistance of the thermistor will change, altering
the balance of the bridge to add the appropriate amount of voltage in series with the meter circuit to cancel
out the millivoltage generated by the thermocouple wires connecting with copper wires at the terminal block
(the “reference junction”).
Given the type of thermocouple shown here (type T, with copper and constantan wires), the voltmeter’s
polarity, the orientation of the battery in the bridge circuit, and the thermistor’s location in the bridge circuit,
does the thermistor have to have a positive temperature coefficient (resistance increases as temperature
increases) or a negative temperature coefficient (resistance decreases as temperature increases)?
Hint: begin your solution to the problem by properly identifying the source of the problem itself –
determine the polarity of the reference junction voltage, so you will know which way the bridge’s output
voltage must be oriented to cancel it out.
• What type of temperature coefficient does an RTD have?

• Suppose the thermistor did not have the right magnitude of temperature coefficient (i.e. it’s “alpha”
value was wrong). Would this affect the system’s zero, span, or both?
• If we must use a thermistor to compensate for the reference junction of a thermocouple, then why use a
thermocouple to sense process temperature at all? Why not just use a thermistor located at the process
and be done with it?
• If the thermistor fails open, will it drive the voltmeter upscale or downscale?
• If the thermistor fails shorted, will it drive the voltmeter upscale or downscale?
file i00384
82
Question 81
Calculate the amount of voltage dropped across the RTD element in this circuit, the amount of voltage
output by the operational amplifier, and the amount of temperature measurement error based on the
discrepancy between those two voltages:
Rwire = 1.0 Ω
1 MΩ 1 MΩ
Blk −
Rwire = 1.1 Ω Vout
+
Blk
RTD
R = 104.2 Ω 1 mA
α = 0.00385
Rwire = 1.2 Ω
Red
VRT D =
Vout =
Temp. error =
Note: the RTD in this circuit is a “100 ohm” platinum sensor, but its actual resistance at this
temperature is 104.2 Ω.
Note: in order to simplify your analysis, you may assume the current through the 1 MΩ resistors to be
zero. The actual current is so small as to be negligible.
file i00041
83
Question 82
Suppose the voltmeter in this bridge circuit is “pegged” in the positive direction. A test using a digital
multimeter (DMM) shows the voltage between test points B and E to be 7.2 volts:
12 volts
(0.25 amps
current-limited)
E
−
+
C
R5 1 kΩ
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
R1 R2
A B
Voltmeter
R3 R4
1 kΩ 1 kΩ

R1 failed open
R2 failed open
R3 failed open
R4 failed open
R5 failed open
R1 failed shorted
R2 failed shorted
R3 failed shorted
R4 failed shorted
R5 failed shorted
Voltage source dead
file i02702
84
Question 83
Suppose an instrument technician connects a multimeter (set to measure millivolts DC) to the ends of
a thermocouple cable, the other end of the cable terminating in a thermocouple junction inserted into a hot
process.
Assuming the multimeter registers 25.841 millivolts, with an ambient temperature of 53 degrees
Fahrenheit at the connection point where the technician is at, and type N thermocouple cable throughout,
determine the process temperature in degrees Celsius. Be sure to show all your work (including all values
taken from a thermocouple table)!
file i00016
85
Question 84
This solvent storage tank is kept heated to 95 degrees F by a steam heat exchanger inside the tank.
Steam is admitted to the exchanger “loop” through temperature control valve TCV-105, and exits the loop
through a steam trap:
LAH
234
Set @ Set @
10 oz. 8 oz. LSH LT WirelessHART LI H
press. vac.
234 305 305
2"
PSV 3"
14 2"
PG PG
364 363 4"
Solvent unloading 1-1/2"
S-403 thick
Dwg. 45231 Solvent storage tank
TT TI
1" 109 109
PG TCV
365 105 12"
30 PSI steam TI H
Dwg. 11032 304 L
PG 24"
361 MW
WirelessHART
TG
205 2" H
LSL TT PIR
T 233 304 271
4" 2"
ET
PT
PG TG PG 271
367 209 368
Solvent wash
ET Dwg. 32451
PG PSH
Condensate header
366 231
Dwg. 11032 HC
I
ET
PSL
232
P-25
Suppose one day you notice that pressure gauge PG-361 registers 22 PSI while temperature gauge TG-
205 registers 234 degrees F. Based on this information, determine whether the fluid in that pipe is steam
(vapor) or water (liquid). Be sure to explain how you were able to make this determination.
file i00043
86
Question 85
Certain types of non-contact pyrometers output a DC voltage proportional to the fourth power of the
target’s absolute temperature, in accordance with the Stefan-Boltzmann equation. Suppose one of these
pyrometers is rated to output 30.0 mV at a target temperature of 3750 Kelvin.
Calculate the target temperature corresponding to an output voltage of 14.3 millivolts, both in Kelvin
and degrees Fahrenheit.
o
Ttarget = K= F
file i00044
87
Question 86
A heat exchanger is used to pre-heat a flow of liquid acetone before it enters a process reactor. The
heating medium is steam, entering the exchanger at 160 PSIA and 480 o F, then leaving the exchanger at
120 PSIA and 400 o F:
10 pounds per minute
FT
Steam
(160 PSIA, 480 oF)
Heat exchanger
Acetone
(40 oF)
T = ???
FT
Steam
25 pounds per minute
(120 PSIA, 400 oF)
Assuming a steam flow rate of 10 pounds per minute, an acetone flow rate of 25 pounds per minute,
and no heat lost to the surrounding environment, calculate:
• The rate of heat exchanged between the steam and the acetone, in BTU/hour (hint: use the enthalpy
values found in a steam table)
• The exiting temperature of the acetone, assuming c = 0.521
file i03974
88
Question 87
An instrument technician desires to simulate a thermocouple signal using a precision voltage reference
and a voltage divider network of her own making:
R1
+
2.5000 volts −
R2 27 Ω To thermocouple instrument
Calculate the necessary value for resistor R1 in order to generate a millivoltage signal simulating a type J
thermocouple at 607 degrees Fahrenheit. Assume the instrument receiving this signal has reference junction
compensation enabled, and is at an ambient temperature of 71 degrees Fahrenheit.
R1 =
file i03738
89
Question 88
An interesting method of electrical heat tracing is to pass a very large electric current through the walls
of the pipe itself, using the metal pipe as a large resistor. The heat dissipated by the “resistor” will maintain
the pipe’s temperature high enough to avoid solidification of the liquid inside it.
In order to achieve such a high current, a step-down power transformer is used to convert industrial
line power (typically 240 VAC or 480 VAC) into low-voltage, high-current power used to resistively heat the
pipe. Assuming the use of 480 VAC power (single-phase), determine the step-down ratio necessary to deliver
1500 watts of heating power to a pipe exhibiting an end-to-end electrical resistance of 0.75 ohms.
file i00856
90
Question 89
In this heat exchanger system, a hot oil (called “Therminol”) is used to heat up a chemical fluid product.
The oil is heated in a boiler located somewhere else in the plant, with the cooled oil returned to the boiler
for re-heating.
Suppose an operator decides to close valve B slightly in this heat exchanger process, and that all other
input variables to this system (e.g. Therminol oil supply pressure, oil supply temperature, etc.) remain
unchanged:
Valve B
Cold feed
Valve C Valve D
Cooled Therminol Therminol oil supply

return to boiler from boiler unit
Valve A
Hot product
Identify the effects of this one valve position change on all the following variables in the system. Simply
place a “check” mark in the appropriate box for each variable:
Action Increase Decrease Remains constant

Product flow rate
Product inlet temperature
Product outlet temperature
Therminol flow rate
Therminol return temperature
Heat exchange rate
file i03478
91
Question 90
Suppose a voltmeter registers 0 volts between test points C and B in this series-parallel circuit:
R1 C
R2
A E
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
1 kΩ R3 + 18 volts
−
(0.25 amps
current-limited)
B F
D

R1 failed open
R2 failed open
R3 failed open
R1 failed shorted
R2 failed shorted
R3 failed shorted
Voltage source dead
file i03153
92
Question 91
Lab Exercise – introduction
Your task is to build, calibrate, document, and program a temperature measurement system consisting
of an electronic temperature transmitter connected to one of the analog inputs of a data acquisition module
(DAQ) for a SCADA RTU (Remote Terminal Unit) node. The particular SCADA system we will be using
has been designed specifically for BTC Instrumentation students. It is called caSCADA and it is based on a
single-board computer running the Linux operating system. In this lab exercise you will be configuring the
RTU node to receive a temperature transmitter’s 4-20 mA analog signal and properly condition that data
for visual display on a remote computer. This will involve editing some of the programming code written
in the “C” language. Your instructor will assign the temperature to be measured, as well as the specific
channel(s) to use on the caSCADA system for your loop.
The following table of objectives show what you and your team must complete within the scheduled
time for this lab exercise. Note how some of these objectives are individual, while others are for the team as
a whole:
Objective completion table:
Performance objective Grading 1 2 3 4 Team

Team meeting and prototype sketch (do first!) mastery – – – –
Final wiring inspection mastery – – – –
T/C signal simulation (± 1% of span accuracy) mastery – – – –
RTD signal simulation (± 1% of span accuracy) mastery – – – –
Linux command-line usage mastery – – – –
Editing and running caSCADA code mastery – – – –
Lab question: Instrument connections proportional – – – –
Lab question: Commissioning proportional – – – –
Lab question: Mental math proportional – – – –
Lab question: Diagnostics proportional – – – –
The only “proportional” scoring in this activity are the lab questions, which are answered by each student
individually. A listing of potential lab questions are shown at the end of this worksheet question. The lab
questions are intended to guide your labwork as much as they are intended to measure your comprehension,
and as such the instructor may ask these questions of your team day by day, rather than all at once (on a
single day).
It is essential that your team plans ahead what to accomplish each day. A short (10
minute) team meeting at the beginning of each lab session is a good way to do this, reviewing
what’s already been done, what’s left to do, and what assessments you should be ready for.
There is a lot of work involved with building, documenting, and troubleshooting these working
instrument systems!
As you and your team work on this system, you will invariably encounter problems. You should always
attempt to solve these problems as a team before requesting instructor assistance. If you still require
instructor assistance, write your team’s color on the lab whiteboard with a brief description of what you
need help on. The instructor will meet with each team in order they appear on the whiteboard to address
these problems.
93
Lab Exercise – team meeting, prototype sketch, and instrument selection
An important first step in completing this lab exercise is to meet with your instructor as a team
to discuss safety concerns, team performance, and specific roles for team members. If you would like to
emphasize exposure to certain equipment (e.g. use a particular type of control system, certain power tools),
techniques (e.g. fabrication), or tasks to improve your skill set, this is the time to make requests of your
team so that your learning during this project will be maximized.
An absolutely essential step in completing this lab exercise is to work together as a team to sketch a
prototype diagram showing what you intend to build. This usually takes the form of a simple electrical
schematic and/or loop diagram showing all electrical connections between components, as well as any tubing
or piping for fluids. This prototype sketch need not be exhaustive in detail, but it does need to show enough
detail for the instructor to determine if all components will be correctly connected for their safe function.
For example, if you intend to connect field devices to a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller), your
prototype sketch must show how those devices will connect to typical input/output terminals on the PLC,
where electrical power will be supplied, etc. Prototype sketches need not show all intermediary connections
between components, such as terminal blocks in junction boxes between the field device and the controller.
You should practice good problem-solving techniques when creating your prototype sketch, such as
consulting equipment manuals for information on component functions and marking directions of electric
current, voltage polarities, and identifying electrical sources/loads. Use this task as an opportunity to
strengthen your analytical skills! Remember that you will be challenged in this program to do all of this
on your own (during “capstone” assessments), so do not make the mistake of relying on your teammates to
figure this out for you – instead, treat this as a problem you must solve and compare your results with those
of your teammates.
Your team’s prototype sketch is so important that the instructor will demand you provide this plan
before any construction on your team’s working system begins. Any team found constructing their system
without a verified plan will be ordered to cease construction and not resume until a prototype plan has
been drafted and approved! Similarly, you should not deviate from the prototype design without instructor
approval, to ensure nothing will be done to harm equipment by way of incorrect connections. Each member
on the team should have ready access to this plan (ideally possessing their own copy of the plan) throughout
the construction process. Prototype design sketching is a skill and a habit you should cultivate in school
and take with you in your new career.
When selecting field instruments for this project, choose an electronic temperature transmitter, either
“smart” or analog. The Rosemount model 644/3044/3144/3244 transmitters are good examples of smart
temperature transmitters, while the Rosemount model 444 is a good example of an analog temperature
transmitter. Note that analog transmitters are built either thermocouple or RTD input. Since you will need
to calibrate both types in this lab activity, this will require two different analog transmitters! If you choose
to use a “smart” transmitter, however, you need only select one because digital temperature transmitters
are usually configurable for both RTD and thermocouple input.
Consult documentation from the manufacturer’s website to identify how to properly wire, power, and
calibrate the transmitter. Your instructor will check to see you have located and are familiar with the
equipment manual(s).
After locating a suitable instrument and its associated documentation, you should qualitatively test it
prior to installing it in your system. For an analog thermocouple transmitter, you may simply short (jumper)
the thermocouple input terminals to make the transmitter “think” it is measuring ambient temperature. For
an analog RTD transmitter, you may connect a 100 Ω resistor to the RTD input terminals to make it
“think” it is measuring the freezing point of water. For a digital (“smart”) transmitter, first use a HART
communicator to configure it for either 2-wire RTD or thermocouple input, then proceed with these tests. If
the transmitter fails to respond properly, tag it with a label explaining what it does (or what it fails to do).
Planning a functioning system should take no more than an hour if the team is working
efficiently, and will save you hours of frustration (and possible component destruction!).
94
Lab Exercise – building the system
Each RTU contains power circuitry and terminal blocks set up to marshall analog signals from field
instruments to a data acquisition device. A generic loop diagram shows how any field device may connect
to the DAQ. Your final loop diagram will simply be a customized version of this generic diagram provided
to you near the end of this worksheet.
Each loop has a pre-assigned loop number, kept on file by the instructor to ensure each loop is uniquely
labeled. Your transmitter and its signal wiring should be labeled with the loop number to distinguish it
from other loops.
Common mistakes:
• Neglecting to consult the manufacturer’s documentation for field instruments (e.g. how to wire them,
how to calibrate them).
• Mounting the field instrument(s) in awkward positions, making it difficult to reach connection terminals
or to remove covers when installed.
• Failing to tug on each and every wire where it terminates to ensure a mechanically sound connection.
• Students working on portions of the system in isolation, not sharing with their teammates what they
did and how. It is important that the whole team learns all aspects of their system!
Building a functioning system should take no more than one full lab session (3 hours) if
all components are readily available and the team is working efficiently!
95
Lab Exercise – instrument calibration and signal simulation
Each team must calibrate the transmitter to ensure it interprets temperature accurately and outputs an
accurate current, and also scale the SCADA system channel to register in the proper engineering units (e.g.
a temperature transmitter ranged for 0 to 200 degrees F should actually register 0 to 200 deg F back at the
SCADA system display). Instructions for programming the caSCADA system with the proper range for your
measurement loop are explained later in this document. Each team should choose a temperature range that
covers room temperature, but is something other than 0 to 100 degrees so they get practice setting range
points on the controller to values other than the default (0 to 100%). Teams using a “smart” temperature
transmitter may need to “trim” both the input and output of their transmitter, then set the range (LRV
and URV points). Teams using an analog transmitter must apply LRV and URV electrical signals to the
transmitter’s input while adjusting the “zero” and “span” potentiometers on the transmitter.
As in all cases where an instrument must be calibrated, you will need to check the instrument’s response
against one or more standards. In this case, the standard we will use is either millivoltage (thermocouple) or
resistance (RTD) applied to the input of the temperature transmitter using a thermocouple/RTD simulator,
while we use a multimeter to measure the transmitter’s electronic output signal in DC milliamps:
Loop resistance
−
+
mA Multimeter
24 VDC
Temperature supply V A
transmitter V OFF
A
Loop power
A COM
Sensor
A thermocouple/RTD simulator outputs

appropriate millivoltage/resistance values J K E T S
to simulate thermocouples and RTDs at 7 8 9 RTD mV
specified temperatures. o
4 5 6 C
o
1 2 3 F
0 Enter
Thermocouple/RTD simulator
This calibration may be performed at the calibration bench or other work-table, or in the field. Refer
to the simulator’s documentation for more information on how to make proper wire connections to the
transmitter being calibrated. This is especially helpful when simulating 3- or 4-wire RTD sensors.
96
Document the accuracy of your transmitter’s sensor trim before and after adjustment in this table, at
five different points throughout its sensing range using these two tables:
As-Found calibration table
Applied temperature Output signal (actual) Output signal (ideal) Error (% of span)
As-Left calibration table
Applied temperature Output signal (actual) Output signal (ideal) Error (% of span)
When finished calibrating your team’s transmitter, be sure to place a calibration tag on it showing the
range and the date it was calibrated. A set of calibration tags are shown here which you may cut out and
tape to the transmitter after completing your calibration:
Cut out tag(s) with scissors, then affix to instrument(s) using transparent tape to show calibration:
CALIBRATED CALIBRATED CALIBRATED CALIBRATED

By: Date: By: Date: By: Date: By: Date:
Range: Range: Range: Range:
After each team calibrates their transmitter and installs it in the working system, each student on
the team must then individually demonstrate their understanding of the electrical signals generated by
thermocouples and RTDs by manually simulating appropriate signals at the input of the transmitter to
make it register random temperatures called out by the instructor. The purpose of doing this is to ensure
each student understands how thermocouples and RTDs actually work, and are familiar with the purpose
and use of thermocouple and RTD tables.
For example, if a team calibrates and installs a type J thermocouple transmitter with a range of 0 to 150
degrees Fahrenheit, the instructor will choose a different temperature value within that range (e.g. 102, 93,
77, 128 o F) for each student on the team to simulate using simple electrical equipment (no thermocouple/RTD
simulators allowed here!). Each student passes the “T/C signal simulation” objective when they are able
to successfully simulate a specified temperature using nothing more than a multimeter and a low-voltage
source (e.g. a DC power supply connected to a voltage divider circuit). Each student passes the “RTD signal
simulation” objective when they are able to successfully simulate a specified temperature using nothing more
than a multimeter and a low-range variable resistance (e.g. a potentiometer, or a decade resistance box).
The instructor checks to see that the temperature value specified appears on the SCADA system display to
within ± 1% of transmitter span.
97
The following illustrations show the general scheme of thermocouple (“T/C”) and RTD signal simulation.
Resistor values shown in these illustrations are examples only, and may need to be modified for your particular
application. Invest the necessary time for all team members to thoroughly understand how and why these
potentiometer networks function as thermocouple and RTD simulators:
Manually simulating thermocouple signals to a transmitter Manually simulating RTD signals to a transmitter
Loop power/signal Loop power/signal

Temperature
transmitter
Temperature
transmitter
Loop power Loop power
Ω
mV V A
470 kΩ
Sensor Sensor
V A + V A
− OFF
(4-wire RTD connection)

1 kΩ
V A
OFF A COM
(Multimeter used to set resistance of

A COM
potentiometer network prior to 1 kΩ 220 Ω
connecting it to the transmitter)
(Multimeter used to set millivoltage value

Thermometer
before and after connecting the divider (needed for measuring ambient temperature)
circuit to the transmitter)
It is recommended that you use a terminal strip rather than a solderless “breadboard” to construct your
potentiometer networks, due to the unstable contact resistance typical of breadboards. Use the “relative”
function on your DMM’s resistance scale to “zero out” the electrical resistance of your meter’s test leads when
using it to set the resistance of your RTD-simulating network. If your DMM supports a “high resolution”
mode for millivoltage measurement, you should use that mode when setting the voltage signal of your
thermocouple-simulating network.
Students typically find the accurate simulation of thermocouple signals to be more challenging than RTD
signals, since RTDs simply manifest a certain amount of resistance at each temperature, while thermocouple
signals vary with the process (measured) temperature and the ambient temperature at the transmitter
terminals. For more information on the simulation of thermocouple signals, refer to the “Thermocouples”
section of the “Continuous Temperature Measurement” chapter of Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation.
Common mistakes:
• Applying excessive voltage to the input of a thermocouple or RTD transmitter. Remember that
thermocouples only output small amounts of voltage, in the low millivolt range. I have seen students
destroy thermocouple transmitters by applying as little as 1.5 volts to its input terminals, thinking
that would be a safe amount of voltage for the transmitter!!! To avoid this mistake, set the millivolt
signal of your simulating circuit before connecting it to the input of your transmitter.
• Neglecting to accurately measure the ambient temperature when manually simulating a thermocouple
signal (in order to look up the correct reference junction millivoltage).
• Mis-interpreting rows and columns in the thermocouple/RTD table when looking up millivoltage or
resistance values.
• Choosing a calibration (“trim”) range that is substantially less than the final range of measurement
when installed. As a general rule, you should trim the sensor of the transmitter to cover the broadest
range of measurement possible with your calibration equipment.
• Neglecting to place a calibration tag on the transmitter after calibrating it.
Calibrating your team’s transmitter should take no more than one full lab session (3 hours)
if the team is working efficiently!
98
Remote administration using SSH
When the Raspberry Pi computer is working to gather data from field instruments, it will be located
in a water-tight enclosure without convenient physical access. Attaching a keyboard and monitor to it will
be impractical. Therefore, you will need to log in through some other means.
Fortunately, a digital communication protocol has been developed to permit remote access of Linux
operating systems called SSH, which stands for Secure SHell. Any computer running an SSH client program
is able to log into any Linux computer running an SSH server program, which the Raspberry Pi computers
conveniently provide.
One such SSH client made for Microsoft Windows operating systems is called Bitvise. Another one
is called PuTTY. For the really ambitious there is even a complete Linux terminal emulation package for
Microsoft Windows called Cygwin. Any of these programs will suffice, but the easiest to download, install,
and use is Bitvise. Be sure you download and install the client software for Bitvise, and not the server
software (which is already installed and running on the Raspberry Pi Linux computer)!
The following screenshot shows Bitvise running on a Windows XP machine, communicating with a
Raspberry Pi computer:
Three windows appear in this screenshot: the Bitvise client through which the login connection is
established (you must enter the Raspberry Pi’s IP address and Linux user name, then later enter the Linux
password for that user account), the Bitvise SFTP window for file transfer between the two computers,
and the xterm terminal window (the one with the black background and colorful prompt) where you may
enter typed commands to the Raspberry Pi computer. Since Linux is a multi-user operating system, many
people can log into the Raspberry Pi using their own individual Windows PCs, even under the same user
name! All you need is a network connection to the Raspberry Pi and its IP network address.
99
Linux command-line usage
The caSCADA telemetry system is built on the foundation of a single-board computer called a
“Raspberry Pi” running the Linux operating system. Linux is a very robust alternative to Microsoft
Windows, and it happens to be entirely free. To use this operating system, you will need to become
familiar with typing text-based commands into a command-line interface and reading the results given back
to you by the computer, rather than pointing and clicking with a mouse. Linux does support mouse-based
user interfaces, but the text-based interface is more efficient from the perspective of processing power and
memory and so it is what we will use here.
If you have ever used the cmd (“command”) window on a Microsoft operating system to run utilities
such as ping or ipconfig for network troubleshooting, you are already familiar with what a command-
line interface is. Here is an example of the Linux command ifconfig (similar to the Windows command
ipconfig) being run in the command-line interface:
The dark blue text (~ $) is called the prompt, which shows me which directory on the computer’s
filesystem I’m currently viewing and working under. The green text to the left of the prompt tells me I’m
logged into the Linux operating system under the username tony with an undefined domain name. In a
fully configured system, the domain might be something like btc.edu or RTU MC1. The white text ifconfig
is the command I typed (pressing the Enter key at the end), and the two “paragraphs” of text following
that line are the results of running the ifconfig command. In this particular example it tells me details
about the two network interfaces operational on this computer: one ethernet interface (eth0) and one called
a “loopback” (lo).
There are a great multitude of typed commands available within the command-line environment of the
Linux operating system. We will only need to use a few to do our work with the caSCADA system. The
next several pages showcase those commands you should learn in order of their importance.
100
ls
The ls command lists the contents of a directory, or folder, on the computer’s filesystem. Here is
an example of the ls command being issued by myself (tony) while working in my “home” directory
(/home/tony which is abbreviated as ~):
The two dark blue listings (caSCADA and Desktop) are both directories within my home directory (called
“subdirectories”). Think of these as folders in which we may store files. The white listing (letter.txt) is
a file. The light blue listing (pistore.desktop) is a link to a file of the same name located in a completely
different directory. In the Microsoft Windows world, a link is called a shortcut.
ls -l
This is the same command, issued with the -l option. Many Linux commands have options you may
specify, each one preceded by a dash. In this case, the -l option instructs the ls command to provide a
long (i.e. more detailed) listing of the same files and directories. It should be noted that the l symbol is a
lower-case letter L, and not the number 1.
Here we see how the “long” listing provides much more detail. The series of 10 characters starting each
line tell us what type of listing each line is and who has permission to use it (d for directory, l for link, a
dash symbol for regular files, w for write permission, r for read permission, and x for executable permission).
We can also tell the owner and group of each listing (tony), the size of the file in bytes, and the last date
and time that listing was changed.
You will use the ls and ls -l commands frequently to see which files and directories are accessible to
you.
101
cd
The cd (“change directory”) command moves you from one directory to another. This is analogous to
clicking on folder symbols in a Microsoft Windows environment. Here we see the ls command issued to list
all the items in my home directory (~), then the cd command issued to descend into the caSCADA directory,
then the ls command issued one more time to list all the files contained in the caSCADA directory:
Note how the dark blue prompt changed from ~ to ~/caSCADA after issuing the cd command. This is a
reminder to you, the user, of which directory you are currently “in” as you do your work in the command-line
environment.
If we wish to go back up one directory level, we invoke the commmand cd ../ and it will take you
there. If you wish to return to your home directory, simply invoke cd without any options or arguments and
you will go back home regardless of your present location.
102
nano
One of the most important applications you will use when using Linux is a text editor, used to create and
modify plain-text files. You may think of a text editor as being a kind of simplified word processor because
it doesn’t offer any means of formatting the text to look nice on paper. However, text editors are powerful
tools for programming because (most of them) offer syntax-sensitive coloring to render certain programming
instructions in different colors to make them easier to identify.
nano is a popular text editor found on practically all Linux operating systems. It is fast and easy to
learn, which is why I’m recommending it to you. To start this program, simply type nano at the command
prompt and you will get a mostly blank screen with some key-command reminders at the bottom, like this:
Most of the screen is blank because nano hasn’t been told to open any file, and therefore there is no
content to view. This is like starting up Microsoft Word (a heinous monstrosity of a program) with a blank
page, before we have typed anything. The inverse-colored symbols at the bottom of the screen show you
common nano commands, such as viewing a help menu (^G which means holding the “Ctrl” key down while
pressing the “G” key), or writing your edits to a file (^O), or exiting the nano text editor (^X) entirely.
103
If we wish to use nano to edit a particular file within our current directory instead, we would simply
type nano at the prompt followed by the name of the file we wish to edit. Here we see the results of typing
nano f channel 00.c at the command-line prompt:
The file named f channel 00.c is one of the files containing programming code to instruct the caSCADA
system what to do. This particular file controls the information for channel 0 in the caSCADA system. You
will be editing a source file much like this one when you do your configuration work for the caSCADA system,
just for a different channel number. The various colors rendered by nano as it views the contents of this file
have different meanings in the C programming language, and make the code easier to comprehend than if it
were all shown in white.
Once you are viewing the contents of a file, you may use the arrow keys, page up/down keys, Enter key,
Delete key, Backspace key, and all the alpha-numeric keys on your keyboard to write and edit text into this
file. When complete, you use the command Ctrl-X to save and exit from nano.
104
cat
The concatenate command, abbreviated cat, simply reads the contents of a text file and prints it all to
the screen in the command-line environment. In this example we see the cat command used to print the
contents of a file named data.txt residing within the caSCADA directory we have navigated to:
We could have easily viewed the contents of the data.txt file using a text editor program such as nano,
but cat is faster and more convenient if all we want to do is look at what the file contains and not edit
(change) it.
If you choose to learn more about the Linux, you will find that a great many details of the operating
system are represented by and controlled by plain-text files. Knowing how to edit those files with a text
editor and view those files using cat are nothing less than survival skills for Linux users.
Using the cat command to display the contents of the data.txt file is something you will undoubtedly
find yourself doing as you work with the caSCADA system: this file happens to show all the conditioned
data in the caSCADA system. As you can see here, the data.txt file shows us the last-recorded view of all
analog input voltages being read by the data acquisition unit (DAQ), and later when we’ve customized the
C programming code for our instrument loops this same file will show us the signals scaled and presented as
real-world measurements.
105
who
Linux is a multi-user operating system, which means multiple people may log into one computer at
any given time, either with individual login names or even under the same name! Microsoft Windows, by
contrast, was designed to support only one user at a time. The who command gives a listing of all the users
logged into the Linux operating system:
Here we see two users logged in: one named root and the other named tony. The green text preceding
each command-line prompt tells us who we are (tony). If we had any doubt, we could issue the command
whoami which will reply back with our user name.
The root user is sometimes called the super-user because of their unlimited privileges. The root user
can delete or edit any file, in any directory, at any time. As far as the Linux operating system is concerned,
root is God. Therein lies a lesson: never sign into a Linux system as root unless you are absolutely, one
hundred percent sure of what you are doing.
The text tty2 tells us that the root user is logged into the system at a keyboard that is directly
plugged into the Raspberry Pi computer. “tty” comes from the old days of teletype machines which were
the equivalent of modern computer keyboards. The text pts/0 (which stands for “pseudo terminal slave”)
tells us that the user (tony) is logged into the system through a network connection. The four dot-separated
numbers shown in parentheses (169.254.15.90) shows the IP network address of the other computer from
which tony is logging in.
You will probably do most of your work on the caSCADA system via network connection to your
own personal computer. Free software is available for your download that lets any Microsoft Windows PC
remotely log into any Linux computer using the SSH (Secure SHell) protocol. This detail will be discussed
later in this document.
All the work you will be doing on the caSCADA system will be through the user account btc (password
also btc). This account will already be set up for you on each RTU’s Raspberry Pi computer.
106
ps
Linux is also a multi-tasking operating system, like Microsoft Windows. This means it has the ability
to execute multiple programs at once. Single-processor computers manage this feat by switching attention
really fast between all the running programs, giving the illusion that they’re all running simultaneously.
Each running program is called a process (not to be confused with the term “process” as it applies to
industrial instrumentation). Any user may view running processes on a Linux system by invoking the ps
command, although this command (without any options) doesn’t provide much information.
ps -e
If we run the command ps -e we will see a very long list of every process running in the operating
system, including the ps command itself:
The list shown here is so long that it doesn’t even fit the whole screen!
ps -u username
A more useful invocation of the ps command shows us all the processes that have been run under a
specified user name. Here, we will view all the processes running under the user name tony by entering the
command as ps -u tony (using the -u “user” option):
Each line displayed by the ps command begins with a number, which is the Process ID number, or
PID (not to be confused with “PID” control for industrial instrumentation!). This number will become very
useful to us for the next command.
107
kill
From time to time it may be necessary for a user to halt a running process, especially one that runs
without a live user interface. This is done using the kill command, which works by specifying the process
ID number (PID) of the process you wish to terminate.
The following illustration shows how to kill a running process called simulate, which happens to be one
of the processes used in the caSCADA telemetry system. First, we see the ps command being used to list all
the processes started by the user tony so we can identify its PID, then the kill command being invoked to
halt that one process, then the ps command used again to prove the simulate process is no longer running:
You will be doing this many times as you work with the caSCADA system, because processes such as
simulate run in the “background” (i.e. they don’t prompt the user for any input, nor do they report any
information to the command-line display). When you make changes to the caSCADA software, you will
need to “compile” those edits into an executable file that Linux can run, kill the version of that program
currently running, and start up your newly modified version.
As part of this lab exercise you will be asked to demonstrate the use of several of these commands, to
ensure you are fluent enough in their use to work with the caSCADA system.
108
Editing and running caSCADA code
The caSCADA system has been developed for the express purpose of teaching students how to write their
own programming code in the C computer language, while at the same time building a working telemetry
(SCADA) system measuring real-world data.
Each student team will be given a different piece of the caSCADA software (called a function) to modify
for their own purposes. Each team’s function resides in its own file ending with the extension .c which
identifies it as a source code file written in the C language. Students will use a text editor to modify their
source file, then they will use another program in the Linux operating system called a compiler to translate
that source code into instructions that Linux can directly execute. After that, they will run their compiled
program and monitor how well it performs the intended task.
Like much of the software found on Linux (including all the essential parts of the Linux operating system
itself), caSCADA is an open-source project. This means all the source code files are available for perusal
and modification. This is very different from most of the software that Microsoft Windows users are familiar
with, which is generally “closed” and therefore cannot be modified by the end-user.
Most open-source software projects provide a text file called README or README.txt describing details
about the project. caSCADA is no exception to this rule: in the caSCADA directory you will find such a file
describing how the system works, complete with examples of how to modify the function code to perform
practical conditioning on real-world data.
Here is a step-by-step summary of your program development cycle:

(1) Use a text editor (e.g. nano) to modify the source file for the channel you’ve been assigned. For
example, if you are assigned caSCADA channel number 6, then you will need to edit the file named
f channel 06.c and then save those changes before exiting the text editor.
(2) Next, re-compile the executable file by issuing a make command followed by the name of the executable
you wish to create. The make command invokes the compiler software for you, handling a bunch of
technical details along the way, to make this task simpler. You have only two options here: either run
make poll to compile the executable called poll which gathers real data from the LabJack DAQ unit,
or run make simulate to compile the executable called simulate which generates random data (useful
in the absence of a LabJack DAQ) for your function to process.
(3) Use the ps command to check for currently-running instances of the executable. If your user name is
btc, for example, you will want to run ps -u btc. If one or more are running, halt them using the kill
command. There should never be more than one of poll or simulate running at any given time, and
neither should you have poll and simulate running at once – just one or the other, that’s all!
(4) Start up a new instance of that process by typing the name of the executable (either poll or simulate
depending on what you want to do) preceded by ./ and followed by an ampersand symbol (&). For
example, if you just compiled the simulate executable file, you would run it by typing ./simulate
& at the command prompt. To run the poll executable, type ./poll & at the command prompt.
Remember, you only need one of these running at any given time. Running multiple instances of poll
and/or simulate will write possibly conflicting data to the data files.
(5) Read the contents of the data.txt file to see how the data is being displayed. I recommend typing cat
data.txt to do this. If a console-based web browser such as lynx is installed in the Linux computer,
you may alternatively use it to view the contents of the data.html file which will produce results that
are better-formatted for easier viewing than the plain text file. Both the poll and the simulate process
updates both data files with fresh values once per second. If everything is working as planned, you’re
done! If not, go back to step 1 to fix your function and repeat all these steps.
109
You will find the caSCADA channel functions to be fairly easy to understand, even if you have never
done any computer programming before. For example, here is a listing of the default code for the source file
f channel 10.c:
/**********************************************************
Consult the "README.txt" file for help editing this function!
**********************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h> // Necessary for any advanced math functions
#include "cascada.h" // Contains all the declarations specific to caSCADA
int
f channel 10 (void)
{
f channel[10].value = ain[10];
f channel[10].tag = "(none)";
f channel[10].unit = "Volts";
f channel[10].status = 1;
f channel[10].comment = "Analog input AIN10";
return 1;
}
The only code you’ll have to edit here is what falls between the curly brace characters ({ and }): that
is to say, the lines of code assigning values to each element of the f channel[10] data structure. The first
of these lines assigns f channel[10].value to be equal to analog input 10 on the LabJack. If AIN10 on the
LabJack happens to measure 4.307 volts, then this function will place the number 4.307 into the variable
f channel[10].value where it will be displayed in the data.txt file (and also in HTML format within
another file named data.html. The lines assigning text (between quotation marks) to the .tag, .unit, and
.comment elements are for free-form text. The .status element is normally set to a value of 1 (which means
“good” status), but may be set to other values at your discretion.
You are welcome to make your function code as simple or as sophisticated as you desire. Multiple
examples are shown in the README.txt file located with the other source files on the Raspberry Pi. The
following code segment shows a simple version of the f channel 10.c source file written to scale analog
input number 3’s 1-to-5-volt DC signal into a pressure measurement range of 0 to 75 PSI using a y = mx + b
equation where m = 18.75 and b = −18.75:
int
f channel 10 (void)
{
f channel[10].value = (ain[3] * 18.75) - 18.75;

f channel[10].tag = "PT-42";
f channel[10].unit = "PSI";
f channel[10].status = 1;
f channel[10].comment = "Receiver tank pressure";
return 1;
}
110
A good way for each student on a team to get experience programming a novel mathematical function
without having to re-range their team’s transmitter each time is to re-program the function for a different
unit of temperature measurement on the exact same calibrated range. For example, one student programs
caSCADA to read out in degrees F, another in degrees C, another in degrees Rankine, and another in
Kelvin, but each and every one of these uses the exact same calibrated range that the transmitter has been
configured for. This objective could even be checked by the instructor at the same time as the RTD or
thermocouple simulation objective, with the student applying a simulated RTD/thermocouple signal to the
transmitter and showing that simulated temperature displayed in a unique unit on the caSCADA display
(i.e. the contents of the live data.txt or data.html file.
If you would like to learn more about the mathematical and algorithmic capabilities offered by the
C programming language, an excellent resource is the book The C Programming Language written by the
inventors of C: Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie. Many other C programming tutorials and
references may be found on the internet as well. Suffice it to say, you can program each function to do
almost anything to and with the channel data. You may even program your function to read the values,
statuses, and text fields of other channels, since all the channel variables are “global” and therefore accessible
to all portions of the caSCADA software.
C is a professional-grade programming language, which means that although the caSCADA system was
written for use as a student learning system, anyone wishing to extend the capabilities of caSCADA beyond
its intended use is welcome and able to do so because the C language is sufficiently capable for practically any
task. The fact that caSCADA is an open-source software project means anyone has the freedom to sample
the C programming code and modify it to their heart’s content without the need to request permission from
the original developer. This is the real beauty of open-source software: it gives you both the right and the
means to learn from the code and extend that code well beyond its original intent.
111
Lab questions
• Instrument connections
• Determine correct wire connections between instruments to create a working 4-20 mA loop circuit, based
on diagrams of instruments with terminals labeled
• Correctly determine all electrical sources and loads, as well as all voltage polarities and current directions
in a 4-20 mA loop circuit, based on diagrams of instruments with terminals labeled
• Commissioning and Documentation

• Identify color codes and wire metals for a type J thermocouple
• Identify color codes and wire metals for a type K thermocouple
• Identify color codes and wire metals for a type T thermocouple
• Identify color codes and wire metals for a type S thermocouple
• Identify color codes and wire metals for a type E thermocouple
• Rank types J, K, T, S, and E thermocouples according to their maximum temperatures
• Explain what cold-junction (or reference junction) compensation is and why it is necessary
• Explain how to distinguish thermocouple-grade wire from extension-grade wire
• Mental math (no calculator allowed!)

• Write a mathematical function to scale a temperature transmitter’s signal into engineering units (e.g.
degrees C or F) suitable for display in a SCADA system.
• Diagnostics
• Determine whether or not a given diagnostic test will provide useful information, given a set of symptoms
exhibited by a failed system
• Identify at least two plausible faults given the results of a diagnostic test and a set of symptoms exhibited
by a failed system
• Propose a diagnostic test for troubleshooting a failed system and then explain the meanings of two
different test results
file i03866
112
Question 92
RTU component layout
An “RTU” is a Remote Terminal Unit in a SCADA system serving as the interface between field
instruments and a central control/display unit called the “MTU” (Master Terminal Unit). In our caSCADA
system, the MTU is just a laptop computer viewing data generated by the Raspberry Pi computer in each
RTU. Each RTU uses a LabJack data acquisition unit to sense analog signals sent by field transmitters and
a single-board computer called a Raspberry Pi to condition and present that data in the form of digital data
files readable by the MTU. Communication takes place via a wireless access point (WAP) router:
40-53
20-33
0-13
LabJack T7
AIN13
AIN12
CB37
53 33 13
Gnd
(typical per AIN) VS
AIN11
AIN10
Gnd
VS
Raspberry Pi
single-board computer
Wire duct
AIN9
AIN8
Gnd
VS
AIN7
AIN6
Gnd
VS
AIN5
AIN4
Gnd
X4 H4
41 21 1 VS
120/240 V
transformer 40 20 0 AIN3
AIN2
X1 H1
Gnd
Out
VS
7820
7805
Ethernet cable
Gnd
In AIN1 DAC1
AIN0 DAC0
(Fuse)#1 Gnd Gnd
VS VS
- (Fuse)#2 Ethernet cable
-
To 24V battery bank

(Fuse)#3
(Fuse)#4
(Fuse)#5 To Linksys wireless
Linksys wireless
router router
To 12V battery
To micro-USB plug
Out
(Computer power)
7805
Gnd
In
To external
12 VAC transformer
line power source
Each RTU enclosure is weatherproof, and equipped with a set of batteries to maintain DC power to all
the system components in the event of an external AC power failure.
The upper level of terminals on the triple-level blocks should all be jumpered together because this is
the 20 VDC “bus” used to power all field instruments. The lower level of terminals should also be jumpered
together because they comprise the negative side (“Common” or “GND”) of that same 20 VDC loop power
supply.
113
Sample loop diagrams
Generic loop diagram for LabJack T7 based RTU
Field RTU enclosure
Loop-powered
4-20 mA
field instrument
TB1
+20 VDC
n AINn
2n
250 Ω
Gnd 4n
GND
Terminal numbers reflect analog input numbers:

e.g. AIN5 is served by terminals 5, 25, and 45
LabJack T7
Externally-powered
voltage signal
field instrument
+20 VDC
m AINm
Out 2m
4m
Gnd GND
A set of triple-height terminal blocks marshall field instrument signals to the DAQ input terminals.
Both current-based and voltage-based instrument signals may be accepted by the DAQ. In the case of 4-20
mA loop instruments, a precision 250 Ω resistor is connected in such a way to provide a 1-5 VDC signal for
the DAQ to sense. If the field instrument outputs a voltage signal instead (which is actually quite common
for RTU loops in remote installations relying on solar power) then the resistor is omitted and the LabJack
AIN directly reads that instrument’s output voltage.
All n terminals are jumpered together and powered by the same 20 VDC source, fed through fuse #1.
All 4n terminals are also jumpered together and connect to the negative rail of the 20 VDC power source.
Only the 2n terminals are independent from each other, since they carry the individual analog input signals
unique to each AIN channel on the LabJack.
114
Electrical power diagram
External power source

Fuse Fuse
Power schematic diagram
Last revised December 4, 2015
(LabJack powered
through USB cord
120 VAC 12 VAC to Computer)
Wireless router Computer

12 VDC 5 VDC
power power
Power cable
Fuse
#3 (Heat sink fastened to subpanel)
Fuse #5 LM
In 7805 Out
Fuse #4
1N4001 Gnd
1.5 kΩ 10,000+ µF
10,000+ µF
12 V
12 VAC
24 VAC (Heat sink fastened to subpanel)
(Actually a 120 VAC to Fuse #1 LM

240 VAC transformer)
In 7820 Out
Fuse #2 Gnd
1N4001
1.5 kΩ
100 µF
12 V 12 V Loop
20 VDC
power
Power is sent to each RTU box at 12 volts AC, from a transformer located near a 120 VAC power
source. This keeps the field power cable at a safe, low voltage (similar to outside sprinkler control systems
and walkway lighting).
Internal to each RTU is a dual-voltage DC system: 12 volts (regulated down to 5 VDC) for running the
Linux-based computer, LabJack DAQ, and Linksys WRT54GL wireless router; and 20 volts for powering
the field instruments. Lead-acid batteries provide back-up power for the RTU to continue running in the
event of a power outage. The resistor-diode network limits battery charging current to a bare minimum,
while providing full current capacity in the discharge direction (in the event of an AC line power outage).
24 volts is a more customary DC supply voltage for loop-powered field instruments, but the LabJack
model T7 DAQ has an absolute maximum input voltage of 20 VDC. Thus, the loop supply voltage is limited
to this value to avoid the potential for damage to the LabJack in the event of a shorted instrument cable
which would apply full power supply voltage to the DAQ input.
115
RTU power system testing procedure
You must follow this procedure when first commissioning a new RTU. When working with an existing
RTU, you may follow the same procedure to test the continuing health of the DC power system.
(1) Test the external 12 VAC transformer by itself: when plugged into a 120 volt AC source, does it output
at least 12 volts AC?
(2) Open up all fuses (#1 through #5) to ensure no device will become powered until you intend so.
(3) Connect this external 12 VAC transformer’s output to the RTU as shown in the diagrams and apply
power. Check the output of both bridge rectifiers for proper DC voltage magnitude and polarity. Due
to the filter capacitors the DC voltage magnitudes will register greater than the AC voltage magnitudes
feeding each of the bridge rectifiers.
(4) Ensure the batteries are wired to the proper terminal blocks and fuse holders, and measure DC voltage
magnitudes and polarities at the battery-side of each open fuse. This ensures the batteries are properly
connected.
(5) Close fuses #2 and #4. This connects the two battery banks to their respective charging sources. Re-
measure the voltage magnitudes at the battery-side of each closed fuse. You should read slightly higher
voltage now than in the previous step, because the batteries are charging.
(6) Ensure all power plugs are removed from the caSCADA electronic devices: the LabJack DAQ unit, the
Raspberry Pi computer, and the Linksys wireless router. Prepare to measure DC voltage at the ends
of those power plugs.
(7) Close fuse #3 and measure DC voltage magnitude and polarity at the Linksys router’s power plug.
Check the router’s documentation for the proper DC polarity of the plug’s shell and tip to see that the
polarity is correct. If all is well, plug the power cable into the router and check to see that it powers
up. Re-measure voltage magnitude at fuse #3 to see that the router is receiving adequate voltage while
powered (i.e. under load).
(8) Close fuse #5 and measure DC voltage magnitude and polarity at the Raspberry Pi’s micro-USB power
plug. Check online for the “pinout” specification of a micro-USB power plug to see that the polarity
is correct. If the pins on the micro-USB plug are too small to safely probe using your multimeter, you
may check DC voltage at the stripped end of that cable where it lands at the terminal block, and verify
correct voltage and polarity according to the colors of that cable’s wires. If all is well, plug the power
cable into the Raspberry Pi and check to see that it powers up.
(9) Plug the B-style USB cable into the LabJack. It receives power through the Raspberry Pi and should
power up immediately. Re-measure voltage magnitude at fuse #5 to see that both the Raspberry Pi
and LabJack units are receiving adequate voltage while powered (i.e. under load).
(10) Close fuse #1 to apply 20 VDC power to the field instrument terminal blocks. Measure DC voltage
magnitude and polarity between terminals 13 and 53 to ensure 20 VDC is supplied all the way to the
end of the terminal block section.
(11) At this point in time you may initialize the caSCADA system MTU (a laptop PC) and test the system
for proper data. A procedure for this is given on the following page.
(12) Unplug the external 12 VAC transformer from its line power source, and re-measure all DC supply
voltages to ensure all devices are receiving adequate voltage under battery power alone.
(13) Repeat these DC voltage measurements at one-hour intervals to check the health of the batteries.
116
RTU data system testing
You must follow this procedure when first commissioning new devices for an RTU.
(1) Ensure that the proper IP addresses are all written on labels affixed to each of the networked devices
in the RTU: the LabJack DAQ unit, the Linksys wireless router, and the Raspberry Pi single-board
computer.
(2) Set the IP address and subnet mask of your personal computer to appropriate values for the Ethernet
device you wish to connect to. For each octet of the subnet mask with the value “255” the octet of
your PC’s IP address must match the IP addresses of all devices in the RTU. For each octet of the
subnet mask with the value of “0” the octet of your PC’s IP address must be different from any device
in the RTU. This will prepare your PC for direct Ethernet cable connection to the device you intend to
configure.
(3) Plug your computer into the Linksys router using an Ethernet cable, and set the router’s IP address
and subnet mask and name using a web browser. Follow the instructions given in the manual for the
router. The router’s name should make sense to any user of the system. In an area with multiple RTUs,
the name should be specific enough to clearly identify which RTU it is.
(4) Plug your computer into the LabJack DAQ using an Ethernet cable, and set the DAQ’s IP address and
subnet mask using the software provided by LabJack for this task. Follow the instructions given in the
LabJack manual.
(5) Plug an HDMI monitor and USB keyboard into the Raspberry Pi, and log in directly to set its IP address
and subnet mask. To check its current settings, use the ifconfig command (similar to the ipconfig
command in Microsoft Windows). If the settings are not correct, you may change them by editing the
file /etc/network/interfaces. This requires “root” privileges. Lines of text in this interfaces file
follow this pattern:
• The line specifying the eth0 interface must read iface eth0 inet static
• Prior to the eth0 line must be a line that reads auto eth0
• The “address” line contains the IP address (e.g. address 169.254.8.3)
• The “netmask” line contains the subnet mask (e.g. netmask 255.255.255.0)
(6) Unplug the Ethernet cable from your personal computer and wirelessly connect to the Linksys router.
The router will automatically assign an appropriate IP address to your computer’s wireless card, as
routers are designed to do.
(7) Use the ping command in your computer to test network connectivity with each device in the RTU.
This command is simply the word “ping” followed by the IP address of the device you wish to ping. For
example, ping 169.254.8.1 will test to see whether your computer has connectivity with the device
bearing the IP address 169.254.8.1.
(8) Once all devices have been proven to ping successfully, you may use an SSH client program in your
personal computer (e.g. Bitvise) to log into the Raspberry Pi. The login account is simply btc with
the password btc.
(9) Once you are logged in to the Linux operating system in the Raspberry Pi, you may try compiling the
caSCADA code and then running it (either the simulate process or the poll process) to see that the
data files are being appropriately populated by the caSCADA software.
117
Preparing the Raspberry Pi for use in the caSCADA system
To initially configuring a Raspberry Pi to be used in the caSCADA system, there are several things
which must be done:
• Log in as the default user (name = pi and password = raspberry)
• Use the sudo and passwd commands to reset the root account’s password to your liking (e.g. sudo
passwd root). There are several tasks for which root privileges are necessary, so it’s convenient to be
able to log into the root account and do that work there, rather than have to preface all those commands
typed under the pi login user with the “sudo” qualifier.
• Use the raspi-config utility to set the system’s hostname, configure the keyboard for US mapping (as
British “UK” mapping is the default!), and also enable the ssh server which will be essential for remote
login and system administration.
• Add a new user account called btc.
• Feel free to edit the hidden file named .profile in the /home/btc directory with any special instructions
to be executed at login. For example, you may add lines containing the echo shell command to print
messages to the screen for the user once they log in (e.g. echo "Welcome to the fish hatchery
RTU").
• Set the current time and date using the date command. The format is MMDDhhmmCCYY. For
example, 3:21 PM on November 5, 2016 would be set by issuing the command date 110515212016.
• Navigate to the /etc/network directory and edit the file named interfaces to set all the required IP
address and netmask information to give the Raspberry Pi a static IP address for use in the caSCADA
system. Lines of text in this interfaces file follow this pattern:
• The line specifying the eth0 interface must read iface eth0 inet static
• Prior to the eth0 line must be a line that reads auto eth0
• The “address” line contains the IP address (e.g. address 169.254.8.3)
• The “netmask” line contains the subnet mask (e.g. netmask 255.255.255.0)
• Install the cascada.tar archive file in the /home/btc directory, and then use the command tar xvf
cascada.tar to unpack that archive file.
• Install the latest libmodbus library archive file in the root directory, then uncompress it (gunzip
libmodbus*.gz) and unpack the archive (tar xvf libmodbus*tar) and then descend into the new
libmodbus directory to build it. This library is absolutely necessary for caSCADA to run, as it
contains all the code necessary to read and write Modbus device registers over a TCP/IP network.
Build and install the new software using the commands ./configure ; make ; make install ;
ldconfig. Check the general header file repository (located in the directory /usr/include/) to see if
the installation script successfully copied the file named modbus.h there. In the versions of libmodbus
I’ve installed, I have had to copy the modbus.h file to the /usr/include directory manually.
• Install the latest ncurses library archive file in the root directory, then uncompress it (gunzip
ncurses*.gz) and unpack the archive (tar xvf ncurses*tar) and then descend into the new ncurses
directory to build it. This library is necessary to run the lynx web browser, as well as the graphic
interface for the caSCADA pid controller process. Build and install the new software using the
commands ./configure ; make ; make install ; ldconfig.
• Install the latest lynx text-based web browser software archive file in the root directory, then
uncompress it (gunzip lynx*.gz) and unpack the archive (tar xvf lynx*tar) and then descend into
the new lynx directory to build it. Build and install the new software using the commands ./configure
; make ; make install ; ldconfig.
• Navigate to the /home/btc directory and edit the file cascada poll.c with the correct IP address to
establish a Modbus/TCP connection with the LabJack DAQ unit in your RTU. The function establishing
the address will be easy to find in this file, as it calls out the IP address in standard four-octet format.
118
Just edit the IP address that’s shown, and the caSCADA poll software will be able to communicate
with that LabJack DAQ.
• Try running make poll and make simulate and make pid in the /home/btc directory to verify all the
caSCADA software components successfully compile.
file i02566
119
Answers
Answer 1
Answer 2
Answer 3
Answer 4
Answer 5
Answer 6
Answer 7
Partial answer:
Emeter = Emeas − Eref + Ecomp
Answer 8
In the calibration circuit, there is not a trace of thermocouple wire to be found. Instead, all wires are
made of copper. This presents a problem for us because the temperature instrument has a reference junction
compensation circuit built in, which at this point is compensating for a reference junction millivoltage
that doesn’t exist. The instrument actually “sees” the series combination of the potentiometer’s output
voltage (Epotentiometer ) and its own internally-generated compensation voltage (Ecompensation ), not the
potentiometer voltage by itself. This is why we cannot simply set the potentiometer to the millivoltage
corresponding to our calibration temperature point and adjust the instrument to read the same.
I’ll let you figure out exactly how to work around this problem!
Answer 9
Partial answer:
• Type K
• 300o F ; Potentiometer setting = 5.116 mV
• Type J
• Type J
120
Answer 10
When any electrical instrument is said to have a high input impedance, it means that it draws very
little current from the source of voltage it is measuring. This is true for any ideal voltmeter: that it
measure voltage without “loading” the source of voltage by drawing substantial amounts of current from it.
It usually means that the instrument has a high DC resistance, but the word “impedance” implies other
forms of opposition to electric current as well (namely capacitive and inductive reactance – specific types of
opposition to alternating current).
It is important for a thermocouple-based temperature instrument not to draw much current from the
thermocouple it connects to, because thermocouple wires typically have greater electrical resistance per
length than copper wires of similar gauge. If there is substantial current in the thermocouple circuit, voltage
will be dropped along the wire lengths, resulting in a measurement error:
Furnace
wire resistance
Voltmeter
wire resistance
Voltage dropped along wire lengths

due to current in the circuit
One way would be to build an operational amplifier (“op-amp”) buffer circuit to power an analog
voltmeter movement. Operational amplifiers typically have input impedances in the millions or billions of
ohms (the TL082, an inexpensive, general-purpose JFET-input op-amp, has a typical input impedance of
1012 Ω , or 1 trillion ohms!). The circuit would look like this:
+V
− Voltmeter
+
To -V
thermocouple
The op-amp senses the thermocouple’s voltage signal and duplicates that voltage level at its output
terminal, where it powers the meter movement. The current necessary for powering the meter movement
comes from the DC power supply (+V/-V) powering the op-amp, and not from the thermocouple, so the
thermocouple circuit does not become “loaded” by the meter. Another benefit of this strategy is that the
op-amp buffer can easily be made into a precision amplifier, permitting the use of a larger-range voltmeter:
121
1 kΩ 99 kΩ
+V
− Voltmeter
+
To -V
thermocouple
AV = 100 = 40 dB
Analog voltmeter registers 1 volt

for every 10 millivolts produced
by the thermocouple
A non-electronic solution to this problem of building a high-impedance voltmeter is the classic “null-
balance” or “potentiometric” voltmeter circuit, whereby an adjustable voltage source is used to balance the
incoming signal voltage to be measured, with a highly sensitive “null” meter movement indicating when the
two voltages are equal. Then, a regular analog voltmeter reads how much voltage the adjustable voltage
source is set for in this condition of balance:
Voltmeter
null
To
thermocouple
When the "null" meter registers precisely zero,

then the potentiometer is outputting the same
voltage as the thermocouple, and the voltmeter
will register that voltage.
In the balanced condition, the voltmeter movement’s current requirements are supplied by the DC
voltage source (battery), not the thermocouple. In fact this type of circuit (null-balance, or “potentiometric”)
is the only type of voltage-measuring instrument hypothetically capable of attaining infinite input impedance.
Its simplicity and high theoretical input impedance makes it an elegant solution to the measurement problem.
122
Answer 11
Process (primitive)
+ TC wire + Cu
+ -
Ereference
- TC wire - Cu
Einstrument
Emeasurement
Equation: Emeasurement - Ereference = Einstrument
Process
+ TC wire + Cu
+ -
Ereference
T
- - + -
TC wire
Cu
Ecompensation
Equation: Emeasurement - Ereference + Ecompensation = Einstrument
123
Precision
potentiometer
Cu + Cu + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Epotentiometer Cu Cu
Cu
Einstrument
Ecompensation
Equation: Epotentiometer + Ecompensation = Einstrument
Precision
potentiometer
Cu + TC wire + Cu
+ -
Ereference
T
- TC wire - + -
Epotentiometer Cu
Cu
Ecompensation
Equation: Epotentiometer + Emeasurement - Ereference + Ecompensation = Einstrument
To make this really simple: if you desire to know the proper potentiometer setting for generating an
indication on any thermocouple-based instrument, just look up the millivoltage for the desired temperature,
and subtract the millivoltage corresponding to the temperature at the point where either (A) copper wires join
to a compensated instrument, or (B) where thermocouple wires join to an internally-copper, uncompensated,
calibration device (assuming the temperature at the calibration device is the same as the temperature of the
measuring instrument).
124
Answer 12
IE = 4.3 mA
Out Voltage In
regulator
+V
Gnd Rlimit
Thermocouple Rbias
Amplifying
and scaling
circuitry
Out + +V
Op-amp
Gnd
Rfeedback −
Gnd
(ground)
Rsense
All arrows drawn in the direction of conventional flow
Follow-up question: how would the transmitter circuit respond to an increase in temperature sensed by
the thermocouple? How about a decrease in loop power supply voltage (24 volts → 20 volts)?
Challenge question: it is important for instrument accuracy that we make Rbias and Rf eedback resistors
rather large in value. Explain why.
125
Answer 13
Circuit as it appears to AC (HART) signals sent by the communicator:
Loop-powered
transmitter
(open)
250 Ω
(HART-compatible)
Indicator
(1-5 VDC)
HART communicator
Circuit as it appears to DC (4-20 mA) signals:
Loop-powered
transmitter 4-20 mA DC
250 Ω
(HART-compatible)
(open) Indicator
(1-5 VDC)
HART communicator
The communicator may be connected anywhere that places it in parallel with the transmitter terminals,
from the transmitter itself all the way back to the control panel where the indicator is located!
Challenge question: a HART communicator will be able to communicate with the smart field instrument
if it is connected directly in parallel with the 250 Ω loop resistor, even though this is technically not in parallel
with the transmitter terminals. Explain why this works!
126
Answer 14
Series:
Vmeter = (V1 + V3 + V5 ) − (V2 + V4 + Vref )
Parallel:
V1 + V2 + V3
Vmeter = − Vref
3
Follow-up question: explain why swamping resistors are often added to paralleled thermocouples to
improve the accuracy of their temperature averaging:
Parallel thermocouple junctions Vmeter

with "swamping" resistors
V1 Vref
V2
V3
Answer 15
No reference junction compensation is needed at the indicator, because no reference junction exists
there. In effect, the thermocouple at T2 serves as a “reference” junction to the thermocouple at T1 .
A practical application for a differential thermocouple is in a solar heating system for a house. During
the day time, solar energy will ensure that the collector is at a greater temperature than the house which
it warms. At night, however, when the sun is not shining, the collector will be colder than the house. In
this state, you do not want the circulating pump (or blower) to run, for that would transfer heat out of the
warm house and dissipate it through the cold collector. A differential thermocouple could tell you (by the
polarity of its voltage) which was warmer: the collector or the house. Then, an op-amp comparator circuit
could disable the circulating pump to prevent heat loss through the collector at night.
Answer 16
Ideally, we may use any type of connection wire we wish so long as both the calibrator and the transmitter
are at the exact same temperature! If the temperatures are not the same, we must be sure to use the correct
type of thermocouple wire (or extension wire) to connect the calibrator to the instrument.
Answer 17
The metal blocks into which thermocouple wires go to connect are usually made of heavy brass, and they
are physically secured to a thick ceramic (electrically insulating) base. This helps ensure the two connection
points are held to the same temperature.
127
Answer 18
Precision
Cu + iron + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu constantan
Cu
Temp. = 71o F
• -100o F ; Potentiometer setting = -4.598 mV (or, 4.598 mV connected in reverse polarity)

Precision
(type E thermocouple)
Cu + chromel + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu constantan
Cu
Temp. = 45o F
• 0o F ; Potentiometer setting = -1.452 mV (or, 1.452 mV connected in reverse polarity)

128
Precision
Cu + chromel + Cu
+ -
T
- - + -
Cu alumel
Cu
Temp. = 105o F
• -50o F ; Potentiometer setting = -3.364 mV (or 3.364 mV connected in reverse polarity)

Answer 19
The instrument will register 993.5o F.
Answer 20
• -93o F ; Potentiometer setting = -4.540 mV

Answer 21
Hint: according to a saturated steam table, the vapor pressure of water near 575 o F is approximately
1280 PSIG.
Answer 22
Partial answer:
The sensor is a type T thermocouple.
Answer 23
Partial answer:
The sensor is a type K thermocouple.
Answer 24
Partial answer:
The sensor is a three-wire RTD.
129
Answer 25
Partial answer:
The sensor is a two-wire RTD.
Answer 26
Partial answer:
• Simulate 727 o F ; source voltage = 14.856 mV
Answer 27
Partial answer:
• Simulate 357 o F ; resistance = 169.51 Ω (calculated) 168.68 Ω (according to table)
Answer 28
Partial answer:
The red test lead of the meter (+) should contact the violet wire of the thermocouple. The black test
lead of the meter (−) should contact the red wire of the thermocouple.
An equivalent circuit diagram shows the relationship between the thermocouple measurement junction
(in the process), the two reference junctions formed where thermocouple wire meets copper wire, the digital
multimeter, and the temperature transmitter:
Equivalent circuit with digital multimeter (DMM) connected:
+ V o + V o
− 87 − 71
+ −
Vprocess − + V
comp
DMM Transmitter
ADC
If your answer was 480 o F or 481 o F, you made a common mistake, which is correctable by close
examination of the above diagram!
Answer 29
Answer 30
VBC = 66.285 mV VF G = 64.665 mV (calculations based on RTD table)
VBC = 66.318 mV VF G = 64.698 mV (calculations based on RTD formula)
130
Answer 31
VAC = 81.526 mV VBC = 80.330 mV (calculations based on RTD table)
VAC = 81.659 mV VBC = 80.463 mV (calculations based on RTD formula)
Answer 32
Thermocouple signals are very small, and the input impedance of a thermocouple transmitter is typically
large, making it susceptible to electrical interference. Given this fact, it is better to minimize the length
of the noise-gathering signal path (the thermocouple wire). Also, thermocouple wire (even extension-grade
wire) is more expensive than similar-gauge copper, which makes long lengths of copper cheaper than long
lengths of thermocouple wire.
Answer 33
VBC = 136.479 mV VEH = 134.603 mV VF G = 134.603 mV (calculations based on RTD table)
VBC = 137.904 mV VEH = 136.028 mV VF G = 136.028 mV (calculations based on RTD

formula)
Answer 34
• VR1 will stay the same

• VR3 will decrease
• VRT D will increase
Boiler pressure and boiler temperature are directly related: as pressure increases, temperature also
increases.
Answer 35
• Voltage between terminals TB64-8 and TB64-9 = 22.512 volts

Hint: if you are having difficulty analyzing this circuit, try re-drawing it in schematic form (all current-
carrying components in a straight line to show their series connections).
Answer 36
Possible faults include (but are not limited to):
• PLC program halted (with output O:3/3 stuck in the “off” state)
• Discrete output O:3/3 channel bad (open TRIAC)
• Short-circuit in thermocouple cable, causing it to register ambient temperature (low)
• Failed thermocouple input I:2.1 channel, registering low temperature
• 120 VAC power to PLC failed (e.g. breaker CB-5 tripped)
• Cooling water supply failed
• Solenoid valve stuck shut
• Open wire fault between solenoid valve and PLC output card
131
Answer 37
Here are the two formulae you need to begin with:
R = 1000(1 + 0.00385T )
µ ¶
R
V = Vsource
Rtotal
In this particular application, we can “flesh out” the voltage divider formula a bit more with numerical
values:
µ ¶
3300
V =5
3300 + R
After combining and manipulating these two formulae, your final formula should look something like
this:
4300V − 5000
T =
19.25 − 3.85V
Answer 38
The voltmeter’s indication of 0.089 millivolts is the difference between the measurement junction’s
temperature and the ambient temperature of the control room (58 o F). Since the millivoltage for a type K
thermocouple at 58 degrees F is 0.575 mV, and the thermocouple’s temperature is 0.089 mV greater than
that, the thermocouple must be outputting 0.664 mV, which equates to 62 degrees F.
As for the amount of heat required to raise the engine to this new temperature, it is a matter of specific
heat calculations: one incorporating the iron engine block’s mass and the water’s mass.
Q = mc∆T
Q = miron ciron ∆T + mwater cwater ∆T

2.5 gallons of water is equivalent to 20.85 pounds of water. The temperature rise from 58 o F to 62 o F
o
is 4 F. Therefore:
Q = (300)(0.108)(4) + (20.85)(1)(4) = 213.0 BTU
132
Answer 39
In connecting a room-temperature voltmeter to the ends of the copper wire, we form two more
temperature gradients: one from freezing to room temperature, and the other from boiling to room
temperature. Those gradients produce Seebeck voltages directly opposed to the Seebeck voltage across the
length of the copper wire, resulting in a complete cancellation and zero voltage registered by the voltmeter.
Warm end Cold end Hot end Warm end

70o F 0o F Copper wire 212o F 70o F
Seebeck voltage Seebeck voltage Seebeck voltage
No voltage!
Voltmeter
In other words, from one voltmeter lead to the other, we see a net temperature gradient of zero (from
room temperature to room temperature) along the same material (copper), resulting in a net Seebeck voltage
of zero.
A junction of two different metals, on the other hand, produces two unequal Seebeck voltages given the
same temperature gradient from end to end along each wire:
Seebeck voltage (copper)
Warm end
Copper wire
Hot end
Silver wire
Warm end
Seebeck voltage (silver)
We can measure the net Seebeck voltage between the two cold wire ends because they are both at the
same temperature as our meter leads. No temperature gradient exists at the connection point between the
thermocouple leads and the meter leads, so no Seebeck voltage is generated here to add to the circuit’s net
voltage.
133
Answer 40
The indicator is wired backwards, and the RTD is connected to the wrong three terminals on the
transmitter. A corrected diagram is shown here:
Temperature
transmitter
(4-20 mA input)
24 VDC power supply
Loop power
Sensor
Red
Temperature sensor
White
White
Answer 41
Answer 42
Answer 43
This is an automatic cooling system with high and low temperature alarms.
Answer 44
Answer 45
Answer 46
Answer 47
134
Answer 48
I won’t reveal the solution in its entirety here, but this problem essentially breaks down into a few simple
parts:
• Figuring out how much heat will be required to raise the solvent’s temperature
• Figuing out how fast heat is delivered by the steam at the given mass flow rate
• Dividing required heat (BTU) by heat rate (BTU/hr) to solve for time (hr)
Determining heat rate delivered by the steam is most easily done using a steam table.
Answer 49
v³ ´
u
u dQ
4
t dt
T =
eσA
Answer 50
• 1600 o F ; Output = 19.09 mV

• 800 o C ; Output = 14.77 mV
• 1000 K ; Output = 11.14 mV
Answer 51

√
TSL contact failed open
√
TSL contact failed shorted
√
TSH contact failed open
√
TSH contact failed shorted
√
√
√
√
√
TC relay coil failed open
√
TC relay coil failed shorted
√
Broken wire between points C and F
√
Broken wire between points A and B
A good test would be to disconnect the wire between points C and F to see if the cycling changes at
all.
135
Answer 52

√
TT-37 miscalibrated (reading too low)
√
TT-37 miscalibrated (reading too high)
√
TIC-37 in manual mode
√
TIC-37 in auto mode
√
FIC-38 in manual mode
√
FIC-38 in auto mode
√
FIC-38 in cascade mode
√
FT-38 miscalibrated (reading too low)
Answer 53
P = 1.422 atmospheres = 42.8 kPaG
Answer 54
The temperature should cycle between 250 and 285 degrees F, with the relay “latching” the heating
element on even after the lower-temp switch contacts open. This is sometimes called a differential gap control
system because the process variable bounces back and forth within a “gap” established by two setpoint values.
If contact CR1 fails open, the relay cannot latch. Thus, the heater will turn off any time the lower-
temperature switch trips. The result of this will be a much more rapid cycling, with the temperature centered
somewhere around 250 degrees.
Answer 55
The thermocouple-based instrument’s indication will decrease by approximately 20o F, while the Class
V filled system’s indication will increase slightly.
136
Answer 56
A circuit to jog your memory on this concept is the noninverting summer, designed to sum (add) three
analog voltage signals:
R 2R
−
Vout = V1 + V2 + V3
+
V 1 + V2 + V3
R R R 3
V1 +
− V2 +
− V3 +
−
At the noninverting input of the opamp is a set of three resistors functioning as a passive averager, to
input the average of the three sources’ voltage values to the opamp’s noninverting input. It is this “averaging”
resistor network which has relevance to the thermocouple circuit shown in the question. Swamping resistors
are necessary to “even out” the otherwise disparate thermocouple wire resistances, so that the voltage signal
received is a more fairly-weighted average that it would be otherwise.
If a swamping resistor happens to fail open, that thermocouple no longer has any effect on the average.
In other words, the output voltage signal becomes the average of the remaining two thermocouples.
Answer 57
The WORM uses a long coil spring to maintain positive pressure contact between the sensor and the
bottom of the thermowell.
Available sensor types include type J and K thermocouples, as well as 100 ohm and 1000 ohm platinum
RTDs (both having α values of 0.00385) – shown on page 4.
Fastest thermocouple is the grounded-tip style, with a time constant of 2 seconds (page 4). By contrast,
ungrounded thermocouples exhibit a typical time constant of 4.5 seconds.
RTD accuracy is stated as ± 0.12% at 0 o C (page 4). Typical thermocouple accuracies range plus or
minus a couple of degrees Celsius.
137
Answer 58
Remember these simplifying assumptions of negative feedback opamp circuits:
• Negative feedback will force the output voltage to whatever value is necessary to maintain the differential
input voltage at zero.
• Input terminals on the opamp(s) draw negligible current.
Voltages at TP1 and TP2 (with reference to ground) may be calculated simply by evaluating voltage
drops in the series RTD circuit. Voltage at TP3 with reference to ground will be identical to that at TP1,
since the upper opamp simply functions as a voltage follower. TP5 is the output of this differential amplifier
circuit, representing the difference between potentials sensed at inputs TP1 and TP2 (i.e. the voltage dropped
by the RTD). The reason why the output voltage is a negative quantity (with respect to ground) is because
the differential amplifier’s noninverting input sees a lower voltage than its inverting input.
For each of the voltage calculations, you will need to reference an RTD table to find the proper RTD
resistance values. While it is possible to use a formula to approximate RTD resistance based on temperature,
a table will give you more accurate answers because a table accounts for all nonlinearities of the RTD, while
the formula assumes a perfectly linear characteristic.
• Voltage at TP1 (VT P 1 ), with RTD at 0o C (RRT D = 100.0 Ω) = 0.1524 V

• Voltage at TP2 (VT P 2 ), with RTD at 10o F (RRT D = 95.21 Ω) = 0.0024 V (2.4 mV)
• Voltage at TP3 (VT P 3 ), with RTD at 12o C (RRT D = 104.68 Ω) = 0.1594 V
• Voltage at TP5 (VT P 5 ), with RTD at -20o C (RRT D = 92.16 Ω) = -0.1382 V
Answer 59
Answer 60
Answer 61
Answer 62
Answer 63
Answer 64
Partial answer:
This is a direct force-balance instrument.
Answer 65
Partial answer:
This is definitely superheated steam, because its temperature is well above the boiling point for water
at 2500 PSIG (approximately 670 o F, as my steam table shows water at 2526 PSIA to boil at 670 o F).
Your calculated value for water flow rate should be 5.25 gallons per minute, or 43.79 pounds per minute.
Heat output = approximately 1249.9 horsepower per acre of collection area.
Answer 66
VBC = 5.326 mV VEH = 5.326 mV VF G = 7.111 mV (calculations based on RTD table)
138
Answer 67
Answer 68
Heat transfer rate to kettle (assuming quantities given here in the question, not anywhere in the USCSB
report) is equal to 2987.1 BTU/minute.
Answer 69
Answer 70
Answer 71
This ranges shown here for split-ranging the two control valves do not constitute the only possible range
values that will work!
Input LRV: 0 kPa Output range: AI function block AI function block PID function block
Input URV: 150 kPa 4 to 20 mA XD_Scale: 0 to 100% OUT_Scale: PV_Scale:
L_Type: Indirect 0 to 150 kPa 0 to 150 kPa
Emerson DeltaV DCS

PIC
PT PV
Output AO function block

PV_Scale: 0 to 100%
4 to 20 mA 3 to 15 PSI
Input range: Stem stroke:

3 to 9 PSI 0 to 100% open
PY
A
P IAS
PV
A
PY
Input range: Stem stroke: B
9 to 15 PSI 0 to 100% open
Desired control valve sequencing:
IAS 0% 50% 100%
PV-A (shut) (open)

P
PV
4 to 20 mA 3 to 15 PSI
PV-B (shut) (open)
B
Try to identify what other I/P and control valve positioner range values will also yield the desired
split-range sequencing.
Answer 72
Hint: what Rosemount refers to as a “failure mode” encompasses the more specific concept of “burnout”.
139
Answer 73
Type J thermocouple: T = 469 o F
Type E thermocouple: T = 361 o C
Answer 74
Type S thermocouple: V = 15.037 mV
Type T thermocouple: V = 6.166 mV
Answer 75
This circuit only has one reference junction, if you count the two terminal connections at the indicator as
a single junction. The junction mid-way between the thermocouple head and the indicator is not a reference
junction because it is not a junction of dissimilar metals.
Answer 76
• 0o F ; Potentiometer setting = -1.962 mV

Answer 77

• VR3 will increase
• VRT D will decrease
Boiler pressure and boiler temperature are directly related: as pressure decreases, temperature also
decreases.
Answer 78
The RTD would be the best choice, due to the superior linearity of this sensing element compared to
the others. Also, RTDs do not suffer the problem of reference junction compensation like thermocouples do,
or the various mechanical sources of error like filled bulbs do.
140
Answer 79
The water injected in a desuperheating valve gains heat energy from the superheated let-down
steam, producing a greater volume of steam at a lower pressure (and lower temperature), much like an
electrical transformer steps down voltage with a corresponding increase in current. Desuperheaters exchange
temperature for volume, much like transformers exchange voltage for current (or vice-versa).
Challenge question: explain why turbines make efficient steam pressure let-down devices:
Using steam turbines as pressure let-down devices
600 PSI header
Turbine Power turbine
Condensate
150 PSI header
Turbine Process Heating
Condensate
30 PSI header
Process Process Heating
Condensate
141
Answer 80
First, let’s determine the polarity of the reference junction’s voltage, caused by a joining of constantan
(C) and copper (Cu) wires at the lower terminal. Since we know that copper is the positive wire in a copper-
constantan junction, we know that the polarity of the bottom terminal’s millivoltage will be positive on the
right and negative on the left. The polarities are shown here both with +/- symbols and also with curved
arrows (the arrow tip being positive):
instrument
Cu Cu Voltmeter
+ + -
Cu
- C - + Cu T
To counter this millivoltage, the bridge circuit’s output must be positive on the left and negative on the
right:
instrument
Cu Cu Voltmeter
+ + -
Cu
- C - + Cu T
We know that the warmer the reference junction becomes, the more voltage it will produce. Thus,
the bridge must also produce more countering voltage as the thermistor increases in temperature. For the
left terminal of the bridge circuit to become more positive (and the right terminal, conversely, to become
more negative), given a battery orientation that is positive “up” and negative “down,” the thermistor must
decrease in value. Therefore, we need a thermistor that has a negative temperature coefficient.
Thermocouples still have value as primary sensing elements for temperature because their operating
temperature range far exceeds that of thermistors, and they tend to be more rugged as well.
Answer 81
This is a graded question – no answers or hints given!
Answer 82
Answer 83
142
Answer 84
Answer 85
Answer 86
Answer 87
Answer 88
Answer 89
Answer 90
Answer 91
Answer 92
143

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INST 241 (Temperature and Flow Measurement), section 2

Recommended daily schedule

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INSTRUCTOR CONTACT INFORMATION:

DEPT/COURSE #: INST 241

CREDITS: 6 Lecture Hours: 26 Lab Hours: 82 Work-based Hours: 0

COURSE TITLE: Temperature and Flow Measurement

STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS/REQUIREMENTS: All assignments for this course are thoroughly

All grades are criterion-referenced (i.e. no grading on a “curve”)

ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES:

Core Electronics -- 3 qtrs

(Only if 4th quarter was Summer: INST23x)

INST 200 -- 1 wk Offered 1st week of

Summer quarter Fall quarter Winter quarter Spring quarter

INST 230 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr INST 250 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr

INST 231 -- 3 cr INST 241 -- 6 cr INST 251 -- 5 cr INST 262 -- 5 cr

INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr INST 252 -- 4 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr

INST 233 -- 3 cr CHEM&161 -- 5 cr ENGT 134 -- 5 cr

Prerequisite for INST206

Possible course schedules depending on date of entry into 2nd year

INST 231 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr INST 250 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr

INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 241 -- 6 cr INST 251 -- 5 cr INST 262 -- 5 cr

INST 233 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr INST 252 -- 4 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr

INST 241 -- 6 cr INST 251 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr INST 231 -- 3 cr

INST 242 -- 5 cr INST 252 -- 4 cr INST 262 -- 5 cr INST 232 -- 3 cr

INST 251 -- 5 cr INST 260 -- 4 cr INST 230 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr

INST 252 -- 4 cr INST 262 -- 5 cr INST 231 -- 3 cr INST 241 -- 6 cr

CHEM&161 -- 5 cr INST 263 -- 5 cr INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr

INST 262 -- 5 cr INST 231 -- 3 cr INST 240 -- 6 cr INST 251 -- 5 cr

INST 263 -- 5 cr INST 232 -- 3 cr INST 241 -- 6 cr INST 252 -- 4 cr

ENGT 134 -- 5 cr INST 233 -- 3 cr INST 242 -- 5 cr CHEM&161 -- 5 cr

Graduation! Graduation! Graduation! Graduation!

Troubleshooting assessments must meet the following guidelines:

METRIC PREFIX SCALE

102 101 10-1 10-2

• Conversion formulae for temperature

Conversion equivalencies for distance

1 milliliter (ml) = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3 )

Conversion equivalencies for velocity

Conversion equivalencies for mass

Conversion equivalencies for force

Conversion equivalencies for area

Conversion equivalencies for absolute pressure units (only)

Conversion equivalencies for energy or work

Conversion equivalencies for power

Acceleration of gravity (free fall), Earth standard

Avogadro’s number (NA ) = 6.022 × 1023 per mole (mol−1 )

Electronic charge (e) = 1.602 × 10−19 Coulomb (C)

Boltzmann’s constant (k) = 1.38 × 10−23 Joules per Kelvin (J/K)

Molar gas constant (R) = 8.314 Joules per mole-Kelvin (J/mol-K)

Specific heat of water at 14o C = 1.00002 calories/g·o C = 1 BTU/lb·o F = 4.1869 Joules/g·o C

Specific heat of ice ≈ 0.5 calories/g·o C

Specific heat of steam ≈ 0.48 calories/g·o C

pH of pure water at 25o C = 7.0 (pH scale = 0 to 14)

Properties of Dry Air at sea level

file conversion constants

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How to effectively problem-solve and troubleshoot:

How to create more time for study: