PART 3
Leveling
Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which
elevations of points or differences in elevation are determined. It is a vital operation in
producing necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and construction. Leveling results
are used to
(1) design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other
facilities having grade lines that best conform to existing topography;
(2) lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;
(3) calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;
(4) investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
(5) develop maps showing general ground configurations; and
(6) study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
Fundamentals of Surveying
Definitions
Basic terms in leveling are defined in this section, some of which are illustrated in Figure 12.
Vertical line. A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.
Level surface. A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line
(the direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape. A
body of still water is the closest example of a level surface.
Level line. A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line.
Horizontal plane. A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane surveying,
it is a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.
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Fundamentals of Surveying
Figure 12: Leveling terms
Horizontal line. A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, it is a line perpendicular to
the local vertical.
Vertical datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referenced. This is the surface that
is arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero. This level surface is also known as a reference
datum since points using this datum have heights relative to this surface.
Elevation. The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or
object. If the elevation of point A is 802.46 ft, A is 802.46 ft above the reference datum. The
elevation of a point is also called its height above the datum.
Geoid. A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all elevations and astronomical
observations.
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Mean sea level (MSL). The average height for the surface of the seas for all stages of tide
over a 19-year period as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929, it was
derived from readings, usually taken at hourly intervals, at 26 gaging stations along the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans and the Gulf of Mexico. The elevation of the sea differs from
station to station depending on local influences of the tide.
Tidal datum. The vertical datum used in coastal areas for establishing property boundaries of
lands bordering waters subject to tides. A tidal datum also provides the basis for locating
fishing and oil drilling rights in tidal waters, and the limits of swamp and overflowed lands.
Benchmark (BM). A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point
whose elevation above or below a reference datum is known or assumed. Common examples
are metal disks set in concrete, reference marks chiseled on large rocks, nonmovable parts of
fire hydrants, curbs, etc.
Leveling. The process of finding elevations of points or their differences in elevation.
Fundamentals of Surveying
Vertical control. A series of benchmarks or other points of known elevation established
throughout an area, also termed basic control or level control.
Curvature and Refraction
Curvature error is the divergence between a level line and a horizontal line over a specified
distance. When considering the divergence between level and horizontal lines, one must also
account for the fact that all sight lines are refracted downward by the earth’s atmosphere.
Although the magnitude of the refraction error depends on atmospheric conditions, it is
generally considered to be about one-seventh of the curvature error. You can see in Figure 13
that the negative refraction error of r = AB compensates for part of the curvature error of c =
AE, resulting in a net error due to curvature and refraction c + r = BE; r = refraction error
(negative) and is the distance that a line of sight is bent downward over distance CA; c =
curvature error which is the divergence between a horizontal line CA, drawn through C, and a
level line K, also drawn through C.
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Fundamentals of Surveying
Figure 13: Effects of curvature and refraction
From Figure 13, the curvature error can be computed as follows:
(R + c)2 = R2 + K2
R2 + 2Rc + c2 = R2 + K2
c(2R + c) = K2
In the term 2R + c, c is so small when compared to R that it can be safely ignored. Consider R
= 6,370 km:
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Refraction (r) is affected by atmospheric pressure, temperature, and geographic location but,
as noted earlier, it is usually considered to be about one-seventh of the curvature error (c). If
r = -0.14c, c + r = 0.0675K2 , where K ≈ CA (Figure 13) is the length of sight in kilometers.
The combined effects of curvature and refraction c + r can be determined from the following
formulas:
(c + r)m = 0.0675K2 (c + r)m in meters
K in kilometers
(c + r)ft = 0.574K2 (c + r)ft in feet
K in miles
(c + r)ft = 0.0206M2 (c + r)ft in feet
M in thousands of feet
Fundamentals of Surveying
Example: Calculate the error due to curvature and refraction for the following distances:
a. 2,500 ft
b. 400 ft
c. 2.7 miles
d. 1.8 km
Solution:
a. c + r = 0.0206 * 2.52 = 0.13 ft
b. c + r = 0.0206 * 0.42 = 0.003 ft
c. c + r = 0.574 * 2.72 = 4.18 ft
d. c + r = 0.0675 * 1.82 = 0.219 m
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METHODS FOR DETERMINING DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATION
Differences in elevation have traditionally been determined by taping, differential
leveling, barometric leveling, and indirectly by trigonometric leveling. A newer method
involves measuring vertical distances electronically.
Differential Leveling
In this most commonly employed method, a telescope with suitable magnification is
used to read graduated rods held on fixed points. A horizontal line of sight within the
telescope is established by means of a level vial or automatic compensator.
The basic procedure is illustrated in Figure 14. An instrument is set up approximately
halfway between BM Rock and point X. Assume the elevation of BM Rock is known to be
820.00 ft. After leveling the instrument, a plus sight taken on a rod held on the BM gives a
reading of 8.42 ft. A plus sight also termed backsight (BS), is the reading on a rod held on a
Fundamentals of Surveying
point of known or assumed elevation. This reading is used to compute the height of
instrument (HI), defined as the vertical distance from datum to the instrument line of sight.
Direction of the sight—whether forward, backward, or sideways—is not important. The term
plus sight is preferable to backsight, but both are used. Adding the plus sight 8.42 ft to the
elevation of BM Rock, 820.00, gives an HI of 828.42 ft.
If the telescope is then turned to bring into view a rod held on point X, a minus sight
also called foresight (FS), is obtained. In this example, it is 1.20 ft. A minus sight is defined
as the rod reading on a point whose elevation is desired. The term minus sight is preferable to
foresight. Subtracting the minus sight, 1.20 ft, from the HI, 828.42, gives the elevation of
point X as 827.22 ft.
Differential leveling theory and applications can thus be expressed by two equations,
which are repeated over and over
HI = elev + BS
and
elev = HI - FS
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Figure 14: Differential Leveling
Fundamentals of Surveying
As shown in the example of Figure 15, four instrument setups were required to
complete half of the circuit (the run from BM Mil to BM Oak). Field notes for the example of
Figure 15 are given in Figure 16. As illustrated in this figure, a tabular form of field notes is
used for differential leveling, and the addition and subtraction to compute HIs and elevations
is done directly in the notes. These notes also show the data for the return run from BM Oak
back to BM Mil to complete the circuit. It is important in differential leveling to run closed
circuits so that the accuracy of the work can be checked, as will be discussed later.
As noted, the intermediate points upon which the rod is held in running a differential
leveling circuit are called turning points (TPs). Two rod readings are taken on each, a minus
sight followed by a plus sight. Turning points should be solid objects with a definite high
point. Careful selection of stable turning points is essential to achieve accurate results. Steel
turning pins and railroad spikes driven into firm ground make excellent turning points when
permanent objects are not conveniently available.
In differential leveling, horizontal lengths for the plus and minus sights should be
made about equal. This can be done by pacing, by stadia measurements, by counting rail
lengths or pavement joints if working along a track or roadway, or by any other convenient
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method.
Fundamentals of Surveying
Figure 15: Differential Leveling
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Fundamentals of Surveying
Figure 15: Differential Leveling notes
THREE-WIRE LEVELING
As implied by its name, three-wire leveling consists in making rod readings on the
upper, middle, and lower crosshairs. Formerly it was used mainly for precise work, but it can
be used on projects requiring only ordinary precision. The method has the advantages of (1)
providing checks against rod reading blunders, (2) producing greater accuracy because
averages of three readings are available, and (3) furnishing stadia measurements of sight
lengths to assist in balancing backsight and foresight distances. In the three-wire procedure
the difference between the upper and middle readings is compared with that between the
middle and lower values. They must agree within one or two of the smallest units being
recorded (usually 0.1 or 0.2 of the least count of the rod graduations); otherwise the readings 9
are repeated. An average of the three readings is used as a computational check against the
middle wire.
In leveling, the distances are often not important. What is important is that the sum of
the plus sights is about equal to the sum of the minus sights, which eliminates errors due to
curvature, refraction, and collimation errors.
A sample set of field notes for the three-wire method is presented in Figure 16.
Backsight readings on BM A of 0.718, 0.633, and 0.550 m taken on the upper, middle, and
lower wires, respectively, give upper and lower differences (multiplied by 100) of 8.5 and
8.3m, which agree within acceptable tolerance. Stadia measurement of the backsight length
(the sum of the upper and lower differences) is 16.8 m. The average of the three backsight
readings on BM A, 0.6337 m, agrees within 0.0007 m of the middle reading.The stadia
foresight length of 15.9 m at this setup is within 0.9 m of the backsight length, and is
satisfactory. The HI (104.4769 m) for the first setup is found by adding the backsight reading
to the elevation of BM A. Subtracting the foresight reading on TP1 gives its elevation
(103.4256 m). This process is repeated for each setup.
Fundamentals of Surveying
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PROFILE LEVELING
Figure 16: Three-wire Leveling
Before engineers can properly design linear facilities such as highways, railroads,
transmission lines, aqueducts, canals, sewers, and water mains, they need accurate
information about the topography along the proposed routes. Profile leveling, which yields
elevations at definite points along a reference line, provides the needed data. The subsections
that follow discuss topics pertinent to profile leveling and include staking and stationing the
reference line, field procedures for profile leveling, and drawing and using the profile.
Staking and Stationing the Reference Line
Depending on the particular project, the reference line may be a single straight
Fundamentals of Surveying
segment, as in the case of a short sewer line; a series of connected straight segments which
change direction at angle points, as with transmission lines; or straight segments joined by
curves, which occur with highways and railroads. The required alignment for any proposed
facility will normally have been selected as the result of a preliminary design, which is
usually based on a study of existing maps and aerial photos.The reference alignment will
most often be the proposed construction centerline, although frequently offset reference lines
are used.
To stake the proposed reference line, key points such as the starting and ending
points and angle points will be set first. Then intermediate stakes will be placed on line,
usually at 100-ft intervals if the English system of units is used, but sometimes at closer
spacing. If the metric system is used, stakes are usually placed at 10-, 20-, 30-, or 40-m
spacing, depending on conditions. Distances for staking can be taped, or measured using the
electronic distance measuring (EDM) component of a total station instrument operating in its
tracking mode.
In route surveying, a system called stationing is used to specify the relative
horizontal position of any point along the reference line.The starting point is usually
designated with some arbitrary value, for example in the English system of units, or although
can be used. If the beginning point was a stake 100 ft along the line from it would be
designated the one 200 ft along the line etc. The term full station is applied to each of these
points set at 100-ft increments.This is the usual increment staked in rural areas. A point 11
located between two full stations, say 84.90 ft beyond station would be designated Thus,
locations of intermediate points are specified by their nearest preceding full station and their
so-called plus. For station the plus is 84.90. If the metric system is used, full stations are 1 km
(1000 m) apart. The starting point of a reference line might be arbitrarily designated as or but
again could be used. In rural areas, intermediate points are normally set at 30- or 40-m
increments along the line, and are again designated by their pluses. If the beginning point was
and stakes were being set at 40-m intervals, then etc. would be set.
In rugged terrain and in urban situations, stakes are normally set closer together, for
example at half stations (50-ft increments) or even quarter stations(25-ft increments) in the
English system of units. In the metric system, 20-, 10-, or even 5-m increments may be staked.
Stationing not only provides a convenient unambiguous method for specifying
positions of points along the reference line, it also gives the distances between points. For
example, in the English system stations and are or 633.4 ft, apart, and in the metric system
stations and are 920 m apart.
Field Procedures for Profile Leveling
Fundamentals of Surveying
Profile leveling consists simply of differential leveling with the addition of
intermediate minus sights (foresights) taken at required points along the reference line. Figure
17-a illustrates an example of the field procedure, and the notes in Figure 17-b relate to this
example. Stationing for the example is in feet.
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Figure 17-a: Profile Leveling
As shown in the figure, the leveling instrument is initially set up at a convenient
location and a plus sight of 10.15 ft taken on the benchmark. Adding this to the benchmark
elevation yields a HI of 370.63 ft. Then intermediate minus sights are taken on points along
the profile at stations as etc. (If the reference line’s beginning is far removed from the
benchmark, differential levels running through several turning points may be necessary to get
the instrument into position to begin taking intermediate minus sights on the profile line.)
Notice that the note form for profile leveling contains all the same column headings as
differential leveling, but is modified to include another column labeled “Intermediate Sight.”
When distances to intermediate sights become too long, or if terrain variations or
vegetations obstruct rod readings ahead, the leveling instrument must be moved. Establishing
a turning point, as TP1. After reading a minus sight on the turning point, the instrument is
Fundamentals of Surveying
moved ahead to a good vantage point both for reading the backsight on the turning point, as
well as to take additional rod readings along the profile line ahead. The instrument is leveled,
the plus sight taken on TP1, the new HI computed, and further intermediate sights taken. This
procedure is repeated until the profile is completed.
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Fundamentals of Surveying
Figure 17-b: Profile Leveling Notes
Whether the stationing is in feet or meters, intermediate sights are usually taken at all
full stations. If stationing is in feet and the survey area is in rugged terrain or in an urban area,
the specifications may require that readings also be taken at half- or even quarter-stations. If
stationing is in meters, depending on conditions, intermediate sights may be taken at 40-, 30-,
20-, or 10-m increments. In any case, sights are also taken at high and low points along the
alignment, as well as at changes in slope.
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Intermediate sights should always be taken on “critical” points such as railroad tracks,
highway centerlines, gutters, and drainage ditches. As presented in Figure 17-b, rod readings
are normally only taken to the nearest 0.1 ft (English system) or nearest cm (metric system)
where the rod is held on the ground, but on critical points, and for all plus and minus sights
taken on turning points and benchmarks, the readings are recorded to the nearest hundredth of
a foot (English) or the nearest mm (metric).
In profile leveling, lengths of intermediate minus sights vary, and in general they will
not equal the plus sight length. Thus errors due to an inclined line of sight and to curvature
and refraction will occur. Because errors from these sources increase with increasing sight
lengths, on important work the instrument’s condition of adjustment should be checked, and
excessively long intermediate foresight distances should be avoided.
Instrument heights (HIs) and elevations of all turning points are computed
immediately after each plus sight and minus sight. However, elevations for intermediate
minus sights are not computed until after the circuit is closed on either the initial benchmark
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or another. Then the circuit misclosure is computed, and if acceptable, an adjustment is made
and elevations of intermediate points are calculated. The procedure is described in the
following subsection.
As in differential leveling, the page check should be made for each left-hand sheet.
However in profile leveling, intermediate minus sights play no part in this computation. As
illustrated in Figure 17-b, the page check is made by adding the algebraic sum of the column
of plus sights and the column of minus sights to the beginning elevation. This should equal
the last elevation tabulated on the page for either a turning point or the ending benchmark.
Drawing and Using the Profile
Prior to drawing the profile, it is first necessary to compute elevations along the
reference line from the field notes. However, this cannot be done until an adjustment has been
made to distribute any misclosure in the level circuit. In the adjustment process, HIs are
adjusted, because they will affect computed profile elevations. The adjustment is made
progressively in proportion to the total number of HIs in the circuit.The procedure is
illustrated in Figure 17-b, where the misclosure was 0.03 ft. Since there were three HIs, the
correction applied to each is per HI. Thus a correction of 0.01 was applied to the first HI, -
0.02 ft to the second, and -0.03ft to the third. Adjusted HIs are shown in Figure 17-b in
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parentheses above their unadjusted values. It is unnecessary to correct turning point
elevations since they are of no consequence.After adjusting the HIs, profile elevations are
computed by subtracting intermediate minus sights from their corresponding adjusted HIs.
The profile is then drawn by plotting elevations on the ordinate versus their corresponding
stations on the abscissa. By connecting adjacent plotted points, the profile is realized.
Until recently, profiles were manually plotted, usually on special paper like the type
shown in Figure 18. Now with computer-aided drafting and design (CADD) systems, it is
only necessary to enter the stations and elevations into the computer, and this special software
will plot and display the profile on the screen. Hard copies, if desired, may be obtained from
plotters interfaced with a computer. Often these profiles are generated automatically from the
CADD software using only the alignment of the structure and an overlaying topographic map.
Fundamentals of Surveying
Figure 18: Plot of Profile
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In drawing profiles, the vertical scale is generally exaggerated with respect to the
horizontal scale to make differences in elevation more pronounced. A ratio of 10:1 is
frequently used, but flatness or roughness of the terrain determines the desirable
proportions.Thus, for a horizontal scale of 1in = 100ft, the vertical scale might be 1in = 10ft.
The scale actually employed should be plainly marked. Plotted profiles are used for many
purposes, such as (1) deter mining depth of cut or fill on proposed highways, railroads, and
airports; (2) studying grade-crossing problems; and (3) investigating and selecting the most
economical grade, location, and depth for sewers, pipelines, tunnels, irrigation ditches, and
other projects.
The rate of grade (or gradient or percent grade) is the rise or fall in feet per 100 ft, or
in meters per 100 m. Thus a grade of 2.5% means a 2.5-ft difference in elevation per 100 ft
horizontally. Ascending grades are plus; descending grades, minus. A gradeline of -0.15%,
chosen to approximately equalize cuts and fills, is shown in Figure 18. Along this grade line,
elevations drop at the rate of 0.15 ft per 100 ft. The grade begins at station 0+00 where it
approximately meets existing ground at elevation 363.0 ft, and ends at station 9+43 and
elevation 361.6 ft where again it approximately meets existing ground.
The term grade is also used to denote the elevation of the finished surface on an
engineering project.
Fundamentals of Surveying
SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELING
All leveling measurements are subject to three sources of error: (1) instrumental,
(2) natural, and (3) personal.These are summarized in the subsections that follow.
Instrumental Errors
A. Line of Sight.
A properly adjusted leveling instrument that employs a level vial should have its line
of sight and level vial axis parallel. Then, with the bubble centered, a horizontal plane, rather
than a conical surface, is generated as the telescope is revolved. Also, if the compensators of
automatic levels are operating properly, they should always produce a truly horizontal line of
sight. If these conditions are not met, a line of sight (or collimation) error exists, and serious
errors in rod readings can result. These errors are systematic, but they are canceled in
differential leveling if the horizontal lengths of plus and minus sights are kept equal. The
error may be serious in going up or down a steep hill where all plus sights are longer or
shorter than all minus sights, unless care is taken to run a zigzag line.
B. Cross hair Not Exactly Horizontal.
Reading the rod near the center of the horizontal crosshair will eliminate or minimize
this potential error. 17
C. Rod Not Correct Length.
Inaccurate divisions on a rod cause errors in observed elevation differences similar to
those resulting from incorrect markings on a measuring tape. Uniform wearing of the rod
bottom makes HI values too large, but the effect is canceled when included in both plus and
minus sights. Rod graduations should be checked by comparing them with those on a
standardized tape.
D. Tripod Legs Loose.
Tripod leg bolts that are too loose or too tight allow movement or strain that affects
the instrument head. Loose metal tripod shoes cause unstable setups.
Natural Errors
A. Curvature of the Earth.
As noted from the previous topic, a level surface curves away from a horizontal plane
at the rate of 0.667M2 or 0.0785K2 which is about 0.7 ft/mi or 8 cm/km. The effect of
curvature of the earth is to increase the rod reading. Equalizing lengths of plus and minus
sights in differential leveling cancels the error due to this cause.
Fundamentals of Surveying
B. Refraction.
Light rays coming from an object to the telescope are bent, making the line of sight a
curve concave to the earth’s surface, which thereby decreases rod readings. Balancing the
lengths of plus and minus sights usually eliminates errors due to refraction. However, large
and sudden changes in atmospheric refraction may be important in precise work. Although,
errors due to refraction tend to be random over a long period of time, they could be
systematic on one day’s run.
C. Temperature Variations.
Heat causes leveling rods to expand, but the effect is not important in ordinary
leveling. If the level vial of a tilting level is heated, the liquid expands and the bubble
shortens. This does not produce an error (although it may be inconvenient), unless one end of
the tube is warmed more than the other, and the bubble therefore moves. Other parts of the
instrument warp because of uneven heating, and this distortion affects the adjustment.
Shading the level by means of a cover when carrying it, and by an umbrella when it is set up,
will reduce or eliminate heat effects.These precautions are followed in precise leveling. Air
boiling or heat waves near the ground surface or adjacent to heated objects make the rod
appear to wave and prevent accurate sighting. Raising the line of sight by high tripod setups,
taking shorter sights, avoiding any that pass close to heat sources (such as buildings and
stacks), and using the lower magnification of a variable-power eyepiece reduce the effect.
D. Wind.
Strong wind causes the instrument to vibrate and makes the rod unsteady. Precise
leveling should not be attempted on excessively windy days.
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E. Settlement of the Instrument.
Settlement of the instrument during the time between a plus sight reading and a
minus sight makes the latter too small and therefore the recorded elevation of the next point
too high. Theerror is cumulative in a series of setups on soft material.Therefore setups on
spongy ground, blacktop, or ice should be avoided if possible, but if they are necessary,
unusual care is required to reduce the resulting errors. This can include taking readings in
quick order, using two rods and two observers to preclude walking around the instrument,
and alternating the order of taking plus and minus sights. Additionally whenever possible, the
instrument tripod’s legs can be set on long hubs that are driven to refusal in the soft material.
F. Settlement of a Turning Point.
This condition causes an error similar to that resulting from settlement of the
instrument. It can be avoided by selecting firm, solid turning points or, if none are available,
using a steel turning pin set firmly in the ground. A railroad spike can also be used in most
situations.
Personal Errors
A. Bubble Not Centered.
In working with levels that employ level vials, errors caused by the bubble not being
Fundamentals of Surveying
exactly centered at the time of sighting are the most important of any, particularly on long
sights. If the bubble runs between the plus and minus sights, it must be recentered before the
minus sight is taken. Experienced observers develop the habit of checking the bubble before
and after each sight, a procedure simplified with some instruments, which have a mirror-
prism arrangement permitting a simultaneous view of the level vial and rod.
B. Parallax.
Parallax caused by improper focusing of the objective or eyepiece lens results in
incorrect rod readings. Careful focusing eliminates this problem.
C. Faulty Rod Readings.
Incorrect rod readings result from parallax, poor weather conditions, long sights,
improper target settings, and other causes, including mistakes such as those due to careless
interpolation and transposition of figures. Short sights selected to accommodate weather and
instrument conditions reduce the magnitude of reading errors. If a target is used, the
rodperson should read the rod, and the observer should check it independently.
D. Rod Handling.
Using a rod level that is in adjustment, or holding the rod parallel to a plumb bob
string eliminates serious errors caused by improper plumbing of the rod. Banging the rod on a
turning point for the second (plus) sight may change the elevation of a point.
E. Target Setting.
If a target is used, it may not be clamped at the exact place signaled by the observer
because of slippage. A check sight should always be taken after the target is clamped.
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