Mathematics and Teaching

MATHEMATICS
AND
TEACHING
REFLECTIVE TEACHING AND THE
SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF SCHOOLING
A Series for Prospective and Practicing Teachers
Daniel P. Liston and Kenneth M. Zeichner, Series Editors
Zeichner/Liston • Reflective Teaching: An Introduction

Liston/Zeichner • Culture and Teaching
Maher/Ward • Gender and Teaching
Commins/Miramontes • Linguistic Diversity and Teaching
Meyer/Manning • Reading and Teaching
Anderson • Religion and Teaching
Crockett • Mathematics and Teaching
MATHEMATICS
AND
TEACHING
Michele D. Crockett
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
First published 2008
by Routledge
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Crockett, Michele D.
Mathematics and teaching/Michele D. Crockett.
p. cm.—(Reflective teaching and the social conditions of schooling; 7)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–8058–4419–1 (pbk. : alk. paper)—ISBN 978–0–203–93021–2 (e-book)
1. Mathematics—Study and teaching—Social aspects. I. Title.
QA11.2.C76 2008
510.71—dc22 2007041683
ISBN 0-203-93021-5 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN10: 0–805–84419–8 (pbk)

ISBN10: 0–203–93021–5 (ebk)
ISBN13: 978–0–805–84419–1 (pbk)

ISBN13: 978–0–203–93021–2 (ebk)
I dedicate this book to my beloved mother,
Precious Jean Crockett,
1943–2005.
CONTENTS
Series Preface ix
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
Introduction 1
I. CASES AND REACTIONS 9

Introduction to Case 1 9
Case 1: “Race and Teacher Expectations” 10
Reader Reactions to “Race and Teacher Expectations” 13
Reactions to “Race and Teacher Expectations” 14
Reader Reactions 22
Summary and Additional Questions 23
Case 2: “Mathematics for All?” 24
Reader Reactions to “Mathematics for All?” 28
Reactions to “Mathematics for All?” 29
Reader Reactions 36
vii
viii CONTENTS
Case 3: “Culture and School Mathematics” 40
Reader Reactions to “Culture and School Mathematics” 43
Reactions to “Culture and School Mathematics” 44
Reader Reactions 50
Case 4: “Politics and School Mathematics” 54
Reader Reactions to “Politics and School Mathematics” 58
Reactions to “Politics and School Mathematics” 59
Reader Reactions 68
Reader Reactions to the Four Cases 70
Reactions to the Four Cases 71
II. PUBLIC ARGUMENTS 77

A “Conservative View”: Mathematics for Global Economic
Leadership 79
Comments and Questions 86
A “Liberal View”: Equality of Opportunity and School
Mathematics in a Democracy 88
A “Radical Multiculturalist View”: Mathematics for
Developing Critical Dispositions for Social Reconstruction 96
III. CONCLUDING REMARKS, SOME REFLECTIONS,

AND RESOURCES FOR FURTHER REFLECTION 107
The Centrality of Culture: Understanding the Historical,
Social, and Political Dimensions of School Mathematics 107
Resources 109
Exercises 111
Bibliography 115
Index 121
SERIES PREFACE
AN ESSENTIAL SERIES INTRODUCTION
Whereas many readers rarely read introductory material, we hope you will
continue. The success of this book depends, in large part, on how you use
it. In what follows we outline some of our key assumptions and we suggest
ways for approaching the material in each book of this series entitled,
Reflective Teaching and the Social Conditions of Schooling. First, we iden-
tify some of our reasons for creating this series. We then relate a bit about
our dissatisfaction with how teacher education is usually conducted and
how it can be changed. Finally, we outline suggestions for ways to best
utilize the material in this and subsequent texts.
Some years ago we were asked to develop further the ideas outlined in
our book Teacher Education and the Social Conditions of Schooling (Lis-
ton & Zeichner, 1991). It was suggested that we take our basic approach to
teacher reflection and our ideas about teacher education curricula and put
them into practice. The proposal was attractive and the subsequent
endeavor proved to be very challenging. It never seems easy to translate
educational “shoulds” and possibilities into schooling “cans” and realities.
But we think (and we hope) we have made progress in that effort by
designing a series of books intended to help prospective, beginning, and
experienced teachers to reflect on their profession, their teaching, and their
experiences. We are pleased and delighted to have the opportunity to share
this work with you. We hope you will find these texts engaging and useful.
ix
x SERIES PREFACE
We are two university teacher educators, both former elementary

teachers, who have worked in inner-city, small town, and suburban
elementary and middle schools. We are committed to public schools as
democratic institutions, as places of learning in which people of all
walks of life come to learn how to live together in a democratic society.
Although we are personally committed to ways of working and living
together that are much more collaborative than exist today we are educa-
tors first, realists second, and dreamers third. It is our firm belief that an
education that engages prospective and practicing teachers’ heads and
hearts, their beliefs and passions, needs to be fair and honest. We have
neither written nor encouraged others to write these texts to convince
you to see schools and society in a particular light, but rather to engage
you in a consideration of crucial issues that all teachers need to address.
Once engaged we hope that you will be better able to articulate your
views, responses, and responsibilities to students and parents, and come
to better understand aspects of your role as a teacher in a democratic
society.
IMPACTS OF THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF SCHOOLING
Prospective teachers need to be prepared for the problems and challenges

of public schooling. Sometimes the focus in schools (departments and
colleges) of education remains strictly on the processes that occur within
the classroom and inside the school walls. At times, teacher education
programs emphasize instructional methodology and the psychology of the
learner in university course work and underscore survival strategies for
student teaching. These are certainly important elements in any teacher
preparation and ones that cannot be ignored. But classrooms and schools
are not isolated environments. What goes on inside schools is greatly
influenced by what occurs outside of schools. The students who attend and
the teachers and administrators who work within those walls bring into the
school building all sorts of cultural assumptions, social influences, and
contextual dynamics. Unless some concerted attention is given to those
assumptions, influences, and dynamics, to the reality of school life and to
the social conditions of schooling, our future teachers will be ill prepared.
Over the last 10 years, teacher educators have paid greater attention to
the social conditions of schooling. But a consensus of opinion on this
issue does not exist. The professional aspects of teacher education, includ-
ing attention to the social conditions of schooling, have been criticized by
scholars and politicians who believe that content knowledge alone is
SERIES PREFACE xi
sufficient to teach. While we recognize the importance of teachers’ con-

tent knowledge, this view is inadequate. Students need teachers who have
the professional preparation necessary to teach a diverse student popula-
tion to achieve high academic standards. Content preparation alone does
not suffice. We hope that the books in this series will contribute to a richer
and more nuanced professional preparation.
We are living in a time of remarkable change, a time of social and
political transformation. In an era that is rife with social controversies and
political difficulties, in which public schooling has increasingly come
under attack, during which we are seeing marked changes in the cultural
demographic make-up of America, in which there are great pressures to
transform public schools into private, for-profit enterprises, in this era we
must educate well our teaching workforce. Future teachers cannot, on their
own, solve the many societal issues confronting schools, but they should
certainly know what those issues are, have a sense of their own beliefs
about those issues, and understand the many ways in which those issues
will come alive within their school walls. Poverty and wealth, our culture
of consumerism, what seems to be an increasing amount of violent
behavior, and the work pressures of modern life affect the children who
attend our public schools. Public attitudes about competition and excel-
lence, race and ethnicity, gender roles and homosexuality, and the
environment affect students inside and outside of schools. One can be
certain that the issues that affect all of our lives outside of schools will
certainly influence students inside their schools.
EXAMINING THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF SCHOOLING
Probably the best way to begin to examine contextual issues such as these
is to be attentive early on in one’s professional preparation, to experience
features of the social conditions of schooling, and then to examine the
experience and what we know about the social and cultural context of
schooling. We encourage prospective and practicing teachers to do this.
But teacher preparation programs often are not organized in a fashion that
would encourage the discussion and examination of these sorts of shared
experiences. What traditionally are called social foundations courses are
typically not school-based, but set apart from some of the more realistic,
practical, and engaged dilemmas of schooling. In schools of education we
frequently teach what the sociology or philosophy of education has to say
about schools but we tend to teach it as sociologists or philosophers, not as
teachers struggling with crucial and highly controversial issues. Thus, in
xii SERIES PREFACE
our own work with prospective and practicing teachers, we have

developed ways to examine contextual issues of schooling and to enable
ourselves and students to articulate our ideas, beliefs, theories, and feel-
ings about those issues. The books in this series attempt to utilize some of
these insights and to pass along to others the content and the processes we
have found useful.
When students and faculty engage in discussions of the social and
political conditions of schooling and the effects of these conditions on
students and schools, it is likely that the talk will be lively and contro-
versies will emerge. In this arena there are no absolutely right or wrong
answers. There are choices, frequently difficult ones, that require con-
siderable discussion, deliberation, and justification. In order for these dis-
cussions to occur we need to create classroom settings that are conducive
to conversations about difficult and controversial issues. The best format
for such discussion is not the debate, the (in)formal argument, or dispas-
sionate and aloof analysis. Instead the most conducive environment is a
classroom designed to create dialogue and conversation among
participants with differing points of view. There isn’t a recipe or formula
that will ensure this type of environment but we think the following
suggestions are worth considering.
It is important for individuals using these texts to engage in discussions
that are sensitive and respectful toward others, and at the same time chal-
lenge each other’s views. This is not an easy task. It requires each partici-
pant to come to the class sessions prepared, to listen attentively to other
people’s views, and to address one another with a tone and attitude of
respect. This means that when disagreements between individuals occur,
and they inevitably will occur, each participant should find a way to
express that disagreement without diminishing or attacking the other indi-
vidual. Participants in these professional discussions need to be able to
voice their views freely and to be sensitive toward others. Frequently, this
is difficult to do. In discussions of controversial issues, ones that strike
emotional chords, we are prone to argue in a way that belittles or dis-
regards another person and their point of view. At times, we try to dismiss
both the claim and the person. But if the discussions that these books help
to initiate are carried on in that demeaning fashion, the potential power of
the works will not be realized. A discussion of this paragraph should occur
before discussing the substance raised by this particular text. It is our
conviction that when a class keeps both substance and pedagogy in the
forefront it has a way of engaging individuals in a much more positive
manner. From our own past experiences, we have found that during the
course of a semester it may be quite helpful to pause and focus on substan-
SERIES PREFACE xiii
tive and pedagogical issues in a conscious and forthright manner. Such

time is generally well spent.
UNDERSTANDING AND EXAMINING PERSONAL BELIEFS

ABOUT TEACHING AND SCHOOLING
It is also our belief that many educational issues engage and affect our
heads and our hearts. Teaching is work that entails both thinking and
feeling; those who can reflectively think and feel will find their work more
rewarding and their efforts more successful. Good teachers find ways to
listen to and integrate their passions, beliefs, and judgments. And so we
encourage not only the type of group deliberation just outlined but also an
approach to reading that is attentive to an individual’s felt sense or what
some might call gut level reactions. In the books in this series that contain
case material and written reactions to that material, along with the public
arguments that pertain to the issues raised, we believe it is essential that
you, the reader, attend to your felt reactions, and attempt to sort out what
those reactions tell you. At times it seems we can predict our reactions to
the readings and discussions of this material while at other times it can
invoke reactions and feelings that surprise us. Attending to those issues in
a heartfelt manner, one that is honest and forthright, gives us a better sense
of ourselves as teachers and our understandings of the world. Not only do
students walk into schools with expectations and assumptions formed as a
result of life experiences but so do their teachers. Practicing and prospect-
ive teachers can benefit from thinking about their expectations and
assumptions. Hopefully, our work will facilitate this sort of reflection.
ABOUT THE BOOKS IN THIS SERIES
The first work in this series, Reflective Teaching, introduces the notion of
teacher reflection and develops it in relation to the social conditions of
schooling. Building on this concept, the second work in the series, Culture
and Teaching, encourages a reflection on and examination of diverse cul-
tures and schooling. In Gender and Teaching, the third work in the series,
Frinde Maher and Janie Ward examine the central role of gender in both
teaching and schooling. In the fourth volume in this series, Linguistic
Diversity and Teaching, Nancy Commins and Ofelia Miramontes focus on
issues of linguistic diversity, instructional practices, and public schooling.
In the fifth volume, Reading and Teaching, Rick Meyer and Maryann
xiv SERIES PREFACE
Manning offer a fruitful and illuminating introduction to beginning read-

ing instruction. In Religion and Teaching, Ronald D. Anderson considers
some of the complex questions that teachers face in their interactions with
students, parents, administrators, and fellow teachers around the intersec-
tion of educational practices and religious beliefs. In this volume Michele
Crockett explores the many and complex issues surrounding the teaching
of math and culture. We are lucky to have Michele as our guide.
SERIES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Two individuals have been essential to the conception and execution of

this series. Kathleen Keller, our first editor at St. Martin’s Press (where the
series originated), initially suggested that we further develop the ideas
outlined in Teacher Education and the Social Conditions of Schooling
(Liston & Zeichner, 1991). Kathleen was very helpful in the initial stages
of this effort and we wish to thank her for that. Naomi Silverman, our
current and beloved editor at Routledge, has patiently and skillfully prod-
ded us along, attending to both the big picture and the small details. She
has been remarkably supportive and capably informative. We are very
thankful and indebted to Naomi.
Daniel P. Liston
Kenneth M. Zeichner
REFERENCE
Teacher Education and the Social Conditions of Schooling, Daniel P. Liston & Kenneth M.
Zeichner (New York: Routledge, 1991).
PREFACE
Like the other volumes in the Reflective Teaching and the Social Condi-
tions of Schooling series, Mathematics and Teaching is intended for pro-
spective and practicing teachers. It uses case studies to explore school
mathematics and dimensions of culture. This book, like the others in the
series, is organized into three parts. Part I includes four cases dealing with
issues related to culture and teaching mathematics. These cases are not
“authentic” in that they represent actual places and people. Rather, they
are constructed from my experiences as a parent, public school teacher,
teacher professional developer, graduate student, researcher, and uni-
versity professor. The cases are representations of my lived experiences in
all these roles and in a variety of circumstances that include interactions
with colleagues at staff meetings, school improvement days, child study
team meetings, parents in and out of school; conversations overheard in
school corridors and faculty lounges; conversations with students in my
undergraduate and graduate courses; and observations of print and
television media, school board meetings, and sometimes participation in
school board meetings. These cases are meant to be provocative, to
strike a nerve, even discomfort, but mostly they are meant to promote
discussion about important schooling issues. A range of prospective and
practicing teachers, and other school stakeholders’ reactions to the cases
accompanies each case.
Part II elaborates the reactions expressed in Part I through the use of
“public arguments.” The public arguments organize the claims and
xv
xvi PREFACE
debates expressed through media and school boardrooms into three broad
perspectives on issues raised in the cases. For this volume, conservative,
liberal, and radical multiculturalist are the labels used to characterize the
ways in which people think about the issues illustrated in the cases. Each
will be elaborated later in the volume. Part III presents a concluding
statement about some of the issues raised throughout this volume. Exer-
cises for further reflection and a bibliography are provided so that readers
may pursue further these issues.
THE CASE STUDIES
The four case studies in Part I focus on issues related to the social, histor-
ical, and political dimensions of culture and teaching mathematics. While
each case has a particular focus, each was written to capture the complex-
ity of schooling phenomena. Therefore, various dimensions of culture
are expressed in all the cases. Case 1, “Race and Teacher Expectations,”
illustrates how a teacher’s biases influence the way she views an African
American boy and how her biases may determine the quality of education
he will receive. Case 2, “Mathematics For All?,” focuses on middle school
teachers faced with a mandate to teach all their students algebra in the 8th
grade. Who gets to learn algebra? This is the unstated question with which
the teachers must grapple. Case 3, “Culture and School Mathematics,”
challenges the reader to consider the relationship between mathematics
and its cultural-historical development and how the mathematics taught in
schools may disadvantage certain students. Finally, case 4, “Politics and
School Mathematics,” emphasizes the impact of policies on mathematics
curriculum and instruction.
Each case study is followed by a set of reactions written by school
stakeholders who were asked to read and respond to these cases. The
reactions represent distinctively different ways in which people interpret
the issues raised in the cases. It is anticipated that you will react to the
reactions themselves. In this way, these varied and multiple interpretations
serve to engage you—to help you articulate and clarify your own views
about these issues.
Between each case study and the reactions, and after the set of reactions
for each case study, there is space in the text for you to write your own
reactions or reflections. People approach this task differently. Some find it
easier to write their reactions after reading the case study; others find it
helpful to wait until they have read others’ reactions. You are encouraged
to jot down your own reactions in both places. Your task is to examine
PREFACE xvii
your own beliefs, values, and knowledge about these issues. Such examin-
ation is a dynamic process. You will change your mind, see new perspec-
tives, perhaps change your mind back again, or move in a different
direction.
THE PUBLIC ARGUMENTS
Whereas the case studies in Part I focus on the particularities and concrete
renderings of problems and issues, Part II attempts to capture the broader
and more general sense of the ways in which these cases can be inter-
preted. These public arguments are ways of tying together, in a somewhat
coherent fashion, the distinct interpretations of the cases. Conservative,
liberal, and radical multiculturalist are labels that serve as heuristics to
help us think about the different orientations that one brings to the table
when discussing culture and teaching mathematics. The word heuristic is
important here, since these labels are only approximations of these views.
Most likely, there will be disagreement as to what counts as conservative
or liberal, and certainly, the meanings attached to the labels change from
one cultural-historical moment to the next. Mary Frankenstein (1990), a
critical ethnomathematician, fits squarely into the radical multiculturalist
perspective as rendered in this volume. However, there may be consider-
able debate about which label to apply to James Banks (1993), a multi-
culturalist. Nevertheless, these three public arguments capture and express
a synthesis of views that are regularly articulated in the public arena.
“Education has become political. It shouldn’t be that way.” This is a
common sentiment uttered in my undergraduate and graduate courses.
This sentiment is understandable since politicians use educational issues
to garner support for their candidacies. Whether we like it or not, educa-
tion is inherently political; however, it is not solely a political enterprise.
First and foremost, education is a moral enterprise, thus our values must
inform educational decisions. As well, we must be cognizant of the larger
contexts that shape what occurs in classrooms. The articulation of public
arguments serves to highlight the distinct but general ways people come to
view the issues associated with culture and teaching mathematics. The
wiser we are about these issues and the beliefs and values comprising
particular views, the more effective we can be in negotiating school
contexts in ways that better serve all of our children.
xviii PREFACE
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Part III offers some final thoughts about the issues associated with culture
and teaching mathematics. As you will find, challenging taken-for-granted
assumptions is of utmost importance in any effort to improve educational
conditions. Included in this section are some of the many national organ-
izations concerned with education and children’s issues. They offer
opportunities to further elaborate your own developing perspectives about
mathematics teaching and culture. Though labels such as conservative,
liberal, and radical multiculturalist are used in this volume, these labels
are not meant to convey ideological adherence to the issues represented in
this book. Rather, they serve as intellectual tools with which to think about
these issues. With this in mind, you are encouraged to take seriously the
exercises, as they are ideas for teacher research and inquiry.
This book does not provide an immediate or definitive resolution to the
issues of culture and teaching mathematics. This text was created with the
hope that it will inform and provide further direction to those prospective
and practicing teachers who want to examine difficult and controversial
issues. It is only the beginning of a discussion that should be a central
aspect of professional practice. The cases represent difficult issues, but
these are issues that competent teachers cannot ignore.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
While I was at the University of Southern California students in the

elementary mathematics course that I taught during 2001–2002 were kind
enough to share their reactions to the cases. Some of their responses and
several graduate students’ responses are printed in this book. I would like
to thank Etta Hollins for soliciting responses from her graduate students.
Michael Eiland and Cheng-Yao Lin were most helpful in conducting
library research needed for this book. Alishia Battle had the important role
of ensuring that in-text citations were included in the bibliography. Sarah
Lubienski graciously took the time to read and comment on an earlier
draft of this manuscript even though she was in the process of relocating
her family. Lecretia Buckley’s careful reading and attention to precision
and consistency of language served me well. Raina Dyer-Barr, with great
competence, prepared the index. Though their responses were not
included in the book, many University of Illinois students and other school
stakeholders were also gracious enough to take the time to respond to the
cases. I would like to thank all of these people. For those who allowed me
to include their responses and to acknowledge their contribution, I would
like to thank them, too: Jasmine Ackerman, Cathy Andrew, Joy Braun,
Laura Méndez Barletta, Carmen Cedano, Francine Crockett, Precious
Jean Crockett, Cope Cumpston, Ruth Dewar, Kristen Droba, Amanda
Eads, Susan Gregson, Mary Jo Heeren, Jay Hooper, Jenny Kim, Kate
Meister, Deanna Long, Richard Long, Michael Orosco, Paula A. Schuler,
Amanda Schwemin, Carla Sosanya-Tellez, Landon Stenger, Brooke
Sternfield, Raol Taft, Rachel Teren, Barbara Trujillo, Lisa Verdick, Lisa
Wachel, and Laura Wetzel.
xix
INTRODUCTION
In this volume, school mathematics is the context for exploring the cul-
tural dimensions of schooling. The exploration is a complex one. A work
focused on “culture” and teaching mathematics is bound to be contro-
versial as they present difficult issues to engage. For example, what is
culture? What is mathematics? On the face of it, these questions seem
easy to answer. But, the myriad ways in which these questions are
answered give rise to controversy. Culture means different things to dif-
ferent people. For anthropologists it is a contested term and for laypersons
common sense definitions abound. Discussions about culture are difficult
since it is unlikely that anyone is talking about the same thing. For this
volume’s purpose, however, culture refers to the ways in which individuals
within communities negotiate their worlds in and through their daily rou-
tines, languages, and ideologies. How one thinks and how one goes about
everyday activities are inextricably linked to the historically, socially, and
politically embedded contexts in which we all live.
This definition is meant to dispel some common misconceptions that
arise in discussions about culture. Too often, culture and skin color, or,
race/ethnicity are treated as synonymous terms. That is, many people
believe skin color (or race) specifies one’s culture. While North Ameri-
cans of African ancestry and South Americans of African ancestry may
have the same skin color, they do not necessarily share the same cultures.
However, here lies one aspect of the confusion. While skin color is not the
same as culture, nevertheless, it is an aspect of culture because it carries
1
2 MATHEMATICS AND TEACHING
with it a historical legacy that has social and political consequences for
groups and individuals that delimit the ways in which they can negotiate
their worlds. The black skin of people in the United States carries with it a
historical legacy of slavery and White racial hatred encoded in laws,
institutions, school curricula, and social discourse that continues to
have an impact on the economic, political status and the psychosocial
well-being of African Americans. African Americans continue to have
fewer opportunities than other groups for high quality educational experi-
ences, high paying jobs, and access to political systems that may operate
to improve their social and economic conditions. These cultural
circumstances constrain the ways in which African Americans envision
themselves as participants in our democratic society.
The confusion around culture does not stop here. Most of us had experi-
ences in mathematics classrooms that convey mathematics as a static body
of rules and procedures to be memorized. The mathematics, which is
taught in schools, is presented as a value-free discipline that Burton
(1994) views as “dehumanized, depersonalized and (of course) decon-
textualized” (p. 71). Our experiences with school mathematics have led us
to believe that mathematics is culturally neutral and invented by White
males, by which the entire discipline arose all at once many centuries ago
(Volmink, 1994). But, what is mathematics? And, who invented it?
For many mathematicians, mathematics originated in ancient Greece
and they subscribe to a formalist view in which mathematics concerns
itself with systematically defining structures such as propositions and
ensuring that they are true by using logical arguments that include axioms,
postulates, and formal proofs (Dossey, 1992; Zaslavsky, 1990). This
“classic” Eurocentric view and the historical development of mathematics
have been challenged. Joseph (1991, 2000) explains that this view places
the Greeks at the center and the origins of mathematics, with its develop-
ment interrupted by the “Dark Ages” of some one thousand years, only to
be taken up by Europeans, who saw themselves as the rightful heirs of
Greek intellectual heritage. This model is the consequence of European
supremacist ideology and Europe’s domination in Asia and Africa and one
that ignores and distorts the contributions of those outside of Europe. The
European model of the historical development of mathematics is unten-
able, claims Joseph, as a considerable amount of evidence indicates that
the development of mathematics was occurring in the non-European
world prior to what the Eurocentric model leads us to believe.
Joseph (1991, 2000) contests the historiographical bias of common
renderings of the development of mathematics. Other scholars (e.g.,
Bishop, 1988; Burton, 1994) make apparent the cultural embeddedness of
INTRODUCTION 3
mathematics. Brazilian Professor Ubiratan D’Ambrosio popularized the

expression ethnomathematics (email communication, August 22, 2007), a
field that was largely concerned with the anthropological and sociological
application of mathematics in the everyday lives of peoples without writ-
ten expression. In other words, these scholars presume that mathematics is
a human activity and study mathematics as manifested in cultural prac-
tices and the social functions that mathematics serve. For example,
Zaslavsky (1990) has written about the mathematics of Africa, including
its counting systems, currencies, record-keeping systems, and geometric
forms in architecture. More recently, ethnomathematics has become con-
cerned with broadening the view of mathematics and investigating its
social and political implications. Knijnik defines an ethnomathematical
approach this way:
[This approach is] the investigation of the traditions, practices, and math-
ematical concepts of a subordinated social group and the pedagogical work
which was developed in order for the group to be able to interpret and
decode its knowledge; to acquire the knowledge produced by academic
mathematicians; and to establish comparisons between its knowledge and
academic knowledge, thus being able to analyze the power relations
involved in the use of both of these kinds of knowledge.
(Knijnik, 1997, p. 405)
For mathematics educators who advocate this approach, a goal of

school mathematics reform is “reclaim[ing] the hidden and distorted his-
tories of the contributions of all cultures to mathematics” (Frankenstein &
Powell, 1997, p. 74). Another goal, as Knijnik (1997) expresses, is to
interrogate the power relations inherent in academic knowledge and the
knowledge of subordinated groups. Who gets to learn mathematics? How
is mathematics used to perpetuate social inequities? Questions like these,
claim ethnomathematicians concerned with power relations, should be
addressed in mathematics classrooms.
Given that conventional notions of mathematics are contested, it should
be no surprise that the jury is still out on what counts as school mathe-
matics, mathematics teaching, and mathematics learning. “Traditional
mathematics” versus “reform mathematics” is a common way, albeit an
oversimplification, to characterize the contentious debates in mathematics
education. There continues to be much sparring between these two camps.
Those in the traditional camp have referred to reformers as proponents of
“fuzzy” mathematics. Those in the reform camp have referred to tradi-
tionalists as proponents for “drill-and-kill” mathematics. Nevertheless, the
dominant approach to the teaching of mathematics in the U.S. is well-

documented (e.g., Stoldolsky, 1988; National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES), 2003).
In 2000, a commission headed by John Glenn was charged with investi-
gating and reporting on the quality of mathematics and science teaching in
the nation. The commission’s findings and recommendations are summar-
ized in Before it’s Too Late: A Report to the Nation from the National
Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century
(U.S. Department of Education, 2000). In this document, traditional
practices are described as “numbingly predictable” (p. 20). That is, the
dominant approach to teaching mathematics lessons usually proceeds in a
fashion similar to the following:
(1) a review of previous material and homework, (2) a problem illustration

by the teacher, (3) drill on low-level procedures that imitate those demon-
strated by the teacher, (4) supervised seat work by students, often in isol-
ation, (5) checking of seatwork problems, and (6) assignment of homework.
(U.S. Department of Education, 2000, p. 20)
This approach was evident in a recent videotape study of 8th-grade

mathematics classrooms in the United States that was part of the Third
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (e.g., Stigler &
Hiebert, 1999; National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 2003).
The problem with the traditional approach, according to reformers, is
that it does not facilitate the development of mathematical reasoning
and problem solving, nor does it address the conceptual underpinnings
of the procedures we expect students to learn. An alternative view of
mathematics teaching and learning is embodied in the policy documents
produced by various organizations (e.g., U.S. Department of Education,
2000; National Research Council, 2001). Most attention has been given
to the documents produced by the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics (NCTM), collectively known as the Standards (1989,
1991, 1995, 2000). A primary goal in reform mathematics is that stu-
dents have conceptual understanding of mathematical ideas. For
example, the pre-K-2 number and operations standard recommends that
students “understand meanings of operations and how they are related to
one another” (NCTM, 2000, p. 32). According to the Principles and
Standards for School Mathematics (PSSM) (NCTM, 2000), this under-
standing comes through solving simple arithmetic problems with con-
siderable attention to the strategies that young children employ when
they solve these problems. Because they will generate a variety of
INTRODUCTION 5
strategies, these strategies should be shared and discussed. The PSSM

offers this example:
Bob got 2 cookies. Now he has 5 cookies. How many cookies did Bob have
in the beginning?
To solve this problem, young children might use addition and count on from
2, keeping track with their fingers, to get to 5. Or they might recognize this
problem as a subtraction situation and use the fact that 5 – 2 = 3. Exploring
thinking strategies like these or realizing that 7 + 8 is that same as 7 + 7 + 1
will help students see the meaning of the operations. Such explorations also
help teachers learn what students are thinking. Multiplication and division
can begin to have meaning for students in prekindergarten through grade 2
as they solve problems that arise in their environment, such as how to share
a bag of raisins fairly among four people.
(NCTM, 2000, p. 34)
The PSSM further explains that researchers and experienced teachers

find that when children
are encouraged to develop, record, explain, and critique one another’s strat-
egies for solving computational problems, a number of important kinds of
learning can occur [. . .]. The efficiency of various strategies can be dis-
cussed. So can their generalizability: Will this work for any numbers [sic]
or only the two involved here? And experience suggests that in classes
focused on the development and discussion of strategies, various “standard”
algorithms either arise naturally or can be introduced by the teacher as
appropriate. The point is that students must become fluent in arithmetic
computation—they must have efficient and accurate methods that are
supported by an understanding of numbers and operations. “Standard”
algorithms for arithmetic computation are one means of achieving this
[computational] fluency.
(NCTM, 2000, p. 35)
These kinds of learning experiences, say math reformers, provide the

foundation for understanding rational number concepts. If students under-
stand operations on rational numbers, then students should have basic
proficiency with the real number system that is encountered in high school
mathematics. However, math traditionalists see these kinds of experiences
quite differently. Mathematically Correct1 is a parents’ advocate group that
1 See www.MathematicallyCorrect.com.
opposes the reforms embodied in the PSSM. On the homepage of their

website, they dispute many of the reform practices explained above. They
write:
The advocates of the new, fuzzy math have practiced their rhetoric well.
They speak of higher-order thinking, conceptual understanding and solving
problems, but they neglect the systematic mastery of the fundamental build-
ing blocks necessary for success in any of these areas. Their focus is on
things like calculators, blocks, guesswork, and group activities and they
shun things like algorithms and repeated practice. The new programs are
shy on fundamentals and they also lack the mathematical depth and rigor
that promotes greater achievement.
The advocates support The Core Knowledge Sequence, which is a cur-

riculum for preschool through grade 8. These curricula were developed by
the Core Knowledge Foundation which was founded in 1986 by Professor
E. D. Hirsch, Jr. Mathematically Correct advocates believe that “[e]very
successful program for teaching math to young people follows these three
cardinal rules for early mathematics education: 1) practice, 2) practice,
and 3) practice.”
In addition to general introductions to the topics found in each book there

are specific introductions to the grade level materials as well as extremely
detailed and example-filled descriptions as to what mathematics skills chil-
dren should know at each grade. Specific notation is made of the fact that
the material in these volumes is advanced relative to what many American
schools require, but is aligned with what is taught in countries that are far
more successful at teaching math than we are [italics in original text]. The
material is clearly presented and contains a substantial number of examples
that a child could reasonably be expected to do. Although the math section
is extensive (e.g., 65 pages in the 3rd grade book), it is not a substitute for a
complete curriculum.
The recent U.S. historical context for these alternative views and their
subsequent controversies depicted in Mathematics and Teaching began
with A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (1983), a
report produced by The National Commission on Excellence in Educa-
tion. This report boldly proclaimed that “the educational foundations of
our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that
threatens our very future as a Nation and a people” (p. 5). This influential
report gave rise to two waves of reform. The first wave sought to reverse
the “rising tide of mediocrity” with a focus on increased standards. It
INTRODUCTION 7
brought recommendations that included core curricula, computer literacy,

and lengthening the school day and academic year. The second wave of
reform addressed a wide variety of issues including teacher salaries, lead-
ership programs for school administrators, parental choice, school report
cards, school accountability, and poor families. Two decades of school
reform culminated in the first federal mandate to improve the education of
all students in U.S. public schools with its focus on “standards-based
learning” and “accountability” to eliminate the racial and socio-economic
gap in academic achievement. This is a noble and democratic goal. It is
consistent with the goals of reformers who have addressed inequitable
schooling practices that have had negative consequences for women, the
poor, and students of color. For these groups, these practices have limited
opportunities to pursue advanced mathematics courses in high school and
college, which, in turn, limit employment prospects. “Opportunity for all,”
“opportunity to learn,” “mathematics for all,” and “equity and excellence”
are catchphrases that pepper policy statements addressing academic dis-
parities in school mathematics. Yet, despite the call to ameliorate inequit-
able practices, academic disparities between groups still persist in the
U.S. Results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP) (Lubienski & Crockett, 2007) indicate that while all racial-ethnic
groups have experienced positive gains in mathematics proficiency, a
disturbingly large gap remains between White students and Black or
Latino students.
Though democratic principles are compelling reasons for re-
envisioning school mathematics, the reform movement has proceeded
with little attention to the historical, social, and political contexts in which
all issues of schooling reside. Since language or socio-economic differ-
ences alone cannot account for the persistent and chronic low achievement
of certain groups of students, the lack of attention to cultural contexts may
explain, in part, the disturbing achievement gap between White students
and Black or Latino students. Many questions arise: “What mathematics
should be taught in schools?” “Should all students take college prepara-
tory mathematics?” “If not, then who should and why?” “What does
culture have to do with teaching mathematics?” “Whose culture will be
facilitated?” “Does it matter?”
These questions point to multicultural education and social justice con-
cerns and their implications for schooling in a democracy. Do we continue
to teach a view of mathematics that perpetuates the myth that European
males were the sole creators of mathematics? Or, do we teach a kind of
mathematics that has been reconstituted with its cultural origins? If so,
what do such curricula look like? If we limit access to advanced
mathematics, what are the implications for democratic schooling practices

and the culture at large? These questions are not easily answered and the
answers to these questions are not neutral. These answers have cultural
and historical origins that explain particular beliefs and values about the
purposes and outcomes of schooling. Since stakeholders bring different
sets of values to the decision-making process, decisions about school
mathematics are moral, ethical, and political, fraught with contention and
strife.
I
CASES AND REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION TO CASE 1
In the United States, The Education for All Handicapped Children Act
(Public Law 94-142) was passed in 1975, requiring states to provide “a
free, appropriate public education for every child between the ages of 3
and 21 regardless of how, or how seriously, he may be handicapped.” In
1990 the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was passed
as an amendment to Public Law 94-142. The amendment extended ser-
vices for students with disabilities. For example, it provided services for
students with ADHD; and it replaced the word “handicapped” with “dis-
abled.” These laws were intended to address the educational rights of
children long neglected by our public school system. However, these
federal guidelines have unintended consequences. Minority students are
over-represented in special education programs throughout the United
States. Misdiagnosis is a widespread practice (Harry & Anderson, 1994).
Policymakers assume that “clinical” decisions that label children for spe-
cial education services come about in some rational way. In fact, the deci-
sion-making processes are far less clinical than many of us care to
acknowledge. Case 1 is about Benjamin, an African American boy in the
3rd grade. It illustrates how his teacher’s beliefs about race, class, and
gender interact in ways that produce labels that may not operate in Ben-
jamin’s best educational interests.
9
CASE 1: “RACE AND TEACHER EXPECTATIONS”
As soon as the dismissal bell rang, Benjamin Sykes, an energetic African

American boy, darted for the door, backpack in tow, nearly taking out
Maisha who sat in the desk near the exit. Mrs. Carlton sighed. She knew
Benjamin’s action warranted a reprimand, but it was Friday. She was
exhausted and ready to go home. From the moment he walked into her
3rd-grade classroom, Mrs. Carlton knew he was trouble. It seemed he
couldn’t sit still for more than two minutes and she often placed him on
“time out” for being out of his seat. It bothered Mrs. Carlton that his 2nd-
grade teacher had not referred him for special education services. Now,
she was stuck with another low achieving student. This was particularly
annoying, since considerable district pressure was being placed on the
teachers to raise test scores. Thank God for Anna, Mrs. Carlton muttered
to herself as the last of the bunch noisily vacated the classroom. Anna
seemed to have a calming effect on Benjamin and four other little Black
boys in her classroom.
Anna had been placed in Mrs. Carlton’s 3rd-grade class three weeks
ago. It was the first trimester of her student teaching practicum. For two
hours each morning, she observed the teacher’s instruction, management
strategies, and assisted students with their work. With each passing week,
her observations became more astute as her university professors posed
questions about the experiences. Before leaving campus, she spent about
thirty minutes writing down her thoughts and trying to address questions
raised by her professors. The assignment she liked best was developing a
case study focused on the math experiences of one student. The case study
involved gathering information about the student’s math achievement in
school, as well as the mathematics the student encounters in the lunch-
room, on the playground, and at home. The professor suggested that the
prospective teachers spend one or two evenings at the student’s home
interviewing parents, siblings, and shadowing the student. Initially, Anna
worried about getting permission to go into a child’s home. However, this
proved easier than she thought possible. The child she decided to study
was Benjamin. Benjamin’s mom was especially agreeable once she found
out that Anna was the “new teacher” at school, the one who had been
tutoring her son.
Anna had become accustomed to the complaints Mrs. Carlton aired
during the morning recess. At first, Mrs. Carlton’s complaints seemed
reasonable. Anna could see that some of the children were often off-task,
not following directions, and not completing assignments. Some were
even rude, yelling out answers and talking out of turn. Yes, Anna agreed
CASE 1: “RACE AND TEACHER EXPECTATIONS” 11
that this was inappropriate behavior. How could one teach under such
circumstances? Little by little, however, Anna began to recognize that
Mrs. Carlton’s management skills left something to be desired. She con-
tributed to the bad behavior that left her so exasperated. Anna observed a
math lesson on multi-digit addition with regrouping. As Mrs. Carlton
explained step-by-step how to add the digits, few of the students seemed to
pay attention. Two students were poking each other with pencils, another
secretly, so she thought, played with her Barbie doll, while several others
stared out the window as a custodial crew painted white lines on the
playground’s black top. Mrs. Carlton continued as though unaware of the
students’ lack of attentiveness. It wasn’t until she assigned them problems
from the textbook that chaos ensued. Some students didn’t have their
books and many complained that they didn’t understand the word prob-
lems. “Weren’t any of you listening?” she shouted. “This stuff is easy. Just
go step-by-step starting in the ones place. You can do the word problems if
you just read them!” Mrs. Carlton was more than agitated.
Mrs. Carlton frequently complained about parents. “These parents
aren’t like the ones we used to have. If they would discipline their children
and see to it that their children did their homework every evening, my job
would be a lot easier. These parents don’t care. I’m not trying to be
insensitive, but if the parents are low quality then their children are low
quality.” Anna guessed that the “low quality” parents were Black parents.
It was likely that Mrs. Carlton and other teachers in the school weren’t
used to having Black children in their classrooms. In recent years, profes-
sional and working-class parents fleeing the pressures of urban life moved
to the fast-growing suburban community where housing was more afford-
able. For the first time, the community saw an increase in its Black resi-
dents. Nevertheless, Anna was growing weary of Mrs. Carlton’s constant
indictments of the children and their parents. Many of them flew in the
face of her classroom experiences and knowledge of the children’s back-
grounds. Because of the case study she was developing about Benjamin,
Anna wondered if Mrs. Carlton knew anything about the lives of the
students she taught.
For example, Mrs. Carlton insisted that Benjamin was a low achiever.
She seemed to think he didn’t know his basic facts. When Anna examined
his cumulative file, his test scores from 2nd grade indicated that he was at
grade level. In fact, the grade equivalent score was 6.2 and 4.8 for math-
ematics basic skills and problem solving respectively. This information
was consistent with her tutoring experiences with Benjamin. He resisted
doing the daily math assignments, but with her urgings, he always success-
fully completed them. He knew his basic facts like the back of his hand.
His resistance, Anna speculated, was because he found it boring to do 20

computation problems a day. On two occasions, Anna observed Benjamin
on the playground. Basketball seemed to be his game. When Anna talked
to him about it, she marveled at the numerical data he kept in his head. He
knew the scores of each team for every day that week, how many points
each team member made, how many fouls were committed and by whom.
He talked about who was the best free throw shooter and who could make
the best lay ups. Anna spent her first evening with Benjamin’s family
several days ago. It was laundry night. Anna followed Benjamin and his
mom into the basement of their apartment building. She watched
Benjamin count out 12 quarters for three loads of laundry. As his mother
loaded the clothes into the washers, Benjamin carefully poured liquid
detergent into a measuring cup. Anna asked, “How much are you pouring
in?” “One fourth cup,” he replied, putting the cup close to her face before
pouring it over the clothes in the washer.
Anna was fascinated by Benjamin’s family life. She was pleased when
Mrs. Sykes agreed to a second visit. Mrs. Sykes was a single parent, but
from what Anna could tell, Benjamin’s home life was reasonably stable.
He had an after school routine that included homework and chores. Once a
week he helped his mother do laundry. Her growing knowledge about
Benjamin and his family caused her considerable concern. Benjamin
demonstrated mathematical competence in tutoring sessions, on the play-
ground and at home. Why was he not engaged in Mrs. Carlton’s math
lessons? Why did Mrs. Carlton insist that he had limited capacity to learn?
She threatened to refer him for special education services. Based on his
school records and her observations, she could not see how Mrs. Carlton
could justify such a referral. As far as Anna was concerned, what Mrs.
Carlton needed was an attitude change. And, to put it mildly, her teaching
was uninspired. She wondered if she should say something. Should she
share her case study with Mrs. Carlton once it was done? Maybe she’d
think better of the students after reading it, or, at least of Benjamin.
READER REACTIONS TO “RACE AND
TEACHER EXPECTATIONS”
13
REACTIONS TO “RACE AND TEACHER EXPECTATIONS”
There were a wide variety of responses to this case. Many respondents

grappled with Anna’s dilemma. How and to what degree should she serve
as Benjamin’s advocate? For some, it was clear that Anna should share her
findings with Mrs. Carlton. Some thought she should proceed cautiously,
given her tenuous status as a classroom observer. Other respondents
strongly identified with the events in the case as they paralleled their own
student teaching experiences. Some respondents pointed to classroom
management issues as the reasons for Mrs. Carlton’s difficulties with
children like Benjamin. One respondent who identified Mrs. Carlton’s
attitudes as racist said it was the result of “teacher burn-out.” Two veteran
educators commented on the challenges that Benjamin’s situation pre-
sented to the educational system and what might be done.
Anna’s Dilemma
Many respondents thought that Anna should share her case study with
Mrs. Carlton, emphasizing an approach that is both professional and
cautious. One respondent explains that sharing the case is the right thing to
do if Anna has any integrity at all.
I definitely think that Anna should share her findings with Mrs. Carlton.
Who knows how many students there are like Benjamin who may simply
require extra attention or a more intriguing way of learning in order to
succeed in the classroom, but instead are being cast off to the side and given
up on? It is certainly a teacher’s job to help her students understand what is
going on and make use of constructive approaches to accomplishing a
lesson. If a teacher does not care whether her students take anything from
the lesson, why should the students bother trying to learn it? Furthermore,
if a teacher gives up and reprimands for not understanding a problem the
first time around, how is a student supposed to learn anything? These are
questions that should be offered to Mrs. Carlton to address.
—Undergraduate, Prospective Teacher
I think that Anna should most certainly show her observation results to Mrs.
Carlton. Anna has come across a wonderful discovery that Benjamin is
doing well with math at home and outside of school, and it is important that
the teacher knows this. Anna should approach the teacher in a professional,
REACTIONS TO “RACE AND TEACHER EXPECTATIONS” 15
non-accusatory manner in order to get this situation cleared up. It could

very well be that Mrs. Carlton holds some prejudice against her Black
students, or somehow stereotypes them into learning categories without
examining the testing information.
Although it might be helpful for the student teacher to let the teacher read
her paper, she needs to step lightly. If she were to show her the responses, it
would contain a substantial amount of proof, as this teacher seems particu-
larly stuck in her old ways. Additionally, it could be problematic during the
rest of the semester if the master teacher felt threatened by Anna and her
observations. Congratulations are in order for Anna for detecting such a
small but important problem in this classroom.
—College Senior, Student Teacher
Anna’s reaction to Benjamin Sykes is commendable. Her case study is

extremely well documented to reveal a racial bias on his teacher’s side. The
dilemma is should Anna make her master teacher aware of Ben’s ability
outside of the classroom? I think if she really has integrity she should. But
the way she presents the case study should be very low key. Perhaps she
could ask for a meeting at the end of a “good” day and share her findings in
a very positive manner. She would have to be careful not to make Mrs.
Carlton defensive.
A Common Story
For several respondents this case was similar to their own student teaching
experiences. One student teacher acknowledges that race may have been a
factor, recognizing that minority students are disproportionately repre-
sented in special education classes. Another considers the possibility that
Mrs. Carlton needs to improve her teaching practices and brush up on
classroom management skills. However, class is another social category
that comes into play when teachers make decisions about their students. A
retired family life educator tells about her student teaching experiences at
an all White school, while another student teacher tells about her experi-
ence in a classroom with an African American teacher and an African
American student she sought to help.
The thought that there are teachers such as Mrs. Carlton, labeling children
on the basis of ethnicity as being low achievers is frightening. I have wit-
nessed this in the teacher’s lounge at my current placement for student
teaching. While engaged in a discussion concerning how their students
“just don’t get it” a few teachers have come close to making racist remarks.
They stop short however, turn, look at me, and realize that yes; I have in fact
been listening to their conversation. Teachers can use their authority to
permanently scar children for the duration of their academic experience.
Unfortunately, I think that this happens with a significant number of minor-

ity students. Students who do not belong in special education are referred or
placed there because the teacher does not understand why students are
behaving or reacting the way they do. Teachers often make the mistake of
labeling students as low achievers without really formally assessing their
abilities. All Mrs. Carlton had to do was look in his file to see that he was
not a low achiever. But she already had her mind made up the moment he
walked in the class. She said that automatically she knew he was trouble.
She is letting her own stereotypes cloud her view of this student. It seems
like Mrs. Carlton had low expectations for the minority students in her class
and she blamed their behaviors on everyone but herself. If she were to look
at some of the principles of learning like motivation, feedback, and transfer,
she would see why the students were not responding. Instead of just refer-
ring a “problem child” for special education, and looking for a way to get
him out of class, she should have looked at how she could help this student.
Also, she would greatly benefit from a refresher course on classroom man-
agement. Classroom management can sometimes be the most important
variable in whether or not students learn.
These case studies remind me all too much of my student teaching days. My
cooperating teacher seemed to believe her task was to PROVE to those
awful students just how STUPID they really were! The coordinating profes-
sor seemed to agree with and reinforce her attitude. Here is a direct quote,
“Just LOOK at all I have taught and THEY have resisted!” It seemed to me
that a teacher’s job was to find the best way to reach the students; to start
where they were, and reach out to them; but I was just a lowly student
teacher. How was I to know anything?
The issue was not race [in my student teaching experience] as there was
de facto segregation; hence, an all White school. Mrs. Boyle really HATED
having lower I.Q. students in her science classes, and tried to direct them
into other things like home economics for the girls and industrial arts for the
boys. More stereotyping!! Teachers of those classes were furious that their
classes were used as a “dumping ground!” And all this BEFORE teachers
were evaluated based on their students’ test scores!!
The complaints about parents! I’ve heard them all! Again, an all White
school, but the teachers could hardly blame and bad mouth the parents
enough. Child rearing is the most difficult and complex job a person could
ever have; yet there is a silly notion that everyone should know exactly how
to do it instinctively! This may be the main reason why parenting education
and support became my calling, if you will. Parenting education became my
main specialization.
Anna could allow Mrs. Carlton to read her case study, but if she were to
suggest the problem COULD be Mrs. Carlton’s uninspired teaching, Anna
could fail her internship and not ever get a good recommendation from her
student teaching supervisor.
—Retired Family Life Educator
I have to say that this case study fascinated me from the beginning because
this could easily be one of my students in my old master teacher’s class-
room. Benjamin could just as well be Roy, and Mrs. Carlton could be my
master teacher. Benjamin sounds just like Roy, who knew all his math facts,
but couldn’t sit still during class. My master teacher only used worksheets,
and Roy would never complete them. My master teacher wanted to refer
him to special education because of his lack of attention. I think she thought
he had attention deficit disorder or something to that effect. I think he just
did not like doing worksheets. I tried to be his advocate, much like Anna
was to Benjamin. I tried to defend him when he did work with me, but in
some ways it wasn’t really my place, and now that I am not even in that
classroom anymore, I don’t know what good I did. The major difference
between this case and my own, is that this case seems to be a racial issue,
whereas in my case, both parties were African American. While my master
teacher hinted that the parents were “low quality” it wasn’t because of race.
It was simply because these parents didn’t place education as a top priority
of their children. In this case, it does sound like it could be a race issue
because she says, “these students aren’t like the ones we used to have”
implying that the ones they used to have were White.
Discipline or Pedagogic Problem?
The research literature is replete with studies documenting school failure

between Anglo, African American, and Latino students. But as this case
illustrates, mere statistics do not provide an understanding of how the

failure is achieved. The mathematics lesson described in the case is an all
too common occurrence in classrooms. In the first response that follows,
the respondent believes that Mrs. Carlton facilitates failure in a variety of
ways. She does not encourage students to be successful, blaming the stu-
dents themselves for their academic failure. The second respondent is
troubled by Mrs. Carlton’s special education referral as a first response to
Benjamin’s problems. The respondents’ comments suggest that his
problem is a pedagogic problem rather than a discipline problem.
Teachers either give their students permission to fail or demand success. It

seems the first problem to look at in this case is Mrs. Carlton giving her
students permission to fail, especially Benjamin. Mrs. Carlton does not
demand success from her students, meaning she does not encourage them to
perform, as Anna does. When students get loud, confused, and are shouting
out questions, Mrs. Carlton simply says, “Weren’t any of you listening? . . .
This is easy stuff.” She puts the blame for lack of understanding on the
children, and she never considers that she may be the one at fault. When
Anna encourages Benjamin, he can complete his assignments, and he does
so with ease. The case states, “He resisted doing the daily math assignment,
but with her [Anna’s] urgings, he always successfully completed them.”
Maybe these students just need some encouragement, like Benjamin, per-
haps they also need to see that Mrs. Carlton cares. Anna obviously cares
about Benjamin, and she wants to see him succeed, for this is why she
urges him on. Mrs. Carlton needs to stop giving her students permission to
fail by not reviewing and answering their questions, and she needs to start
demanding success from her students as Anna did with Benjamin.
—Graduate Student, Prospective Teacher
Why do teachers want to resolve their management problems by referring

students to special education? I raise this question after reading this case
study because I think that many management problems rely on the teacher
not being able to implement management and discipline within the class-
room. It seems to me that some teachers use special education referrals as
their first resource to solving problems with one or two students because
they do not want to deal with these students as in Mrs. Carlton’s case where
she was upset that Benjamin Sykes’s 2nd-grade teacher did not refer him to
special education services.
One strategy for Mrs. Carlton is to learn more about her students by observ-
ing their lives outside of school. Although this may seem like “too much
work,” it is important to keep in mind that it is dangerous not to do so. From
one perspective, not seeing how kids think and act in non-school settings
may account for many unnecessary referrals to special education programs,
thus decreasing the likelihood of children succeeding in school. From
another perspective, if the child is simply ignored in class and not referred
to special education, it may dramatically increase the child’s chances of
dropping out of school due to boredom and/or feeling out of place. A
second strategy would be for Mrs. Carlton to change her teaching tech-
niques to create a more collaborative classroom environment. Finally, Mrs.
Carlton needs to learn to distinguish learning disabilities from cultural dif-
ferences. This can be achieved by taking courses to learn about disabilities
and by taking time to learn about students’ lives, family, community, and
culture.
—Doctoral Student
Benjamin is a failure because his behavior does not fit into Mrs. Carlton’s
socio-cultural paradigm. This is a fine example of how children from differ-
ent socio-cultural backgrounds are looked upon in America’s school sys-
tem, instead of the teacher trying to change. This is an ongoing dilemma in
public education because many classroom teachers, who tend to be White,
ignore their students’ socio-cultural backgrounds and only impose their
Eurocentric views.
—Doctoral Student
Teacher Burn Out
One respondent attributed Mrs. Carlton’s racist attitudes to “burn out.” He

offers several recommendations, including retirement.
My reaction to the racist expectations of Mrs. Carlton is extreme pity. I feel

sorry for the students she expects so little of and also I feel sorry for her. I
can’t imagine what teaching would be like if you really hated it as much as
Mrs. Carlton obviously does. She sounds like an older teacher who is burnt
out and should retire. However, in her defense, maybe her classes have
become “lower” and require the level of energy to keep their attention that
she no longer possesses. Maybe she should have a permanent aide to help
control her classroom management problems and allow her to interact on a
more personal level with fewer students.
Educational Challenges and Possibilities
The situation in Mrs. Carlton’s mathematics classroom represents two

major challenges to the educational system. First, there is the challenge of
the urgency of providing a high quality education to Benjamin that allows
him to be successful in both mathematical process and content. He is clearly
a mathematical problem solver and has procedural skills, as well, as seen by
his ability to count change, compute facts, and measure in everyday set-
tings. Benjamin does not have time to lose in his trajectory toward being
successful mathematically, because he is already receiving messages that
he cannot be successful at school. The student teacher has data suggesting
that he needs to be challenged to do higher level mathematical thinking,
employing the skills he already has in place to solve more complex prob-
lems. I feel a sense of urgency for Benjamin, and children like him for
whom formative assessments are not in place and whose ability is not
recognized because the classroom environment and activities may be
designed to overlook them. In this sense it is more than the responsibility of
the teacher, Mrs. Carlton. It is the responsibility of the principal/district to
bring to bear whatever resources it can to change the way this mathematics
classroom functions by training teachers to deliver a standards-based cur-
riculum in an environment conducive to critical thinking, problem solving
discourse, and constructivist learning.
The second challenge, then, is how to do that. Professional development
takes time and money. Mrs. Carlton needs to know that there is another way
and that the methods and approach she is using are not meeting the needs of
all students. At the same time, she will need the tremendous support of a
collaborative community in which she can come to understand her own
mathematical understandings and beliefs.
—Retired Teacher and Principal, Dual Language Elementary School
Any educator who holds on to deficit models does so to mask fear or to

insulate themselves from knowledge they themselves hold that they are
not reaching students as before. Even with this behavior, most teachers
care about their students and wish to do well by them. Ever hopeful, I
believe that we need to be “bridge builders”—bridging the gap between
teacher and student realities. In my experience as a principal, I have been
able to conduct a kind of “peer mediation” between agitated students and
mystified teachers. This loving act seeks to help each see the other’s point
of view and/or reality. Together with extended training opportunities, this
kind of simple but embedded practice can begin to shift the culture of a
school—or of school for our students of difference. These challenges
have no quick fixes. To realize transformative learning in schools will
take the will and belief to assume that all students reach their potential. It
will demand that we learn from and with our students, and so much
more.
Finally, all of us who love education must be learners at our own level of
influence. If a cafeteria worker can learn some Spanish and try to reach out
to a hungry child, then that act will have a ripple effect. The power of one
caring act cannot be underestimated. Cumulatively, caring, loving acts con-
sistently chosen are our best act in our quest to create a beautiful democratic
education for all students.
—Principal
READER REACTIONS
22
SUMMARY AND ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS 23
SUMMARY AND ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
“Race and Teacher Expectations” raised a number of issues. Respondents

grappled with Anna’s dilemma. Should she share with Mrs. Carlton her
knowledge of Benjamin’s mathematical competency both in and out of
school? The respondents related their own personal stories that acknow-
ledged the all too common practice of referring children for special
education services without ever considering teaching practices as part of
the problem. How does race, class, and gender play a role in who gets
referred for special education services? One particular concern cut across
many of the responses: Was this a discipline problem or a pedagogic
problem? Here are some other questions to consider.
1 What should Anna do? Why?

2 On what grounds did Mrs. Carlton base her decision to refer
Benjamin for special education services? Were these reasonable
grounds? Why or why not?
3 What might be the educational and socio-emotional con-
sequences if Benjamin receives a special education label?
4 What does Mrs. Carlton need to know and do if she wants
Benjamin and children like him to be successful in her
classroom?
5 What is the administration’s role in helping Mrs. Carlton become
an effective teacher for Benjamin? What is the administration’s
role in ensuring that Benjamin is academically successful?
6 What might be the knowledge and experiences that pre-service
teachers need to have if they endeavor to be successful with all
children? What is the democratic rationale for this set of know-
ledge and experiences?
While mathematics achievement is one of the nation’s priorities, improv-

ing the quality of mathematics teaching and learning has been an enduring
effort. In recent years, this effort has also addressed the need to provide
opportunities for all children to learn high quality mathematics. Many
states in our nation have focused on algebra since it is the primary gate-
keeper for college-preparatory mathematics and science. Many students
of color lack adequate preparation for algebra. Many who enroll are
unsuccessful. Those who never enroll and those who are unsuccessful are
faced with limited educational opportunities. Despite recent efforts, the
results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress indicate
that the mathematics achievement gap between White and Black or Latino
students remains disturbingly large (National Center for Education
Statistics [NCES], 2001; Lubienski & Crockett, 2007).
In this case, the teachers face a state mandate that requires them to teach
algebra to all eighth graders. It is often assumed that saying it will be so,
will make it so. What is often overlooked about policy making at the
federal, state, or local level is that such decisions involve socio-cultural
processes, which quickly bring to light stakeholders’ belief systems.
These belief systems play a significant role in the forms that mandates
take in practice. The teachers in this case make manifest this process as
they face the implementation of the state mandate. The decision to teach
algebra at the 8th grade raised a number of issues for the teachers. In
“Mathematics for All,” equity and race-ethnicity are expressed as
entangled concepts as the teachers grapple with their beliefs about their
students’ ability and algebra learning.
CASE 2: “MATHEMATICS FOR ALL?”
For years Orange Valley Middle School had been regarded as the city’s
equivalent of a private elite school. It boasted of its high test scores, its
rigorous curriculum, and the fact that it was a feeder school into the city’s
prominent high school that served primarily the White children of doctors,
lawyers, and professors of the local university. Orange Valley’s students
had come from middle class homes, some of modest wealth. Until
recently, the school had served a predominantly White student population.
Even today, its teaching staff comprises mostly White teachers.
In recent years, the community has undergone what old timers in the
neighborhood and veteran teachers perceive as rapid demographic changes.
CASE 2: “MATHEMATICS FOR ALL?” 25
In reality, the changes were more gradual. Elderly members began mov-
ing into retirement communities and many families began to “move up,”
buying into more expensive neighborhoods. As these families moved out,
working- and middle class African Americans and Latinos, and
some White first-time buyers moved into the neighborhood. At the
same time, the school district instituted boundary changes to accom-
modate enrollment increases in other parts of the city. The new boundary
included Latinos from poorer parts of town. As a result, Orange Valley
saw an increase in the number of students who are African American and
Spanish-speaking immigrants.
Orange Valley teachers expressed concern about these changes as they
saw a drop in achievement scores. While the achievement scores were far
from abysmal, the teachers viewed the decline as a sign of impending
doom. Orange Valley’s stellar reputation began to wane. Even though
White students were 60 percent of the school’s population, some com-
munity members and school professionals began calling Orange Valley
the “minority” school. What seemed to complicate matters for teachers
was the recent onslaught of legislative mandates. These mandates called
for class-size reduction, new promotion standards and required mandatory
testing and accountability systems for districts and teachers; and they
called for an end to bilingual education. The mandates produced a flurry
of district policies from which the teachers were reeling. On top of
everything else the state insisted that all eighth graders take algebra I.
Mr. Wilson was particularly agitated by all of this. He’d been teaching
for thirty years and taught honor mathematics for eighth graders, an alge-
bra I course. Since he was the chairperson of the mathematics department,
he was responsible for developing a proposal addressing how the depart-
ment was going to ensure that all 8th-grade students met the algebra
requirement. He called a meeting and instructed his student teacher, Tara, to
be there. As she was leaving for the day, Mr. Wilson said, “This meeting will
give you a first hand look at how education is going to hell in a hen basket.”
Tara arrived promptly at the meeting, soon joined by eight other 6th-,
7th-, and 8th-grade math teachers. Despite Mr. Wilson’s cryptic comment
from the previous evening, she anticipated a discussion on how best to
restructure the curriculum so Orange Valley students could be ready for
algebra by 8th grade. Instead, she witnessed something altogether differ-
ent. Mr. Wilson began speaking. “As you know, we will have to start
teaching all eighth graders algebra I. I think this is a crock! How in the
world can you teach all students algebra?” Other teachers chimed in. One
of the 6th-grade teachers complained that many of her students didn’t
know their basic math facts. Another concurred adding that she had
students who couldn’t even speak English. Several teachers wanted to

know that if students don’t know their basic facts and can’t speak English,
then how could they be taught algebra? The discussion continued.
Mr. Jones taught 7th-grade mathematics. Like most of the teachers in
the room, Tara found him pleasant and genuinely concerned about his
students’ needs. Usually, he wasn’t one to speak during meetings.
I have trouble with what the state wants us to do. I think it will be very
harmful. Not all kids are capable of learning algebra, just the lower level
skills. It’s harmful to their self-esteem to force algebra on them. Take
Rojelio, for example. He’s a kid in my class, very average. But his father is
a migrant farmer. This kid isn’t going to college. He’s going to end up
picking lettuce just like his father. It’s unfair to make him take algebra. He’s
never going to use it.
All the teachers seemed to agree with Mr. Jones. They raised issues of
self-esteem, increasing the dropout rate, and the drain on school resources
as the negative outcomes to implementing the state’s new requirement.
Without any discussion on a new curriculum proposal, Mr. Wilson con-
cluded the meeting saying, “At the rate we’re going, the only thing we’ll
be able to offer here is remedial math.” There was some mumbling from
teachers, seemingly in agreement, as they made their way out the door.
Tara listened to the entire discussion without comment. She was both
taken aback and fascinated by what the teachers said. She tried to make
sense of the teachers’ very negative reactions to planning an algebra pro-
gram for all eighth graders. She realized that the teachers’ complaints
centered on minority students. She wondered if the teachers had ever taken
bilingual methodology courses. Although, if they had, she pondered,
bilingual education had never been an issue at the school since its popula-
tion had always been mostly White and English speaking. She wondered,
too, had they learned ways of developing algebraic thinking in the early
grades? On the other hand, if they hadn’t learned these things, then they
had a good point. How do you teach algebra to children who don’t know
their facts or speak English? Even though these issues had been addressed
in her courses at the university, she realized that she had no practical
experience dealing with them. After all, she had attended predominantly
White schools, could not recall having a teacher of color, and she was
doing her student teaching in Mr. Wilson’s honors 8th-grade class. The
students were all White. Perhaps, she really didn’t understand the realities
about which the teachers spoke so emotionally.
Tara began the meeting thinking it was a good idea to teach algebra to
CASE 2: “MATHEMATICS FOR ALL?” 27
8th-grade students. What was so special about algebra anyway? Surely,

every educated person in the United States should be able to solve a basic
algebra problem. Could Mr. Jones be right? Is it the case that some chil-
dren are incapable of learning algebra? But, she also wondered if the
teachers were concerned about teaching algebra to minority students or to
all students? Not all White students took algebra. Only honors students
did. But then again, most college bound students would take it in 9th
grade. If we make all students take algebra will education be “going to hell
in a hen basket?” Just what did that mean? “Wow,” thought Tara to herself
as she gathered her things. “I have a whole lot of thinking to do.”
READER REACTIONS TO “MATHEMATICS FOR ALL?”
28
REACTIONS TO “MATHEMATICS FOR ALL?” 29
REACTIONS TO “MATHEMATICS FOR ALL?”
Many respondents found it reasonable to teach algebra at the 8th grade

and raised many concerns about the teachers’ attitudes. They found the
teachers’ stereotypes and assumptions to be racist and were concerned
with how these assumptions influence the teachers’ decisions about their
students’ future opportunities. Many were taken aback, even angered, by
Mr. Jones’s belief that since Rojelio was most likely to become a lettuce
picker like his father, making him take algebra would be unfair. One
respondent questioned Mr. Wilson’s professionalism. She believed he set
a poor example for Tara, the student teacher. Some respondents sympa-
thized with the teachers, recommending professional development activ-
ities as a means to address the issues the teachers faced. Finally, one
remained unconvinced that algebra is an essential part of the school cur-
riculum, though she believed that the opportunity to learn algebra should
be available for all students.
Teachers’ Assumptions and Stereotypes
As a student who began taking pre-algebra in 6th grade, I was surprised by

this case. I did not realize that making eighth graders take algebra could be
so controversial. However, I am certainly familiar with the attitudes of most
of the math teachers at Orange Valley Middle School from personal experi-
ence. Growing up in a mostly White, middle class community and attend-
ing a school system with the same demographics, I have witnessed
teachers’ negative perceptions towards their few minority students. Though
there is no definitive proof, I believe that the teachers at the school would
have a different opinion regarding the teaching of algebra had it been insti-
tuted when the school was still mostly White, middle class students. Mr.
Jones’s remark about Rojelio supports this belief, as he comments that the
student will end up picking lettuce like his father. Before making this
statement, Mr. Jones indicated that Rojelio is an average student at what is
still an above average school, yet he allows his racial and cultural
perceptions of Latinos to affect the way he views his students.
It is completely unfair that Mr. Jones has predetermined what one of his
students will be doing in the future. His idea that the student would not need
algebra to become a lettuce picker is prejudiced. Students should not be
discriminated against because of their background. His teacher should
determine no one’s destiny. Mr. Jones’s attitude toward this student could
have a major impact on his academic success. All students should be given
equal opportunity to learn with no preconceived ideas of what they can and
cannot do. There are plenty of opportunities for scholarships and financial
aid for students like Rojelio to go to college. He should not be discounted
just because he does not have money, nor should his education be limited.
The above responses represent the way in which a number of respond-

ents reacted. These respondents focused on the teachers’ assumptions and
the impact it could have on their students’ destinies. Some respondents
addressed more directly the negative content of the teachers’ discussion.
This is represented in the following response.
Much of the conversation that took place in the meeting represented the
teachers’ sentiments of what the students could not do. For example, “the
students cannot speak English” and “the students don’t know their basic
math facts.” Rather than considering how to meet the students’ needs and
assist them in learning about math, encouraging them to think like math-
ematicians, and allowing them to understand the concept behind a math
fact, the teachers were simply resigned to the impossibility of teaching all
students algebra I. Specifically demonstrating the negative language that the
teachers were using about the students’ abilities was Mr. Jones. Mr. Jones’s
comments about all students not being capable to learn beyond lower level
skills were of great concern. Furthermore, the racist comment that he made
in terms of his student, Rojelio, not being able to go to college because his
father was a migrant worker and he would also be a farmer like his father,
clearly demonstrated the low expectations that the teacher had for the
student.
—Former Kindergarten Teacher, Doctoral Student
A Lack of Professionalism
I question Mr. Wilson’s professionalism in making the snide remark to the

student before the meeting, and then presenting the new information to the
math staff in such a negative way. I’ve heard many teachers say “been there,
done that” when new ideas are presented. Having taught about 35 years, I
have been through many pendulum swings in a variety of venues. When
basic sweeps are made (often due to politics or popular ideas on how things
should be done), some will get enthusiastic, but unless the group buys into
the ideas, it can be devastating. This one dropped as a bombshell, and
the idea of ALL taking ANYTHING can be disputed, but when the state
dictates policy changes, it’s best to see what must be done, and work with it.
What an attitude Mr. Wilson had. And now all the teachers are fired up to be
against it. There had to be some good reasons to try the new program. We
know about computation versus algebra differences, but there had to be
more to be presented than his shorthanded hell journey. I’m sure some of it
came from resentment over the school losing its high ratings and gaining
two minority groups that weren’t the “joys” to teach. It was always a joy to
get a new Spanish-speaking student who didn’t know English, but boy
could he/she do the math. It always amazed me how limited so many of the
staff could be.
—Retired, K-12 Bilingual Teacher
Understandable Concerns, Unacceptable Actions
Some respondents sympathized with the teachers’ frustrations and con-

cerns, while not necessarily agreeing with the teachers’ actions. They
attributed the teachers’ frustrations to ignorance or fear of change, rather
than racist attitudes. These respondents believed that a solution to the
problem was to provide the teachers with professional development
opportunities to learn about teaching algebra to students with back-
grounds different from their own.
After reflecting a while I saw that the frustration from the teachers was
understandable, but their actions were unacceptable. I agree with the math
teachers that certain students would not be ready to learn algebra 1 by the
8th grade. However, there are ways to ease the transition. The teachers
failed to address the fact that they are going to have to prepare all of the
students. They could have come together as a team and developed a plan on
how to get students ready and expose them to pre-algebra in simple forms.
There are ways to bring algebra concepts down to a concrete level which
less advanced students need. Instead of just giving up on the students that
they believe cannot learn algebra, the teachers should make it their mission
to find ways of teaching to help the students succeed in math. It is not the
teachers’ job to decide that they cannot do it. They should not decide their
students’ fate.
Perhaps, the teachers should not be blamed. They might not have been given
the opportunity to learn how to teach different students who come from
different backgrounds and have different learning capability levels. These
teachers need to learn to be less negative about the situation, be made aware
that before they can lower the expectation of the other 40 percent of the
school population, they need to begin to make changes within themselves.
They need to take courses or workshops about how to teach algebra to lower
grade levels, and learn how to teach a variety of different students. Teachers
need to unify with other staff members and students to work towards a
similar solution to the problems at hand.
The problem here is not necessarily prejudiced or racist issues against

minorities. Rather, their opinions seem to stem from bitterness toward the
political decisions made by their authorities, a fear of change, and the
unknown. Change is often difficult, especially when it is against your
will. District, state, and national standards are hard to follow to begin
with, especially when they are changed drastically. The teachers also
seem afraid of teaching kids that they are not accustomed to teaching.
Like Tara, these adults are primarily used to teaching White, middle class
children. They probably have not had much exposure to working with
minorities, if any at all. Therefore, they feel very incompetent to teach
kids from a different background, which they are expressing through
anger and frustration. Because of this reality, the district or state should
be in charge of providing the teachers with a workshop or some sort of
guidance to help them cope with the changes. By receiving information
as to how to teach English language learners and children from low
socio-economic backgrounds, they will have more confidence teaching
such students and will be able to have a more positive outlook on the
transition.
Impact of Policies
A few respondents commented on the negative impact of the numerous

policies that teachers are responsible for implementing. Below, the
respondents point out that policy implementation is a “two way street.” On
the one hand, the teachers have to deal with students who are under-
performing in mathematics. On the other hand, the teachers have been
failed by policies that do not take into account that students may not be
prepared to take algebra in the 8th grade. The policies do not make provi-
sions for providing both teachers and students with support for curriculum
changes.
The state mandates called for seem unrealistic unless they are backed with
additional funding. Reduced class sizes are a luxury we can’t afford in [our
district]. We are seeing the increased testing and “accountability” standards
for teachers, although I’m doubtful of whether these are being developed in
a way that actually increases professional growth and encourages more
individualized teaching to different levels of students.
—School Board Member
I think that this case raises several important issues facing middle and high
school teachers, and I can identify with the student teacher’s conflict. My
student teaching experience was in an inner city predominantly African
American school with a very high drop out rate. Fifty percent of the stu-
dents in the class I “inherited” had dropped out by the time I started my
midyear assignment. My class was full of students who did not know their
basics. Several could not read, and many had noticeable difficulties with
reading. Only 5 of my 15 students understood how to create a bar graph. Yet
I was expected to teach out of an extremely complex textbook and somehow
compensate for their lack of basics—a tall order. This was the first time I
began to understand how a student could graduate from high school without
learning how to read.
It is a two way street. These teachers, frustrated over and over again by
the system, seem to have developed a negative attitude to policy in general.
Instead of trying to work with the system, their automatic response was to
say that it couldn’t be done. The teachers had valid concerns. I disagree
with the point that not all students can learn algebra. However, I agree that
if they have never had pre-algebra or courses that emphasize algebraic
principles, it may be impossible.
—Graduate Student, Student Teacher
An issue that struck me was the idea of making a general curriculum that
forces every single student to take X class in Y year of school. Although the
ideas of ability tracking are not to my liking, the idea of forcing a student
into algebra who is still struggling with basic mathematical facts is even
more preposterous IF the student does not receive supports. It seems as if
the state has blatantly disregarded this issue. If the state is to make such a
recommendation, then certain practices must be in effect. Tara brings up
valid points such as the fact that the children may not have been brought up
to think algebraically in elementary schools. When students are required to
take classes such as algebra, these students need to have supports from an
early age that will help them to benefit from this instruction.
—Graduate Student, Prospective Special Education Teacher
Socio-economic Status and White Children
Socio-economic status or class is another notion often entangled with

race-ethnicity, ability, and equity issues when curriculum decisions are
made. The tendency is to view all African Americans or Latino students as
poor and possessing limited capacity for learning certain kinds of school
knowledge. Similarly, the tendency is to view White children as middle
class, high achievers, and capable of learning the high status knowledge
available in college preparatory courses. Though the respondent does not
explicitly state it, he hints that class issues come into play when teachers
talk about Rojelio. By confusing race-ethnicity with class and ability, we
may further complicate matters by ignoring the needs of other groups of
children. This respondent points out that the teachers’ focus on socio-
economic status ignores the struggles with mathematics that White
children may have.
The most obvious issue the case raises was the notion of teachers having
cultural biases. It is wrong to assume that children are incapable of learning
algebra based on the socio-economic status of their parents. Children must
be given opportunities to succeed and by assuming that a student is just
“average,” or “too poor to move up in the world,” teachers make an
unfortunate error. It is interesting to see that all the teachers were only
centering their concerns on the minority children. The possibility that
White children could have an equally difficult time with algebra did not
cross their minds once.
Unconvinced
Finally, though unconvinced that algebra should be taught in the 8th

grade, one respondent did express her certainty about making
opportunities available to all students.
After reading the case, many things raced through my mind. At first, I
agreed that not everyone needs algebra to get through life. Actually, I wish I
never had it as a high school student. But as I continued reading, I started to
feel like it was not needed to teach junior high school students algebra. I
was not sure why upper division math instruction (such as algebra) would
need to be taught earlier than high school. Why would eighth graders need
to learn algebra? As I continued reading I came upon Mr. Wilson. Again, at
first I agreed with his statement. “We will have to start teaching all eighth
graders algebra. I think this is a crock!” Personally, I do not feel it is
necessary to teach algebra at such a young age either. I think the idea
pushes them past their developmental level. But, then I came to Mr. Jones’s
reasoning for why he did not want to teach all eighth graders algebra. I was
appalled at the statement. “He’s (Rojelio) going to end up picking lettuce
just like his father . . . He’s never going to use it.” I was amazed that the
teacher could place such a stereotype on a student. How does Mr. Jones
know what Rojelio will end up doing? As I finished the case, I felt a lot like
Tara, the student teacher. I had a lot to think about. I still do not know
whether or not it would be a good idea to teach eighth graders algebra, but I
do know that all students should have the opportunities in school that they
deserve no matter what culture or ethnicity they come from.
READER REACTIONS
36
For the most part, respondents found understandable the concerns of the
Orange Valley Middle School mathematics teachers. But, they found their
assumptions and their lack of action unacceptable. One respondent
remained unconvinced about the value of teaching algebra at the middle
school.
Reformers concerned with equity issues can be heartened by several
studies reviewing large data sets that show all students benefit from taking
algebra (Gamoran & Hannigan, 2000). A review of large data sets also
indicates that “[e]arly access to algebra has a sustained positive effect on
students, leading to more exposure to advanced mathematics curriculum
and, in turn, higher mathematics performance by the end of high school”
(Smith, 1996, p. 148). Certainly, research interventions like Quantitative
Understanding: Amplifying Student Achievement and Reasoning
(QUASAR) (Silver & Stein, 1996) and grassroots movements like the
Algebra Project (Moses et al., 1989; Moses & Cobb, 2001a, 2001b) attest
to the value of teaching algebra in the middle grades in high poverty
schools with large numbers of children of color.
Despite the long effort to improve the quality of mathematics curric-
ulum and teaching, and the recent attention to equity issues, the achieve-
ment gap has not narrowed between White and Black or Latino students.
“Mathematics for All?” intends to capture the sensemaking of well-
meaning teachers when they are expected to implement well-meaning
policies. While policy makers assume that curriculum implementation is a
rational/technical process, the teachers’ meeting illustrates the inevitable
socio-cultural processes at work in curriculum making. These processes
bring to the surface a number of factors that constitute the ways that
mathematics curriculum take shape in classrooms: teachers’ beliefs and
assumptions about their students’ race-ethnicity and ability; the role of
teachers’ beliefs in curriculum decisions about students and the impact of
their decisions on students’ life chances; and the impact of multiple policies
on teachers’ work lives. Some of the questions that arise from the case follow:
1 Should all eighth graders take algebra? Why or why not? What is
the democratic rationale for your position?
2 What notions of “ability” manifest in the teachers’ discussions
about the state’s mandate? How do their understandings of abil-
ity help or hinder their discussions?
3 What obstacles do the teachers need to overcome before they
consider a plan for teaching algebra to all of their students in the

8th grade?
4 How might the teachers go about ensuring that their students can
be prepared for algebra by the 8th grade?
5 What information and resources do the teachers need to imple-
ment such a plan?
6 What is the role of the state department of education and/or the
district in the implementation of the mandate?
INTRODUCTION TO CASE 3 39
In “Mathematics for All?” the state’s response to inequities of opportun-

ities to learn challenging mathematics took the form of legislation
mandating that all eighth graders take algebra. In the following case, cur-
ricular reform is the response to similar inequities in the district’s high
school mathematics courses. Many children in the United States
experience school mathematics as a culture-free body of knowledge.
Rarely is the cultural-historical development of mathematics discussed.
And, when it is, it gives credit to Anglo European males as the creators of
mathematical knowledge. Many children leave school with the intractable
belief that God handed to ancient Greek men on clay tablets all the math-
ematics there is in the world. Children have no sense that mathematics is a
human and cultural production and that mathematics continues to be
invented. The suggestion that mathematics is neither culture-free nor
solely a European invention shakes us to our very core. It challenges
deeply held assumptions about our view of mathematics.
Scholars of many persuasions believe that mathematics is a cultural
activity and product in the same way that language, religious beliefs, and
food production techniques are cultural products. School mathematics
exposes us to “universal truths” like “the circumference of a circle is 2 × π
× r” and “2 + 2 = 4.” However, to say that such abstractions are culture-
free is to confuse the “universal truth” of these mathematical ideas with
the cultural basis from which the abstractions arise (Bishop, 1988). What
is π and where does it come from? Why is 2 + 2 = 4? Why can’t it be equal
to 5 or 6? And, who says so? Those of us who have spent time in class-
rooms with children know that these are the kinds of questions that chil-
dren ask. These questions get at the cultural history of the mathematics
that we expect students to learn. They are also the kinds of questions that
many of us cannot answer, much to our students’ frustration.
One aspect of the ethnomathematician’s work is to study the mathemat-
ics implicit in cultural activities. This work is not unlike the case study that
Anna developed when her instructor asked her to investigate Benjamin’s
mathematical competency in places other than school. Ethnomathemati-
cians, as well as multiculturalists, and critical scholars offer ways of
rethinking mathematics curriculum focused on restoring its cultural and
historical components that give meaning to the mathematics that children
learn. According to D’Ambrosio (2001), when educators do this, there is
the possibility for reaffirmation and the restoration of children’s cultural
dignity. These perspectives will be further elaborated in Part II of this
volume.
In the case that follows, Mr. Robinson, the central character, is annoyed
when one of his colleagues uses the word “Eurocentric” to describe the
school’s traditional mathematics curriculum and instruction. By Eurocen-
tric his colleague means to convey that the conventional curriculum
proceeds as though it is a European invention and is built upon the experi-
ences of Anglo Europeans. Ethnomathematics, critical mathematics, and
multicultural mathematics are terms that would also irritate Mr. Robinson.
All three terms describe an orientation to the nature of mathematics that
promotes pedagogies responsive to the dispositions, experiences, and
knowledge that children bring to the classroom.
While the aforementioned sentence would strike many as common
sense, the problem, according to D’Ambrosio (2001), is getting teachers
to understand the role of culture in their students’ learning. This is most
certainly Mr. Robinson’s problem, and he is not alone. The case illustrates
the difficulties that arise when Mr. Robinson’s taken-for-granted assump-
tions about mathematics bump up against an alternative view that includes
restoring the historical and cultural aspects of mathematics.
CASE 3: “CULTURE AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS”
Mr. Robinson had been teaching high school geometry for three years.
For the most part, he enjoyed his colleagues and his students. From Mr.
Robinson’s perspective, his high school was a good place for a teacher to
be. The school boasted high academic standards with over 40 percent of
its seniors completing requirements for admissions into the state’s uni-
versities. Its sports and music programs were highly regarded by the
students and the community. Last year, both the basketball and football
teams ranked among the top ten schools in the state. As well, it was not
uncommon for the marching band to compete in state and national com-
petitions. Parents participated in fund raising activities and attended
school events in large numbers.
Mr. Robinson marveled at the school’s ethnic diversity. Forty percent
Hispanic, 35 percent Anglo, 15 percent Asian, 8 percent African
American, and 2 percent Pacific Islander/Native American represented the
school’s ethnic profile. Mr. Robinson was proud of the fact that he had a
decent command of the Spanish language. On the rare occasion that he
had to communicate with Spanish-speaking parents, he did so with rela-
tive ease. It seemed to win him brownie points with these parents and their
children. Mr. Robinson was comfortable with the school’s ethnic
diversity.
CASE 3: “CULTURE AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS” 41
From the accounts he heard, the district and the school has been respon-
sive to changing demographics. For example, several years before he was
hired, professional Latino parents complained to the school board that its
social studies curriculum lacked Latino contributions to the making of the
United States. The school board responded swiftly, calling for the adop-
tion of a K-12 social studies curriculum that included not only the contri-
butions of Latino Americans, but other groups as well. As far as he could
tell, the social studies department seemed to have embraced the district
mandate. Certainly, there weren’t any more parent complaints.
At the last staff meeting for the year, the principal announced that she
would be meeting with the chairs of all departments throughout the sum-
mer. The principal’s call for the meetings was the result of the district’s
efforts to be proactive about the community’s growing diversity. Most
likely, the district’s self study motivated the superintendent to act. The
report showed that Blacks and Latinos were underrepresented in high
track mathematics and science courses in their high schools. The purpose
of these meetings, the principal told the teachers, would be to determine
how to embed multicultural issues throughout the high school’s academic
programs. This seemed fine to Mr. Robinson, but for the life of him he
couldn’t figure out what culture or race had to do with mathematics, or
how it would motivate Black and Hispanic students to take advanced
mathematics courses.
What Mr. Robinson liked about teaching mathematics was that it was
objective. Usually, there was either a right or wrong answer. As far as he
was concerned, there was nothing subjective about it at all. Teaching
mathematics was relatively straightforward. After going over homework,
he began each lesson by focusing on a procedure or problem type, explain-
ing to his students how to use the procedure or solve the problem. He
provided some examples that he and the students would work together.
Then he would assign a set of similar problems. If the students didn’t
finish, they were expected to finish the rest at home. Instruction really was
that straightforward. Of course, in geometry, students had to memorize pro-
perties of geometric figures, theorems, axioms, and trigonometric functions,
although, many times, he provided them for use on examinations.
How do you embed multicultural issues in mathematics? There is no
such thing as “Black mathematics” or “Asian mathematics.” Mathematics
is mathematics. Pure and simple. He spoke Spanish. Does this mean he is
supposed to teach lessons in Spanish? Does it mean that he invite a Black
mathematician to class on Career Day? Should he be teaching the Roman
or Maya numeral systems even though neither has anything to do with the
geometry his students should be learning? The Career Day thing might be
nice for getting his students to take geometry more seriously, thought Mr.
Robinson, but it certainly didn’t teach the students anything about math-
ematics. If he were supposed to do these kinds of things on a frequent
basis, then the course would become watered down and not worth teaching
since the students wouldn’t learn geometry. Heading back to his class-
room, Mr. Robinson bumped into Mr. Lawson as he was leaving the build-
ing. Mr. Lawson taught algebra II/trigonometry and advanced placement
calculus.
“So what do you think of what’s happening with these summer
meetings?” asked Mr. Robinson somewhat tentatively.
“Oh you mean the multicultural thing? I think it’s pretty cool. It’ll be
interesting to see what they come up with.”
“Wait a minute. I understand how that all works in something like social
studies. Mathematics is a different kind of subject matter. There’s nothing
multicultural about mathematics. Mathematics is mathematics no matter
where in the world you live.”
“Yeah, it certainly seems like it. You feel that way because of how you
were taught math. Actually, the mathematics we teach kids in this country
takes a particularly Eurocentric view. Hey, spend a little time in the library
this summer. It’s interesting reading. Gotta run.”
Mr. Lawson sprinted down the corridor before Mr. Robinson could get
him to elaborate. Eurocentric? What in the world did that mean? It
sounded like one of those words that some of those political ideologues
spouted, making people nervous about everything they say. Was political
correctness now contaminating mathematics? There’s nothing cultural
about mathematics, nor political, for that matter. It’s objective and politic-
ally neutral. Math is math. He was sure of it. He was so sure of it that he
was going to spend his summer developing an argument for why a
multicultural approach to mathematics was harmful. He couldn’t wait to
present it to the math department in the fall.
READER REACTIONS TO “CULTURE
AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS”
43
REACTIONS TO “CULTURE AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS”
The responses to the cases reflect the entrenchment of the ahistorical and
culture-free mathematics experienced in U.S. schools and the confusion
that arises when our taken-for-granted assumptions about mathematics
and culture are challenged. Not surprisingly, many respondents agreed
with Mr. Robinson. They could not see anything cultural about mathemat-
ics teaching and learning. Though many agreed with Mr. Robinson, the
respondents’ positions were expressed in various ways. For example, some
respondents dismissed outright the relevancy of culture in mathematics.
Others, while agreeing with Mr. Robinson, acknowledged that it was
important to pay attention to individual children’s learning styles, rather
than culture. There were several who appreciated how mathematics could
be taught within a cultural-historical context, but they did not articulate
what that means with respect to curriculum or teaching practices.
“Culture” was a confusing concept for many respondents. Even more
confusing was the relationship between mathematics and culture. This is a
testament to deeply ingrained beliefs about school mathematics traditions.
As you read the responses, ask yourself, “What did ‘culture’ mean for this
respondent?”
Math is Math
In recent years, there have been well-meaning attempts to address directly

the racial, ethnic, and linguistic diversity in our nation’s classrooms.
Where previously only White children have been represented, textbook
publishers now include pictures of African American, Asian, and Latino
children. Names like Mary and John have been changed to Maria and Juan
and basal readers include stories about children who live in the world
differently than White middle class children. Many schools have a
“Multicultural Day” where children dress in clothing and eat foods repre-
sentative of their cultural heritage. More common at middle and high
schools are “Career Days” which provide schools an opportunity to bring
in professionals from diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds to talk to students
about career opportunities. Certainly there is value to “Multicultural Day”
and “Career Days.” But, if we aim to change curricula in ways that
restore non-European contributions, then this approach is not sufficient.
The following response represents precisely this common orientation to
addressing culture and school mathematics.
REACTIONS TO “CULTURE AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS” 45
I just don’t see how culture can be tied into an everyday mathematics
lesson, except maybe in the way it was explained in the case study where a
teacher can bring in mathematicians or other people in some field of work
where math plays a big part to be a guest speaker in the classroom. For
example, scientists, astronauts, engineers, or architects all of which are
some minority group whether it be Latino, African American, Asian, etc. to
maybe encourage the students to take and excel in math classes so that
someday they will have a job like the ones these professionals have. In
addition, I feel that it would be a great supplement to math lessons to
integrate history and social studies in order to enrich an activity and also
break away from the daily routine. Math for me is already a difficult subject.
Thus, I agree with Mr. Robinson when he says, “there is nothing
multicultural about mathematics.”
—Undergraduate, Student Teacher
Multiculturalism is Just Another Excuse
The following response captures the confusion that arises about culture
and its relation to mathematics. Culture is often confused with race/
ethnicity skin color, or in this case, language. Because of the confusion,
the primary thrust of the respondent’s reactions seems to be that a Euro-
centric curriculum is not problematic. Instead, multiculturalism is cast as
an excuse for poor achievement. According to the respondent, individual
students should take responsibility for their learning and stop blaming
“outside factors.”
After reading this case, the way I was feeling reminded me of my parents.
They are always saying that nowadays, everyone has an excuse. If a child is
not doing well in school, it is the teacher’s fault. If a child is a bully, his/her
parents are not raising them well. Everyone has an excuse and they blame
other people for what is not going right. This case does both of these things.
I agree with Mr. Robinson in this case. I do not feel mathematics is a
cultural subject. It says in the case that mathematics holds a Eurocentric
view. Well, I feel all our subjects do. We work with Hispanic kids in
bilingual programs to teach them English so they can do well in other
subjects and succeed in America. They are taught history, science, even
physical education with a Eurocentric view. Why should mathematics be
any different?
Math is a difficult subject for many people. I include myself in this. I find
math to be very challenging and intimidating. I do not feel that if math was
taught to me or is taught to me now with a Portuguese (because I am
Portuguese) emphasis, that I would learn any more than what I have already
learned. I feel people should take responsibility for themselves and stop
making these excuses why they are not doing well in math and blaming
outside factors. Everyone is capable of learning math regardless of how it’s
presented.
Culturally Sensitive Teaching/Individual Learning Styles
The next three respondents also agreed with Mr. Robinson. For them,
mathematics is not a multicultural issue. However, the first respondent
offers examples of how the teacher can be culturally sensitive while teach-
ing the conventional curriculum. The second and third respondents point
out that teachers need to address individual learning styles.
I hate to say it, but I unfortunately agree with Mr. Robinson. Math is
extremely objective and straightforward. I can understand how a language
based subject such as reading, writing, and social studies can be multi-
cultural. I can even see how I could make science multicultural, but math is
math. Facts are facts, and there really is nothing multicultural about it.
There are however ways to teach that can assess and react to students’
needs. As a teacher, I would obviously not use examples that were not part
of my students’ culture. The same way I would not ask my first graders to
subtract the number of candles on a menorah from the twelve days of
Christmas. I would just have to use common sense. I agree that teachers
have to be culturally sensitive, but there are some commonalities, such as
fruit, or money that people living in any culture understand, and teachers
just need to focus on those, and just be careful as to what they say and teach.
Math is math to a certain extent. There is no way to make 2 + 2 = 4 into a
multicultural issue.
I agree with Mr. Robinson that math is math and I find it hard to see any
multicultural connection to it. Therefore, I think that rather than focusing
on cultural differences, teachers should look at the way students learn. If
students are struggling, one of the problems could be that the student is
simply not comfortable or benefiting from the teaching style. It might be
more beneficial towards the student if the staff reevaluate their curriculum
and manner through which they relay the information and adjust it to child-
ren’s individual learning styles. Maybe a teacher could offer more group
activities or vary the way he lectures the class, incorporating more student
involvement.
I sympathize with Mr. Robinson. I, too, believe that math is culturally

neutral and that the motivation for taking math ought to be separated from
the actual taking of math. (That would make me push for Career Days for
motivating the taking of math, but not for inclusion of cultural factors into
the teaching of math.) Where I sympathize with Mr. Lawson is that I don’t
think that math is “learning-style” neutral, that students have different
styles of learning math (visual, tactile, aural, etc.), and that it is there that
math instruction (and Mr. Robinson) ought to pay attention. Addressing
different math learning styles can help students with learning styles that
may be influenced by culture.
—Parent and Mathematics Ph.D.
Mathematics is Culturally Bound
The next set of reactions indicates that the respondents believe that math-
ematics is culture-bound. One respondent’s comment suggests that Mr.
Robinson will have a difficult time fulfilling his summer task. Another
attributes Mr. Robinson’s attitude to the fear of change. Another respond-
ent explains that he seeks to exploit the diversity of children’s thinking
when they solve problems. Finally, the last respondent expresses her frus-
tration for the lack of support when teachers are asked to change their
practices.
Mr. Robinson, a high school geometry teacher, resolutely sets off in

search of data to support an argument that “math is math”—a neutral,
acultural, apolitical discipline. As a middle and high school mathematics
teacher, I am curious as to how Mr. Robinson will proceed. Where will he
look for mathematics devoid of culture? Will the definition of mathemat-
ics on which he hopes to base his argument be limited to topics typically
covered in K-12 mathematics instruction in the United States? What is
typical and who decides? To whom will he look for data to support his
argument? K-12 teachers? Mathematicians? Business leaders? Parents?
Politicians? My experience tells me that Mr. Robinson is unlikely to dis-
cover consensus on the definition of mathematics, the mathematical topics
to be taught, or the best approach to teaching them. If “math is math” why
are there so many differing views as to what mathematics should be
taught, how it should be taught, and to whom? Culture must certainly play
a role.
—High School Mathematics Teacher
Fear of Change
Mr. Robinson’s attitude needs an adjustment. Although he advocates multi-

culturalism and loves the students in his school and the people in the com-
munity, he is not open to the idea of change in the classroom. Mr. Robinson
should be open to the suggestions given at the meeting. If his students could
possibly benefit from some changes in the curriculum, then it is worth the
effort. He is afraid of what he does not know. Teachers in general should be
open to change. The world around us is constantly changing. As society’s
values and morals change, education in turn will change and work toward a
better, more appropriate education for all.
Education in American culture tends to rely more on books as the main
source of learning. Other cultures may use different strategies for teaching.
Some may use cooperative learning or take a research perspective on learn-
ing. These strategies must be taken into account when teaching children
who come from different cultures.
Most of the schools in America are Eurocentric in nature. The faculty
consists mostly of White females and the administration consists mainly of
White older males. African American, Hispanic American, Asian Ameri-
can, etc. students may find it hard to relate to someone who is not like them.
It is impossible to have a teacher of every ethnicity in schools and someone
will always feel left out and like they cannot relate to their teachers. This is
something of which teachers should be aware. It can be very hard to relate
to someone who comes from a different culture and holds different beliefs
and values than them. It can also be hard if the school children are in taught
in a style that is different from their culture. It then becomes important to
bring multiculturalism into every subject area in schools so that no children
will be left out.
—Undergraduate, Prospective Special Education Teacher
Historical Development of Mathematics
Culture diversity can be a difficult concept for some teachers to grasp

because they might not be sure of how to integrate it within their current
curriculum. I feel that any subject should have some kind of multicultural
component to it. There is more to math than just numbers and facts.
Teachers could introduce mathematical inventions and creations by indi-

viduals from various ethnic backgrounds and discuss those in class. Even
the ways mathematical problems are solved involve diversity. I feel that
showing students exactly how to solve something deprives students of an
authentic problem solving opportunity. By allowing students to brainstorm
and figure out how different kinds of math problems are solved not only
involves creativity, but also diversity in the way they are thinking.
Teachers should take the time to appreciate and acknowledge their students’
achievements.
On a practical level, Mr. Robinson has it all wrong. Bringing in a Black

mathematician to class on Career Day is a lame band-aid solution. He does
not need to teach an entire unit on Roman numerals either. Instead, he could
learn more about the historical nature of the geometry he is teaching and
make that part of his class. Math was not created by individuals in isolation.
What was the evolution of the ideas behind the geometry of Mr. Robinson’s
math class? What cultures were involved? I don’t know the answers to those
questions, but I’d be interested.
—Middle School Science Teacher
Lack of Teacher Support
I see this as a case study that points to hope for solving some of the
problems pointed to in “Mathematics for All?” In this school, you have a
diverse population and the teachers are comfortable with it. When asked to
teach math and embed multicultural issues in the lessons a teacher has
difficulty in understanding how to do it. The problem is not the teacher. He
commits to researching the issue over the summer and plans on proving that
it can’t be done. At least he will look up information and probably discover
that you can teach math in different cultural contexts. The problem is a
school that mandates a change with no support structure to help teachers
incorporate that change. While the school administration is to be applauded
for seeing a need for this they should have taken it one step further and
provided the instruction to the teachers so that the teachers could feel good
about being able to make the changes in their classrooms. This is a problem
in the whole educational system today, mandated changes without any sup-
port structures to train the troops in the front lines to make the needed
changes. The teachers are being left out of the equation.
READER REACTIONS
50
In “Culture and School Mathematics” the district’s goal to embed

multiculturalism throughout the curriculum perplexes and frustrates Mr.
Robinson, the geometry teacher. His reaction is not surprising since the
district’s efforts challenge the prevailing view of mathematics. Most of us
experience mathematics as a fixed body of knowledge that exists separate
and apart from cultural and historical contexts. Just as Mrs. Carlton did in
case 1, “Race and Teacher Expectations,” many teachers teach procedures
for problems without any real world context nor historical appreciation for
the mathematical ideas that underpin the procedures. Many reformers
argue that the existing curriculum is so disconnected from children’s
experiences that it undermines their ability to perform successfully in
school contexts.
For example, in “Race, Retrenchment and the Reform of School Math-
ematics,” Tate (1994) writes about this very point. He shares a story about
a group of middle school teachers who noticed that a large number of
African American students at a predominantly African American urban
school responded incorrectly to an item on a district mathematics
assessment. The test item was:
It cost $1.50 each way to ride the bus between home and work. A weekly
pass is $16. Which is the better deal, paying the daily fare or buying the
weekly pass?
For the students, the weekly pass was the better deal. Tate explains that
the students missed this seemingly easy problem because it assumes a 5-
day workweek. Furthermore, says Tate, the problem also assumes that
ordinary people have only one job. The district test designers did not take
into account the lives and experiences of the African American students
attending the school. That is, they did not consider that many African
American students had parents who worked 6 or 7 days a week and had
more than one job to make ends meet.
In “Culture and School Mathematics” the district sought to address
these considerations and others through embedding “multiculturalism”
throughout the curriculum. It represents another approach to improving
teaching and learning, and increasing access to college preparatory math-
ematics, especially for underachieving populations. The situation presents
a set of difficult tasks. Here are the most obvious ones. First, the math-
ematics teachers must grapple with “Eurocentric” curriculum. What does
this mean? Second, what is culture? At the outset of this volume, I said
that culture has to do with the ways that one negotiates one’s world in and
through daily routines, languages, and ideologies, which are inextricably
linked to the historically, socially, and politically embedded contexts in
which we all live. I also emphasized the tendency to confuse race or skin
color with culture. They are not the same things, though skin color carries
with it a historical legacy that has social and political consequences for
groups and individuals that delimit the ways in which they can negotiate
their worlds and envision their participation in a democracy. In other
words, a person’s cultural circumstances give meaning to skin color (or
race).
How very difficult it is to wrap our brains around the distinction
between cultural circumstances and race. Furthermore, to appreciate the
role of culture in the teaching and learning of mathematics, the teachers
also must reflect on their beliefs about the nature of mathematics, its
cultural-historical development, and the experiences that children bring to
the classroom. In addition to foundational curriculum questions—What
mathematical ideas ought we teach?—there are other questions that
teachers must discuss if they are serious about educating the nation’s
youth.
1 How reasonable was Mr. Robinson’s response to the district’s

mandate?
2 How does (or does not) a Eurocentric view of mathematics dis-
advantage students, particularly non-European students?
3 How might doing ethnomathematical studies of the students (as
Anna did with Benjamin) inform teachers’ understandings about
teaching their particular students?
4 How might mathematical ideas from other cultures be used to
enhance the curriculum?
5 How does (or does not) a mathematics curriculum, reconstituted
with its historical and cultural origins, improve opportunities for
all students to learn mathematics?
6 How does (or does not) a mathematics curriculum, reconstituted
with its historical and cultural origins, improve opportunities for
students to take college preparatory mathematics?
INTRODUCTION TO CASE 4 53
For several decades, school mathematics has been the target of an ava-
lanche of recommendations bent on improving teaching and learning in
U.S. schools. For reformers, understanding the conceptual ideas of the
mathematics we expect children to learn requires that children explore,
conjecture, and reason logically about mathematical ideas embedded in
problem solving contexts (NCTM, 1989, 1991, 2000). These recom-
mendations are a response to traditional mathematics curriculum and
instruction focused on basic arithmetic and memorizing procedures.
Unfortunately, the debates that have emerged in policy-making
decisions about mathematics curriculum pit reformers’ visions for school
mathematics against the visions of what traditionalists think the curric-
ulum ought to be. Aptly known as “The Math Wars,” improving school
mathematics has been a contentious issue, to say the least, with various
stakeholders using legislative or political means to have their views and
values represented in state curriculum policies. In the following case,
teachers are faced with teaching to content standards and making sense of
“problem solving versus basic skills,” pitting problem solving against
basic skills—the district’s unintended rendering of school mathematics.
Further complicating matters is the state’s new accountability mechanism,
a single standardized test. Not only do the teachers have to address content
standards within a confused curriculum, they also have to ensure that their
students perform well on the state test.
The school principal has targeted place value understanding as an area
for improvement. This is an important focus. The foundation for under-
standing place value lies in grouping activities. Through these activities
children learn that numbers can be decomposed and represented in many
ways, including representations of items as sets of objects, which is
required for understanding the structure of our base-ten number system.
Place value understanding is necessary for reasoning about rational num-
bers and the operations performed on them. The university professor she
hires to assist her with improving the teaching of place value understand-
ing observes how teachers make sense of teaching and learning in a highly
charged political context. Her dilemma is to report findings that the
teachers and the principal will find useful given the mixed messages that
the teachers are receiving.
CASE 4: “POLITICS AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS”
The elementary teachers of Eastside City Unified School District found

themselves sitting at yet another district-wide in-service. This time, the
focus was on aligning the district’s mathematics curriculum with topics
present on the state’s new mandatory test. The facilitator began by
identifying weaknesses across all grade levels as indicated by last year’s
test scores. She passed out and talked about literature on teaching students
test-taking strategies. The teachers were also given examples of items
represented on the test. Next to each item appeared the content standard
and the pages in the mathematics textbook that addressed the particular
content standard. Many of the items marked as meeting the “problem
solving” content standard confused the teachers since the problems looked
like low-level exercises. After some discussion about curriculum align-
ment, one teacher asked, “What are we supposed to be teaching? Problem
solving or skills? The reason why we can’t figure it out is because the
politicians can’t figure it out. They can’t decide between using manipula-
tives or basic skills.” Other teachers mumbled similar sentiments.
The teachers’ confusion over which mathematics to teach was under-
standable. Unwittingly, the district sent mixed messages in an attempt to
comply with policies coming from the state department of education. The
state was embroiled in a “Math War.” Political conservatives outnumbered
liberals on the state’s curriculum framework committee. Battle lines were
clearly drawn between political conservatives vying for a mathematics
curriculum that reflected a back-to-basics approach and reformers who
wanted a curriculum focused on problem solving. Conservatives believed
that learning basic skills like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division were absolute prerequisites for higher mathematical thinking.
Reformers insisted that problems needed to be embedded in meaningful
contexts and that problem solving facilitated the development of the con-
ceptual underpinnings of the basic skills that political conservatives
insisted upon. The bickering between curriculum framework committee
members emerged as an either/or proposition—mathematics as basic
skills or mathematics as problem solving. In the end, the conservatives on
the framework committee won out. Their political maneuverings resulted
in a back-to-basics framework, although they proclaimed that they had
achieved a “balanced” approach to mathematics curriculum.
The state’s political debates impacted the district and its teachers in
unintended ways. The resulting policies attempted to seek a “balanced”
approach. In doing so, these policies mirrored the dualistic rhetoric that
pervaded the state’s debates about mathematics. For example, in response
CASE 4: “POLITICS AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS” 55
to the teacher’s concern about which mathematics to teach, the facilitator

reminded her and the others that they needed to develop mathematical
ideas by going from the concrete to the abstract. The facilitator’s recom-
mendation is consistent with what is typically taught in elementary math
methods courses. Children should first use concrete objects to create
equivalent representations of numbers. These numbers can be represented
pictorially (showing sets of three, five, ten, etc.). Pictorial representations
can be represented symbolically using expanded notation, scientific nota-
tion, and the conventional form in which numbers are represented in the
Hindu-Arabic numeration system. However, the facilitator did not provide
specific examples of what she meant by “going from concrete to abstract.”
Then she passed out a pie chart. It was titled Eastside City Unified School
District Math Daily Time Management. The largest piece of the pie chart
indicated that 30–45 minutes should be devoted to the district-adopted
textbook. Five minutes should be devoted to basic skills review, which
included mental math, skill counting, memorization of facts, and skills
worksheets. Ten minutes should be devoted to problem solving including
problems-of-the-day/week and test preparation for the newly mandated
state test. The facilitator’s chart for daily time management presented
basic skills and problem solving as separate aspects of daily instruction. It
was no wonder that the teachers could not see them as interrelated com-
ponents of mathematics. At the same time, the district implemented its
own test focusing on basic skills. All fourth graders had to take and pass
with 80 percent accuracy a test on addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, as well as a test with addition and subtraction problems with
regrouping. The teachers were as stressed about these sets of tests as they
were about the standardized test.
Concerned about the falling test scores, Mrs. Provines, the principal
at John F. Kennedy Elementary School, enlisted the help of Professor
Jordan, a mathematics educator from a local university. Mrs. Provines
explained that she’d sent her primary teachers to a series of workshops on
developing place value understanding. While she anticipated improved
teaching, she wanted an expert opinion and someone who could offer
assistance. Professor Jordan agreed to observe place value lessons in 2nd-
grade classrooms. To some degree, all of the teachers used the district-
adopted textbook. The professor took particular interest in Mr. Barker,
since his principal considered him to be the best mathematics teacher. At
first, it seemed like an innovative lesson. The students were arranged in
groups. There was an assortment of manipulatives, counters, rubberbands,
small plastic cups, and the like. He asked his students, “How many differ-
ent ways can you make 23 using your counters.” The students set about
problem solving. The professor noted the variety of ways in which the
second graders represented 23. After about five minutes, Mr. Barker asked
three students for their solutions. They drew their representations on the
board. After congratulating the students and with no further explanations,
Mr. Barker drew a place value chart on the board showing the ones,
tens, and hundreds places. He put a 2 in the tens place and a 3 in the ones
place. Pointing to the chart, he then asked, “How many are in the tens
place?”
The students, responding chorally, “Two!”
“How many in the ones place?”
“Three.”
“And, what does this number mean?
“Twenty-three!”
“Good job! Twenty-three is two tens and three ones.”
Mr. Barker passed out worksheets. He told the students to write their
names on the worksheet and read the directions: “For each problem, write
the value of the blue digit on the line.” The worksheet included an
example problem that Mr. Barker went over with the students. After
asking if anyone had any questions, he told them to begin working.
The professor recorded a few more observations, but then spent the rest
of the class period trying to formulate her thoughts. Mr. Barker was a
successful teacher in many respects. It was easy to see that he liked his
students and enjoyed teaching. The students seemed to be eager learners
and were on task during the lesson. The worksheet assignment indicated
that they worked well independently. Although he began the lesson by
presenting a problem, he fell short of helping students get a handle on the
place value meaning of the problem solving activity. He did not connect
what were really grouping activities to place value. The worksheet
required that the student simply memorize the places and the number of
zeroes to add to the digits.
It was clear to the professor that the teachers were trying to make sense
of district policy. Mr. Barker did allocate a portion of his time to problem
solving when asking his students to find multiple ways of representing 23.
However, there was no opportunity for students to learn how the grouping
activity was related to the worksheet he assigned after the problem solving
task. Why is the one’s place the one’s place? The ten’s place? And so on.
The same was true for the other teachers. The other teachers followed the
textbook more closely. These teachers engaged the students in several
grouping activities, instead of one. But, like Mr. Barker, they did not
explicitly link the activities to the exercises that followed them. They spent
virtually no time exploring the relationship between grouping objects and
CASE 4: “POLITICS AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS” 57
place value. Instead, they resorted to using a place value chart. As one
teacher told the professor, “There are a few more lessons in the book
devoted to place value. But, that takes too much time. We need to cover
other stuff. They’ve got to memorize the chart and learn the trick so that
they can do well on the state test.” Professor Jordan wondered about the
contents of the report she would submit to the principal. How would she
explain that the teachers, despite the time they’d already spent in work-
shops, still needed to improve their teaching of place value understanding?
READER REACTIONS TO “POLITICS
AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS”
58
REACTIONS TO “POLITICS AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS” 59
REACTIONS TO “POLITICS AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS”
“Standards” and “accountability” are seemingly innocuous words. It

seems reasonable to have standards and it seems reasonable to hold per-
sons and systems accountable for educating our nation’s youth. Manda-
tory testing has accompanied the standards-based zeitgeist. Most often, a
single standardized test serves as a school system’s accountability mech-
anism. However, is it reasonable to assume that standards and mandatory
testing improve the quality of teaching and learning in our nation’s
schools? What are the effects of these policies? Who gains? Who loses?
And, under what circumstances?
By and large, the respondents viewed negatively the political context in
which the teachers must do their work. They expressed a number of con-
cerns regarding the effects of policy decisions on teachers and students.
They commented that these policies yielded time constraints that
impacted the way in which teachers covered the curriculum. Since
covering the curriculum became the teachers’ main objective, this resulted
in a superficial curriculum where students never acquired command of
any mathematical topic. The respondents also raised issues about
political rhetoric, competing goals, and how policies can result in
de-professionalizing the practice of teaching.
Time Constraints and Curriculum Coverage
The following respondents voice a similar complaint about the quality of

teaching and learning mathematics. They comment that time constraints
affect both teachers and students in negative ways. The time management
plan described in the case forces teachers to “jump from one topic to
another” in ways that compromise learning substantive mathematics and
relating it to their children’s lives. The respondents’ responses suggest
that the teachers would teach place value understanding more sub-
stantively if they were not pressured with time constraints and high stakes
testing.
One thing I don’t like about this case is the fact that there is a “mandated
daily math time management pie chart” telling teachers what to do. A key
problem in the way they have the layout of allotted times is that the teachers
are unable to see them as “interrelated aspects of mathematics.” How can
only five minutes be given to something so crucial as learning basic math
skills? So much time is spent on covering the “district-adopted textbook.” I
personally don’t like the district mandated mathematics program where I

am now student teaching. After observing it for a while, I have come to the
conclusion that it is so confusing at times because there is too much of a
jump in topics and it seldom relates to the children’s lives. Some of the
vocabulary used in the mathematics program is either too advanced or so
unfamiliar to the children that they end up learning nothing. The mathemat-
ics curriculum I have observed fails to make a connection to children’s
lives. There is no personal meaning of fun in mathematics for them any-
more like I had when I was in elementary school, which I think is very sad.
I think one interesting fact brought up in the case is the idea of effective
time management in the classroom. This made me think of my 6th- and 8th-
grade math teacher who would always complain about the limited amount
of time he had with us each day (only 38 minutes he would constantly
remind us), and he would always have to jump from topic to topic to fit
everything into his very short class period. He felt constrained by this
shortened class period, not to mention the amount of material he had to
teach us before our state tests. It is hard for any teacher to follow a time
management plan everyday, let alone teach everything they are supposed to
before those ever-looming state tests approach. Time management plans are
lovely things to make, and as a teacher you can always have good intentions
to follow them, but 4 days out of 5 you are going to be behind and rushing
to cover everything. I think this is why Mr. Barker and the other teachers
breezed through their teaching of place values. As one teacher says in the
case, “They’ve [the students] got to memorize the chart and learn the trick
so that they can do well on the state test.” In this instance the teachers are
relying less on solid, formal instruction and more on a memorization tactic.
I believe the reasoning behind this is time: give the students a quick way to
memorize, and we can move on to the next state test topic. I don’t think it
should be like this. I think teachers should be able to take their time and
teach their students effectively.
Curriculum Impact
The following respondent directly addressed the mathematics curriculum

that the teachers faced. According to this respondent, the district’s adop-
tion of a textbook that represented both reformist and traditionalist views
resulted in a curriculum “a mile wide and an inch deep,” a characterization
of school mathematics in the U.S.
The conservatives demand a more back-to-basics approach, while the more

liberal members are more influenced by reformers calling for more problem
solving and critical thinking skills. The district, in its attempt to reach a
middle ground has selected a text that accommodates both view points, thus
resulting in a curriculum with too broad a scope and does not allow for in
depth study of either. Likewise the text presents basic skills and problem
solving as separate and distinct concepts that are not integrated. Legislators
tend to reach agreement on the use of assessment as a tool by which
accountability can be measured, thus multiple assessments are mentioned
here as being in place. The state here has required a “new mandatory test,”
along with two additional district tests now requiring 80 percent accuracy
to pass on differing areas within the curriculum. Teachers, as demonstrated
by Mr. Barker, are concerned with the amount of material to be covered as
well as teaching the “trick(s) to do well on the state test.” Once again one
sees the concept of curriculum being a mile wide and an inch deep so that
all stakeholders feel as though they “got their way.” Yet in fulfilling this
need, students never learn any aspect of the curriculum well enough except
that which is on the test.
De-Professionalizing Teachers
Both respondents in the following comments indicate that policies may

act to undermine the teachers’ expertise in making instructional
decisions. For these respondents, accountability serves to de-
professionalize teachers by not allowing them to consider how mathemat-
ical ideas should be developed or make necessary modifications that
facilitate students’ learning. The second respondent indicates that policy
makers show a profound lack of understanding about what really goes on
inside a classroom.
I realize the difficulty of trying to cover all of the material that most districts
require in a school year. However, by breezing through most major concepts
how effective are teachers really being by just “skimming the surface” on
some topics? Another thing to consider: Are students really learning when
teachers just tell them to memorize a formula, or by just giving them an
answer to save time? I know teachers need to be concerned with issues
related to accountability, but students’ learning shouldn’t be compromised
in order to save time and get through the entire curriculum. If a student is
having problems understanding a certain concept or idea, then it might be a
good idea to figure out a way to present the material differently or make
modifications to it in order to make it easier to comprehend. Isn’t the whole

purpose of teaching to teach students?
I thought the daily time management chart was humorous as it highlighted

the lack of understanding of what really goes on in a classroom. What if the
students need more than five minutes working on their basic skills? What if
the entire day, week or month were devoted to problem solving skills—is
that a bad thing? Every class has its own flow, and not every student will
respond well within a time limit set externally. What if the textbook is
horrible? What if the teacher knows a better way to teach place value than
the textbook? Shouldn’t these things be left up to the teacher? After all, s/he
knows the class better than anyone else.
De-Professionalizing Teachers or Poor Teacher Preparation?
The following responses raise an interesting question. Do policies mandat-

ing testing act to de-professionalize teachers; or, do teachers struggle with
teaching in the context of mandatory testing because of poor teacher prep-
aration programs? In the first response, the respondent suggests that
teachers who know how to teach well end up sacrificing good instructional
practices because of the pressing political factors. The second respondent
believes that the problem is not high stakes testing. Rather, the root of the
problem is the generally poor preparation that teachers receive in their
certification programs.
As I read this case, I was immediately struck by the similarities of this case
in terms of mathematics and the current state of literacy instruction. High
stakes testing is now occurring, often in the name of teacher accountability.
Teachers are expected to raise test scores and this often leads to students
experiencing learning in the context of what is going to be on the test.
While teachers in this particular case had once taught in the context of
higher level thinking skills and problem solving, they are now being asked
to focus more intently on skills. In terms of this case, it is interesting that
when the professor is asked to come in and observe in order to provide
some guidance and assistance, she observes who was hailed as the best
mathematics teacher by the principal. Yet, upon observation, the professor
notices that the teacher does not allow for a lot of problem solving. Instead,
he allows for time allocation that he received during the district-wide
in-service. The teacher became devoted to what would be covered on the

test and planned instructional time based on what would be on the test as
well as what the district asked in relation to the test.
I think it is an interesting phenomenon that even when teachers are aware
of and have practiced good teaching strategies, in any subject, they often
negate what has been effective for them in order to answer to a mandate or
teach to a test. I wonder what influences teachers in sacrificing good
instructional strategies that support their students’ needs and their
philosophy of learning and teaching in order to support the test.
—Doctoral Student
I think that this case points out a very glaring fact. A lot of teachers out
there are not teaching their subjects effectively. A lot of teachers are not
even teaching in their content areas. A teacher who is not trained in these
areas particularly affects math and science instruction. The professor saw
the problem not in the state mandates but in the simple fact that the teachers
(the best one in the school) need to improve their teaching skills. This
points to what I consider one of the most important issues we must deal
with in our educational system. The system is failing to fully train teachers
to be the most effective teachers they can be. We are sending out individuals
who are not prepared to deal with the environments that they are being
thrown into. That is the fault of the system that prepares them. Too much
theory and not enough real practical strategies and techniques are being
taught in our programs. Teacher training is lacking at all levels and needs to
be improved if we are to see a change in our schools.
Which Goals? Whose Goals?
The problem, for the first of the following respondents, is that various
stakeholders have different goals. Because the goals represent competing
tensions, high quality math lessons are unlikely as different stakeholders
aspire to different goals. Also concerned about goals, the second respond-
ent cast the problem in a different light. For this respondent, long-term
goals are sacrificed for short-term goals. When focused on short-term
goals, that is, to raise test scores, the students lose out.
The dilemma presented in this case is very damaging. The state, principal,
and the teachers all have different goals. The state wants a back-to-basics
approach. The principal wants to incorporate skills and problem solving but
does not present that well. The teachers are motivated by the standardized
tests. The different and unclear presentation of the different goals expected
by the different parts of the school system presented in this case cheats the
students from good math lessons.
The students are being cheated of understanding concepts in order to
generate good test scores. If these concepts are taught in order for the
students to retain the concepts they will be able to quickly expand their
basic knowledge into other areas and learn even more. Obviously, everyone
in this case has different goals and the goal of having students learn may be
lost in the politics going on in the background. I’d like to think that teaching
does not include power struggles and only concentrates on the importance
of teaching the students the content necessary.
We have settled for short-term goals rather than long-term benefits in our
quest for higher test scores and better schools. Evidence of this is the
multitude of teachers who instruct, not from curriculum guidelines, but
from test booklets. The concrete pressure put upon teachers from their
principal, school district, state, parent groups, community, to raise test
scores is intense and it stands to reason if their performance as a teacher is
associated with a numerical value, there will be more energy put into that
which is a direct threat to their profession. Thus we have a situation in
which the best intentions have gone awry. School children are given instruc-
tion relating to test problems in order to prepare them for three days in
April, instead of teaching them critical skills that will provide a foundation
from which to further their intellectual discovery and enhance their
cognitive ability for the rest of their life.
Test preparation is counterproductive in the long term. The skills neces-
sary to perform adequately on many state run tests are in direct contrast to
skills needed for problem solving assignments that require a considerable
amount of creativity, practice, and review. Problem solving takes time and
thought and dialogue; it’s a repetitive process of thinking that reflects how
to arrive at a certain conclusion instead of narrowing the focus on memor-
ization and fact gathering. We have reduced it to a race, this mania to have
the best test scores, to be the best school in relation to the data; students
ultimately pay the price.
—Parent
Both, Balanced, or Integrated?
The following respondent expresses his dismay at what seems to be the

ongoing tendency to polarize debates in mathematics education. Accord-
ing to the respondent, the answer is never one or the other. For the first and
second respondent, the approach includes aspects of both arguments.
Similarly, the last respondent addressed the policy language that produced
seemingly irreconcilable notions of what counts as mathematics. Policy
language that described mathematics as a balance between “basic skills”
on the one hand and “problem solving” on the other perpetuates what
often translates in classroom practice as two competing beliefs about what
mathematics is. The respondent suggests that policy language that uses the
word “integrated” rather than “balance” may facilitate a conception of
mathematics that sees its various components as interrelated.
Aligning the curriculum with the state test is a good idea. Deciding whether
math should be taught as skills or as problem solving is a waste of time and
an example of the dangerous tendency in education to see teaching choices
as black/white, either/or. Clearly, children need to learn the basic skills of
math. Clearly, children need to learn problem solving. How can we educa-
tors still be arguing these questions? Let’s encourage the facilitator, the
teachers, the principal, and the math professor to all loudly yell, “Both!” and
then proceed immediately to figuring out how to keep both in daily lessons.
Speaking of “both,” the teacher who said “They’ve got to memorize the
chart and learn the trick so that they can do well on the state test” has a valid
point. Of course we want children to understand concepts. Still, students
who are not gifted mathematically may do poorly on tests if their math
instruction focuses too much on understanding and fails to give them the
“tricks” that can help them remember how to solve a problem that they no
longer are totally clear on. For example, knowing the formula for area of a
triangle is worthwhile even for students who can’t explain or remember
why that is true. We must, again, stop arguing which approach to teaching is
better, agree that “Both!” is the answer, and spend our time and energy on
figuring out how to do some of each day after day.
—Special Education Resource Teacher
One of the lessons seen here is that having students memorize charts for the
purpose of doing well on standardized tests neither supports educators’
efforts to improve their teaching methods nor helps students to obtain
higher-level thinking skills. In the end, a balance must be struck between
promoting high exam scores and creating good educational experiences that
can potentially improve students’ professional opportunities. Teachers must
make every effort in order that students know the meaning of a mathemat-
ical equation and know how to best approach and solve it. Having students
memorize problems or charts (as adult students do in private test-prep
courses for graduate school entrance exams) ultimately converts learning
into a series of shortcuts and nifty tricks designed to beat a test. Even with
high standardized test scores, students can become turned off to mathemat-
ics (or any other school subject) and any sort of real intellectual engage-
ment. This may cause students to tune out or simply drop out of school.
Teachers should employ a richer, more socially contextualized curriculum
and instruction methodology. In the end, such a change might even improve
students’ test scores as it raises graduation rates.
—Doctoral Student
Instead of thinking about all the different aspects of mathematics (basic

skills, problem solving, new material from the textbook), and how all three
of these can be taught in one short mathematics class, the teachers should
be thinking about how they can integrate all the new knowledge with the
students’ basic skills of math and with problem solving. Mr. Barker seemed
to be doing this on the surface, but when analyzed, one can see that he was
not integrating the problem solving to actually learning the material.
I do like what the mandates say about having balanced mathematics
education, but I would rather it be called “integrated.” By using the termin-
ology of “balance,” it gives the idea that the structure of mathematics
should have problem solving and basic mathematics as two aspects of
instruction. However, using the terminology and concept of integration,
both basic math skills and problem solving can be integrated to better
deepen the acquisition of the basic math skills and help students improve on
their ability to problem solve.
Professor Jordan’s Dilemma
Virtually all respondents focused on the negative impact of high stakes

testing on teachers and students. However, one respondent directly
addressed Professor Jordan’s dilemma. Her recommendation suggests that
improving outcomes on standardized tests and helping students to learn
mathematics can both be accomplished.
Professor Jordan should probably sit down with the principal as well as the
teachers in order to discuss with them different possibilities and teaching
strategies that would promote long-term understanding on the students’
part. I think that if she is straightforward and clear in her explanations, then
hopefully the teachers and principals will take information into consider-
ation in order to improve the students’ results on the test while at the same
time help the students to really “learn” from the lessons they are taught.
A Prospective Teacher’s Dilemma
Finally, one respondent related to her own situation the questions raised in
the case. The multiple issues raised in the case resulted in confusion about
what she should really do if she were a teacher in this situation.
The problem that occurs in this situation is that there is not much you can
do. You can try, as an educator, to do your best in simply teaching what the
state wants you to teach. All too often, however, you find that this is more
difficult than they assumed. But because you are given so many boundaries
and so many specific guidelines, you are pretty stuck. I personally do not
know what I would do in such a situation. I would think that one option
might be to present your issues and a solution to the school board. Another
way would be to creatively come up with ways to incorporate all the
important details into your lesson plans so that you are doing the most
adequate job you can. This brings up a really deep issue. How do you work
around legislation that has been proposed and enacted? How do you make
sure you abide by all the rules that are given to you? It is definitely a very
difficult problem to consider and face as a teacher.
READER REACTIONS
68
The case was intended to illustrate how policy initiatives that mandate
“accountability” and “standardized testing” impact the ways in which
teachers think about and do mathematics teaching. Respondents to this
case raised many of the issues documented in a study conducted by Linda
McNeil (2000). In Contradictions of School Reform: Educational Costs of
Standardized Testing, McNeil provides a vivid account of what happens to
policy initiatives at the level of practice in real classrooms. She argues that
accountability by a single standardized test only serves to “reduce the
quality and quantity of what is taught and learned in schools” and “over
the long term, standardization creates inequities, widening the gap
between the quality of education for poor and minority youth and that of
more privileged students” (p. 3). There is some empirical evidence that
policies embodying some form of “accountability” can have a positive
impact on academic outcomes (Barnes et al., 2000; Cohen & Hill, 2000).
Nonetheless, her findings should alert us to the role that policy
makers, teachers, and other school participants may unwittingly play in
perpetuating educational inequities. Here are some questions to ponder:
1 How does the political context illustrated in the case impact how
math lessons are delivered in classrooms?
2 How might policies, like those mandating high stakes testing,
contribute to reform failure?
3 How might policies, like those mandating high stakes testing,
promote reform success?
4 When mathematics education reform policies fail, who gains?
Who loses? What are the implications for access to college pre-
paratory mathematics, particularly for poor and minority
students?
5 In a society that espouses democratic principles, what does
“accountability” look like if we are interested in promoting
students’ mathematical understanding in substantive ways?
6 How might teachers negotiate politically charged contexts in
ways that preserve their professionalism and promote substantive
learning about mathematics?
READER REACTIONS TO THE FOUR CASES
70
REACTIONS TO THE FOUR CASES 71
REACTIONS TO THE FOUR CASES
The following commentaries are about the cases as a whole. Respondents

contributed remarks that are largely personal reflections on teaching
mathematics from the perspectives of parent, principal, student,
grandparent, teacher, and school board member.
These were my thoughts as I read all the cases. First, the teachers did not
know how to teach. That’s evident with most teachers in America. Second,
the teachers have preconceived notions about minority students not being
able to learn difficult curriculum of any type. Poor math teachers become
defensive and blame the students and the parents.
My grandson started Jefferson Prep, a 7th- and 8th-grade middle school,
known as the district’s public/private school since one has to apply and be
selected through a lottery process for admissions. Grades are important but
the primary criterion is good behavior. The school only has a handful of
Black students. On his first day of school, our first encounter with the
principal and vice principal was very negative. They immediately saw my
grandson as “one more trouble maker and underachiever” without even
looking at his previous performance. They gave themselves away when the
VP saw my grandson talking to his White friend who was a well-behaved
student with high grades, and then asked ME how did my grandson know
this student? I was furious!
I guess I could go on for days about teachers, but one must remember
that they too don’t get any help from the administration, just demands
placed on them, while they are already struggling with their teaching
skills.
I agree with the teacher in “Culture and School Mathematics” who
said, “Math is math.” As for the middle school teachers in “Race and
Teacher Expectations,” non-English speaking students can learn math as
long as it is taught correctly. A teacher’s attitude along with enthusiasm
can go a long way. Students need to be challenged, made to be interested
in a subject in a fun way. Why should it be so much easier for a teacher
to teach White students than it was for him or her to teach Black students
or non-English speaking students? It’s all about attitude and teaching
skills!
—Grandmother
These are interesting scenarios for a non-teacher. I often wonder what

goes on in classrooms in our school district and wish there were easier
ways to assess the quality of individual teachers without threatening
them.
It seems to me that our schools are badly in need of fresh air, of attitudes
like the student teachers in these case studies, and that the older generation
needs to realize that demographics and student needs have changed, and it is
not effective to blame families and students for their failure to succeed at
the standards being thrust at them by state boards of education.
I’d like to see a wide ranging curriculum available for all teachers and
staff to open the way for conversations about how school can be more
interesting, challenging, and effective for all students. My own high-
achieving daughter is bored to death by most of her classes and finds high
school an extremely negative experience.
—School Board Member
Here is what I thought about as I read the cases. They pretty much made my
blood run cold as those examples pointed very much to the areas of my
failures as a teacher. My teachers in middle school and high school were all
White, had perfect control of the classes without any apparent (or memor-
able) methods—the students just seemed to behave and do their work. The
mathematics classes were always conducted the same way: go over last
night’s homework, pass it in, have a lecture on the “next topic,” see
examples on the board, do a few examples from the book and start on the
assignment with the time remaining. It seemed to me like a good way to
earn a living. I would get to stand in front of an audience and get paid for
what I liked to do best—solve math problems. From about two months into
my geometry class in my sophomore year of high school I knew what I was
going to do until I retired.
My experiences as a student in middle school and high school were
limited as we were “tracked” and I seldom had any contact with
students who weren’t “college bound.” I knew I was “going to college”
from the time I was two years old (“You need to learn to tie your own
shoe laces because who’s going to do it for you when you go to college?”,
etc.).
My student teaching consisted of five weeks in a predominately White
school teaching chemistry classes that had been in session about six weeks
before I got there. I gave my lectures and they did the work—a piece of cake.
I learned nothing.
My methods of teaching “worked” for me as long as I was given the al-
gebra and the classes above algebra. When I “got stuck” with some middle
school math classes which, to make things worse, had some non-English
speaking Cuban exile students in them, my usual “methods” failed me and I
was an embarrassment to myself, my students, the rest of the faculty, and the
administration. I had nothing to fall back on to help me recover the year.
June eventually arrived and everyone sighed with relief.
As time passed and I had taught more classes of that nature, I developed
some methods of diversifying my lessons and getting the students more
involved in the classroom work. Madeline Hunter2 lectured at our district in

about 1980 and I kept a 3 × 5 card with the basic steps of her method written
on it in the top right hand drawer of my desk from then until I retired. Ideas
like that helped me but I still had problems when my classes were large and
I had students who didn’t walk into my classroom with an attitude of being
prepared to sit quietly and soak up knowledge. (“I ain’t no schoolboy!”—
the response from a Black student in one of my basic math classes when I
urged him to pay attention—“Schoolboy” being a derogatory term used by
his peers and the last thing he wanted to be known as. I had no answer to
that.) About the only great experience I had with classes that were other
than the “cream” was in Austin, Nevada, where my classes ranged any-
where from 3 to 16 students. I could individualize and work with each
student who needed help every class period. But with 35 to 40 students in
“those classes” I would sometimes be just hanging on for dear life.
In California in the mid 90s I took classes in cultural knowledge and
teaching techniques and even received a little certificate. My district got
some kind of credit that I had done that but to actually use those methods in
my classroom was pretty much beyond me as I was already maxed out on
time and energy and simply did not have the energy or organizational skills
to implement many of the ideas presented.
—Retired, K-12 Mathematics and Science Teacher
The case studies illustrate many relevant and realistic issues for the math-
ematics teacher today. Each case paints a different aspect of the issues of
teaching mathematics in changing times of globalization. These matters are
relevant not only to the American schools, but schools throughout our
multicultural world. The case studies reminded me that as a teacher, I must
be changing with the times, which comes in the form of changing students,
changing reforms to teaching, and changing expectations of schools. My
view of students must not be affected by the cynicism perpetuated by the
profession and prior held prejudice. I was also reminded that mathematics
knowledge is not limited to certain groups of people, but accessible for all
people. Therefore, even if reforms are non-traditional and unfamiliar, it is
worth providing quality mathematics instruction to all students.
As the policy makers and administration try to address the needs of
changing communities, I realize that the demands of a teacher given by
higher authorities are heavier. However, I also think that collaboration and
accountability among the education community must be implemented. If
2 Madeline Hunter is most known for her seven-step lesson design that included objectives,
standards, anticipatory set, teaching (input, modeling, check for understanding), guided practice/
monitoring, closure, and independent practice.
reform can become reality, reading and discussing the issues raised by these
case studies are necessary.
—Middle School Mathematics Teacher
In reading the cases, I am struck by the fact that teacher attitudes about race
and culture have changed very little in the 22 years since I graduated from
high school. When I was a student, it was assumed that Black students
would not be placed in the higher math courses and only when a parent
protested, was a Black student placed in an appropriate class. It saddens me
to know that these attitudes persist.
The cases brought memories of the hurt and confusion that I felt in some
of my interactions with my teachers that I now recognize as racist behavior.
A White teacher tried to transfer me out of his class to another that was
predominately Black. It seemed that all of the Black students at that school
were in that class which was taught by a Black teacher. The only reason I
was not placed in that class was because the Black teacher refused to accept
one more student in her already overcrowded classroom. She taught only
remedial courses.
I remember being good at math—and enjoying it—in grade school.
When I reached 7th grade, that positive attitude turned into a math phobia.
At that time, we were given standardized tests to determine at which class
level we were to be placed: remedial, regular, accelerated or gifted. I did
very well on the standardized tests, scoring high above average in Lan-
guage, Social Studies, and the Sciences. I was placed in the classes for
“gifted” children in all of those subjects; however, my math scores were
well below average for my grade level. At some point, I had missed learning
fractions and could not complete the test. Instead of investigating why my
math scores were so low, the decision was made to put me in the accelerated
math class—algebra I. I did poorly in that class. My teacher assumed that I
was being lazy and inattentive and was very punitive in her dealings with
me. She never contacted my parents to discuss my difficulties and gave me
detentions when I could not complete my homework. Never did she ask me
if I understood the subject matter. She never gave me the extra tutorials that
she gave the other students. The White students were nurtured and sup-
ported while I was punished. I was the only Black student in the class. My
self-esteem took a nosedive. As a result, my performance in my other
classes declined. They kept me in the gifted classes because they needed at
least one Black student to keep up appearances. They even took pictures.
In my junior year in high school, the White students in my college prep
classes were meeting with the school counselors and deciding to which
universities they would apply. A school counselor never contacted me.
When I went to the counseling office to pick up college applications, a
counselor steered me toward the junior college applications. The White
students were taken by bus to an SAT preparation class during our Civics
course, while the one Latina student in the class and I were sent to the
library for a “free hour.” I only learned where my fellow students were
going when one of my friends showed me his SAT prep book. I had no idea
that such a thing existed.
I took the SAT without any preparation and without solid math know-
ledge. I scored in the top 5 of my senior class. A recruiter from Boston
University came to our school to interview another student and also asked
to see me. The school administration was flabbergasted. I finally received
attention from the counselors and the assistant principal credited the school
for my high score. I was paraded in front of the Superintendent of Schools.
No one mentioned the fact that I scored relatively low on the math portion
of the SAT—except the recruiter from Boston University.
I know now that my 7th-grade algebra teacher was terrible at teaching
math and could not answer the conceptual questions I had about algebra. I
was labeled as an “underachiever,” a label that would follow me through
high school. The math phobia that plagues me to this day feels almost like a
disability. It very much influenced many of the decisions that I made
regarding my undergraduate and graduate studies and even my career.
—Social Worker Administrator
These cases resonate with my experiences as a White mathematics teacher

in a variety of school settings where I have come to see culture as inextric-
ably linked to teaching mathematics. In my experience, the comments and
attitudes expressed by teachers in the vignettes are not atypical. Myths and
stereotypes about students whose cultural backgrounds differ from the
dominant White, middle class culture abound. If mathematics teaching is to
improve for all students, teachers must realize that the attitudes and beliefs
that they bring to the mathematics classroom are cultural and may affect
their students in both positive and negative ways. Teachers need to spend
time learning about the lives of their students, particularly if they are from
different ethnic, race, or class backgrounds. Teachers need to work to
develop classrooms where student differences can be seen as strengths, and
a variety of approaches is seen as desirable.
—High School Mathematics Teacher
What I have seen over my many years in schools is that all of us have
comfort levels with mathematics and with risk taking. This is true for
students, teachers, administrators, and parents. I have seen teachers who are
risk takers but with weak conceptual mathematics backgrounds who have
become remarkable mathematics teachers, inspiring students to become
critical problem solvers. Often they say they learn by teaching. Sometimes
these are the best teachers. Of course there are brilliant mathematicians.
Unfortunately, this does not necessarily make them good math teachers
since they cannot create the opportunity and environment for others to
construct mathematical meaning. If students are given an opportunity to
play with mathematics and discuss best practices for creating mathematics
learning communities; and if administrators know how to support this; and
if parents are honored in this mix; then there is hope for change. It is a big
process. I have seen it work. It takes time and a dedicated leader who
understands the urgency for children and a learning community that does
not allow Mrs. Carlton to label Benjamin as a special education student
without formative information, or Mr. Barker to never link grouping activ-
ities to the exercises that follow them, or never leave time for Mr. Lawson to
really explain to Mr. Robinson exactly what he meant when he said, “Oh
you mean the multicultural thing. I think it’s pretty cool.”
—Retired Teacher and Principal, Dual Language Elementary School
II
PUBLIC ARGUMENTS
In Part I, you read the responses to four cases that use school mathematics
as a context for exploring the historical, social, and political dimensions of
schooling. These cultural dimensions of schooling, particularly of teach-
ing and learning, are absent from many teacher education programs. In
addition to learning theories and designing lessons, prospective and prac-
ticing teachers ought to be engaged in on-going discussions about how
cultural contexts influence the forms that mathematics curricula take and
who gets to learn mathematics. Should all eighth graders take algebra?
What is the role of culture in learning mathematics? How does a teacher’s
race or class bias (unwittingly or not) play out in mathematics classrooms?
How does high stakes testing affect the quality of educational experiences
for teachers and students? Most importantly, what is the democratic justi-
fication for any educational decision? These questions are not trivial.
Their answers have moral, ethical, political, and economic implications
for our nation. The cases were intended to spark discussions that should
remain the centerpiece of any teacher’s professional development and
understanding about what it means to be a teacher in a democratic society.
However, one must have a historical context for discussing these
important questions. The history of schooling in the U.S. has largely con-
sisted of the struggles for equality of educational opportunity. In 1868 the
14th amendment to the constitution gave full citizenship to former Black
slaves. But it was not until 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
that the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that separate but equal schools for
77
Black and White children was unconstitutional. In 1974, U.S. Federal

Judge W. Arthur Garrity ruled that the Boston School Committee was in
violation of Brown v. Board of Education, resulting in violent desegrega-
tion wars. Hence, it should not be surprising that in the twenty-first
century, students in poor urban schools endure decaying facilities,
hyper-segregation, lack of monetary resources, and minimally qualified
teachers. These conditions contribute to underperformance of students in
these schools. These appalling conditions often have been characterized as
an “urban” problem. These conditions and the poor achievement results
they produce, however, are a symptom of a larger problem that extends to
all schools, including those in suburban and rural communities. Notwith-
standing the inequities of the larger culture and underperformance in other
subject areas, the focus of this volume is the teaching and learning of
school mathematics.
The cases in this volume illustrate the cultural embeddedness of the
issues involved in making decisions about mathematics curricula, teach-
ing, and learning. Part II offers public arguments that comprise the claims
and debates we encounter in print and television media, state legislatures,
boards of education, school board meetings, and school hallways and
corridors. Part II offers three different lenses in which to interpret the
responses you encountered in Part I. Three labels serve as public argu-
ments—“conservative,” “liberal,” and “radical multiculturalist.” They
have been crafted so as to represent a broad spectrum of views, both across
and within each orientation. In the conservative orientation mathematics
for maintaining global economic prominence is emphasized. Equity and
access to challenging mathematics is highlighted in the liberal perspec-
tive. The radical multicultural perspective emphasizes school mathematics
as a way to develop critical dispositions for solving social problems.
These views not only represent public arguments regarding culture,
schooling, and teaching mathematics, they also capture features of how we
view our social realities and the implications for our relationships with
others in the world. It is hoped that an examination and discussion of these
public arguments will enable you to make further sense of the claims
heard and read daily, and that you articulate and understand better your
own views. Your individual views will not fit easily into any one of these
“slots.” We are complicated beings. It is more likely that you will find that
you share ideas and sentiments with two and probably all three of the
public arguments. To that end, you are encouraged to “enter” into each
point of view understanding it on its own terms and to also look at each
one with some distance and skepticism.
Additional general and specific questions and issues appear after each
MATHEMATICS FOR GLOBAL ECONOMIC LEADERSHIP 79
public argument. Public arguments are linked to the case studies in Part I
with the hopes of generating more discussion of the particular incidents.
You are encouraged to explore further these positions. It is hoped that
these linkages will enable further discussion of the particular incidents in
Part I and the general claims made in Part II.
A “CONSERVATIVE VIEW”: MATHEMATICS FOR

GLOBAL ECONOMIC LEADERSHIP
Introduction
In an increasingly technological age, it is crucial that our children can

perform basic computation skills with mastery. In addition to basic com-
putation skills, the nation’s children should be able to solve problems
involving percents, ratios, and finding the areas of polygons.
Unfortunately, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
consistently documents that our students cannot perform these basic
skills. The following problem was an item on the 1996 NAEP test. It was
administered to twelfth-graders.
The population of the United States is approximately 250 million, and the
national debt is approximately 4 trillion dollars. If this debt were divided
equally among the population, what would be the debt, in dollars, per
person?
Only 39 percent of twelfth-graders, from a sample that included stu-

dents from public and private high schools, were able to correctly answer
this question. If 12th-grade students cannot correctly solve a long division
problem, then our students are not being well prepared to pursue
advanced math and science courses. If they don’t have the basic skills
necessary for these courses, then there will be no students for the math
and science professions that are an essential aspect of our thriving econ-
omy. Such a situation threatens our nation’s economic survival and global
prominence.
Progressive educators such as liberals, radicals, and multiculturalists
worsen matters when they criticize us for wanting a mathematics curric-
ulum that focuses on basic skills knowledge. They accuse us for not
attending to children’s cultures and emotional needs. This is simply not
true. We believe that in the United States every child, no matter race,
creed, or color, has the opportunity to succeed. Though we believe that
certain groups have unfairly suffered in this country, we also believe that
with individual initiative and drive, any member of a group can rise above
his or her conditions. Social progress is dependent upon the hard work of
individuals in our society. We must remember that this great nation was
built upon the hard work of many individuals escaping persecution or
economic hardship in their native countries.
It is true that we do not believe that infusing multiculturalism into
mathematics improves student learning. Instead, we believe that common
cultural values serve as the glue that holds together our society as one
undivided nation. We believe in schooling that provides the most talented
and hardworking individuals with the tools needed to become economic-
ally productive members of the society. In addition, schools should social-
ize children into adult roles to uphold the laws of the land and schools
should transmit our nation’s history, traditions, and values that make this
land great. Below, we elaborate our position about the role of mathematics
in our schools.
Differences, Harms, and Wrongs
If we want to maintain our leadership in the global economy, mathematics

must be a core aspect of the curriculum. Progressive attempts to reform
the nation’s mathematics curriculum threaten our economic leadership.
Progressive educators criticize us for wanting a mathematics curriculum
that focuses on basic skills knowledge. Progressive attempts to reform the
curriculum, as exemplified in the Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM],
2000), have resulted in “fuzzy” or “feel good” mathematics where
students do not learn the basic facts and computational skills. In fact,
the curriculum is bereft of any real mathematics knowledge. This is
harmful to our youth and our nation. We think Dr. William G. Quirk, a
mathematician, said it best:
If our kids never learn the importance of remembered knowledge, and if

they are programmed to think that memorization and practice are not neces-
sary, then what happens if they somehow reach medical school and need to
quickly memorize thousands of facts from Gray’s Anatomy? It’s difficult
enough even with the traditional preparation of the mind. This is not just
about kids who go to medical school. The current reigning educational
philosophy is dangerous for all our children. If they are to be successful in
life, they must effectively use the amazing knowledge-storing power of their
brains. Are we really going to continue to let today’s educationists program

our kids to believe that remembering specific knowledge is a bad idea, and
that computer “tools” and “look-up skills” are the key to success in busi-
ness, professional life, and personal knowledge-based interests? Who will
build bridges in the 21st century? If current trends continue, the answer will
be Asians and Europeans. They still believe in knowledge transmission and
the critical importance of specific, remembered knowledge. They still stand
in awe of the amazing knowledge-storing power of the human brain, and
they’re leaving us in the academic dust, even though they typically educate
40+ students in their classrooms.3
Multiculturalists believe that schools should pay attention to the cul-

tural differences of every possible group. With this attention, the
curriculum becomes an endless list of harms and wrongs inflicted onto
every group. This balkanization leads to social fragmentation; it divides us
rather than unites us. Multiculturalists also believe that adding “culture” to
the mathematics curriculum will improve achievement for students who
have historically under-performed. The problem with this claim is that
mathematics is an objective discipline comprising universal principles
and facts that always hold, no matter a child’s culture. One’s national
origin or race-ethnicity has nothing to do with a student’s performance.
Instead, it is the responsibility of the family to instill the values necessary
to succeed in school and it is the student’s responsibility to work hard.
Schools are meritocracies that reward deserving students for their
academic efforts.
The Acclaimed Antidotes: Self-Esteem and the Multicultural

Mathematics Curriculum
Many liberals believe that schools should be child-centered. That is, they
believe that the school should develop a child’s self-esteem, promote a
culturally responsive curriculum, and understand the forces that work
against children. This represents a “child-as-victim” mentality. That is, the
child does not share the blame for failure. We believe this focus is an
incorrect view of the purposes of schooling and the processes of learning.
Schools do not exist as institutionalized therapy sessions and learning
should not focus on the learner’s self-concept or self-image. Claims that
3 See http://wgquirk.com/#who.
minority members need to understand their cultural roots through learning

more about their culture’s contributions to our subject matter and
knowledge base are misguided. And if one persistently views and treats
minority children as victims of a larger system of oppression these stu-
dents will never become empowered to act in constructive ways. Before
we elaborate our preferred educational program, we explore more fully the
three themes of self-esteem, a “multicultural” mathematics curriculum,
and children as victims.
Self-Esteem. There have been many attempts to improve mathematics

achievement by enhancing children’s self-esteem. The rationale for these
approaches goes something like this: Minority students do not do well in
school because “societal messages”—advertisements, media, school cur-
ricula—tell them that they are inferior to White middle class students.
These students, so the rationale goes, cannot learn if their self-esteem is
damaged. The solution has been to help students feel better about them-
selves. If they feel better about themselves, then they will learn. One
approach has been to make all curricula accessible to all students, since
tracking, it is believed by progressives, is harmful to low achieving stu-
dents’ self-esteem. In the last fifteen years, many states have mandated
that all students take algebra before graduating from high school. This
involves a large degree of de-tracking whereby students get placed in
courses with others representing a wide range of ability. Putting students
into challenging mathematics courses, who do not have the ability, prepar-
ation, or inclination to be successful, merely exacerbates the problem. It is
also harmful to high achieving students. Teachers have to slow down the
pace of learning, which prevents high achieving students from learning at
their potential. Dropping out or failing courses does not enhance self-
esteem. The key to improved minority achievement is not to put low
achieving students in rigorous mathematics courses to enhance their self-
esteem. Rather, the key is a curriculum that challenges students to use
their minds, disciplines their thinking, and rewards them for the work they
have accomplished and the standards they have achieved. We cannot
expect students to exceed beyond their potential. What we can do is pro-
vide all students with the necessary skills and the opportunities to practice
those skills. This is done through high quality instruction. Teachers who
set high expectations and who persistently push and prod students to reach
their potential are needed. Because schooling is a merit-based system,
those who work hard will be rewarded for their hard work. Therefore, low
achieving students will be able to move into courses with high achieving
students, if they work hard.
“Multicultural” Mathematics Curriculum. Another aspect of

building self-esteem, are attempts to make the mathematics curriculum
“multicultural.” A common theme is that in a diverse society the curric-
ulum needs to “honor” that diversity. Some of the more extreme adherents
of the multicultural orientation maintain that our existing curricular con-
tent is essentially “Eurocentric.” Supposedly, such a curriculum enhances
White people’s self-esteem while harming all others. It enables the White
majority to do well in school but creates obstacles for children of color.
According to this critique, the mathematics curriculum as currently
constituted represents a widespread Eurocentric bias in the cultural and
historical development of mathematics. This bias gives credit to White
European males as the progenitors of mathematical knowledge. In doing
so, it ignores the contributions of people of color.
Multicultural proponents also ignore the necessity for learning basic
facts. Instead, they prefer a curriculum based in “real world problems”
where children “construct” their own mathematical knowledge. The prob-
lem with “constructing” knowledge is that students may construct incor-
rect understandings. Without direct instruction, they may never learn to do
mathematical procedures correctly. We call this “fuzzy” mathematics,
including constructivist teaching techniques. As far as we are concerned,
not much of anything gets taught or learned. Teachers ought to stick with
proven techniques for mastery learning: memorization and repetition.
John Saxon (1982, 1984) is correct when he says that mathematics text-
books lack the opportunities for students to practice math skills. Teachers
teach the skills. The students are tested for mastery. Then the teacher
moves on to the next topic. Because students are not given an opportunity
to practice and master skills, these skills have to be retaught every year.
Constructivist teaching approaches and mathematics curricula focused on
conceptual understanding only contribute to the sorry state of affairs
regarding our students’ mathematics achievement. According to Saxon
(1984), “[t]hese books [work] so hard to instill understanding that they
[neglect] the teaching of skills whose mastery [require] considerable prac-
tice” (p. 12). Thus, student understanding is incomplete if they are unable
to get the correct answer.
Furthermore, no matter who influenced the development of mathemat-
ics, one must learn the basic math facts. The sum of 2 + 2 does not change
with cultural contexts. One can know that the Egyptians and the Mayas
had developed sophisticated mathematical understandings but still do
quite poorly in math. Simply adding the contributions of Arabs, Africans,
and women to the mathematics curriculum so as to have minority repre-
sentation in the curriculum bespeaks the worst type of tokenism. The
mathematics curriculum represents the basic skills and procedures that all
students should learn to enable their participation in maintaining a unified
culture and a strong economy. But all too often multicultural sloganeers
are enforcing a quota system; they are not enhancing our cultural under-
standing. As a result, a multicultural mathematics curriculum is watered
down, offering little substance and yielding little education progress.
Child as Victim. Minority student as victim is the negative result of

this unwarranted focus on self-esteem and the push for a multicultural
curriculum. Multicultural literature provides a distorted view in which the
world is populated by two types of people: the oppressors and the
oppressed—the dominant class and the victims. The problem with this
view is the victims are not active agents and therefore play no role in
improving their conditions. We have already acknowledged that many
minority groups have experienced hardships that others have not endured.
And certainly even today some minority students face hardships that
others do not have to confront. But when students begin to see themselves
as victims they blame their entire situation on others—they claim that they
are the victims of societal injustices. In doing so they shift the onus of
responsibility onto others: They shoulder no blame and believe themselves
to be innocent. With such a view of things, it is difficult to see how these
students will better learn mathematics, take advanced mathematics courses,
and gain admissions into colleges and universities. When students see them-
selves as victims, they will not achieve in school, let alone mathematics.
It seems to us that much of the current focus on culture in schools
serves little educational purpose. In fact it appears that many of the multi-
cultural mathematics programs and proposals detract from rather than
enhance students’ educational progress. Next, we outline briefly what is
required of all schools and of all students (regardless of color) so that
everyone has a fair chance of academic success.
Our Plan: Academics and Character for All
We believe that academics, especially subjects like mathematics, are

essential components of the core curriculum. We have argued that a focus
on culture and self-esteem undermines the school’s mission, the child’s
sense of worth, and ultimately the country’s economic future. In these
increasingly changing times, much is at stake. National comparisons such
as NAEP and international comparisons like the TIMSS indicate that our
students perform poorly when compared to students from other countries.
If we plan to remain a global power, this cannot continue. We propose a

mathematics curriculum where every child acquires basic skills know-
ledge. We are not alone in our beliefs. Mathematically Correct, a parent
advocacy group concerned with improving mathematics education, has
outlined a curriculum that we find appropriate. For kindergarten through
6th grade, they recommend mastery in the areas of number sense, number
facts, comparison and fractions, measurement, graphing, time and money,
patterns and geometry. They also outline mastery standards for pre-
algebra, algebra I, and geometry, subjects typically taught at middle
school and high school. We share with you a portion of the curriculum
outline for kindergarten and 6th grade on number sense.
Number Sense
Kindergarten
The student will . . .
• K-1 count in various ways including counting objects up to 12,
counting by ones up to thirty-one and backwards from ten, skip count-
ing by fives and tens to 50 and by twos up to ten (2 to 10 and 1 to 9)
• K-2 identify written numbers from 0 to 31
• K-3 select the correct numeral to indicate a quantity from 0 to 9,
trace over the numeral, and write the numeral
• K-4 select a reasonable order of magnitude from three given
quantities—a one-digit number, a two-digit number, and a three-digit
number (e.g., 5, 50, and 500)—for a familiar situation
• K-5 identify ordinal positions from first to fifth using concrete
objects
Sixth grade
The student will . . .
• 6-1 read, write, and order positive and negative decimals to the
nearest hundred-thousandth
• 6-2 write decimals in expanded form and write numbers in
expanded form with scientific notation
• 6-3 round whole numbers to the nearest ten through million
• 6-4 round decimals (and decimal quotients) to the nearest whole
number, tenth, hundredth, and thousandth
• 6-5 read and evaluate numerical expressions with exponents
• 6-6 identify powers of 10 to 106
• 6-7 compare positive and negative decimals, mixed numbers,
whole numbers and fractions with like and unlike denominators, using
the signs <, >, and =, including scientific notation4
4 The full text of the curriculum outlines can be retrieved from http://mathematicallycorrect.com/
kprea.htm.
We believe, as do concerned parents, that every child should be able to

add, subtract, multiply, and divide. College preparatory mathematics must
be made available for the students who are the most capable and the most
hard-working. Our economy is dependent on the intellectual talent of the
students who have the capacity to pursue math and science professions.
However, there is another essential component to our plan. While cogni-
tive growth is important, so is character development. We would do better
to focus on character development than focus on a multicultural
mathematics for a child’s self-esteem. As we have argued before, a focus
on multicultural mathematics curriculum in the interest of promoting a
child’s self-esteem merely victimizes the child. We do believe that the
school should keep a watchful eye on the child’s emotional well-being,
but we think this is better accomplished through character education.
Students must learn what it means to pull oneself up by the bootstraps if
they are to achieve the American dream. They must be able to persevere in
the face of adversity, delay the desire for immediate gratification, and be
honest and respectful of authority. These character aspects are necessary
for success in the workforce. The school’s focus on academic knowledge
and character education will provide skilled workers enabling our nation
to maintain global economic prominence.
COMMENTS AND QUESTIONS
“The Conservative View and You”

General Questions
1 What aspects of this public argument seemed to capture your

understanding of the culture in mathematics debate?
2 With what aspects of the debate did you disagree? Why?
Specific Questions
1 What comprises the mathematics curriculum that conservatives

propose?
2 Would a recognition of and value for cultural differences neces-
sarily diminish mathematics curriculum? If so, how?
3 Does the route to self-esteem offered by conservatives entail a
denigration of some students’ cultures? How so or why not?
COMMENTS AND QUESTIONS 87
In the next few paragraphs, the case studies are briefly summarized and
analyzed according to the conservative view just outlined. Do you think
the analysis fits with a conservative view of each case? Why or why not?
After considering each analysis, do you still feel the same way about the
conservative view?
“Race and Teacher Expectations”
Conservatives might say that Mrs. Carlton’s concern with Benjamin’s

behavior and poor academic performance is legitimate. A child’s bad
behavior is harmful to the learning environment. When the teacher has to
address bad behavior, it requires a good deal of instructional time. This
situation negatively impacts the learning of children who are well-behaved
and want to learn. Therefore, it is important to remove behavior problems
from the classroom as soon as possible. As for Anna’s dilemma, she
should not share her case study with Mrs. Carlton. Benjamin’s
mathematical competency outside of school is interesting. However, his
performance inside the classroom is what counts.
“Mathematics for All?”
Conservatives might say that it is unreasonable to expect all children to

learn algebra. Since children have different strengths and abilities, the role
of the school is to ensure that the best and the brightest students receive
the necessary education to ensure the nation’s economic productivity.
Some might support a stratified curriculum in algebra that accommodates
students’ varying levels of achievement. With this scheme, all students
would learn some algebra, while the best and brightest would learn college
preparatory algebra. Many conservatives would say that it is most import-
ant for the school’s growing Latino population to learn to speak English
and to learn about our common American culture.
“Culture and School Mathematics”
Conservatives might say that Mr. Lawson is correct to be dismayed by the

district’s proposal to embed multiculturalism in a discipline like math-
ematics. Conservatives believe that simply adding the contributions of
non-European groups results in a watered-down curriculum, bespeaks
the worst type of tokenism, and undermines the foundations of a

unified culture and economy. All children need to learn basic math skills.
Introducing “culture” in the mathematics curriculum will not achieve
this goal.
“Politics and School Mathematics”
Conservatives might support a “balanced approach” to mathematics teach-

ing. They view standardized tests as useful tools to hold schools account-
able for students’ learning. Therefore, it is a good idea to share test-taking
strategies with teachers, the Daily Time Management chart, and content
standards aligned with the district’s textbooks so that district scores
improve. Most likely, they would not be supportive of Professor Jordan’s
problem solving approach to mathematics teaching. The teachers should
be most concerned about making sure that the students memorize the
values of the places in our numeration system, since this level of
understanding is regarded as basic skills.
A “LIBERAL VIEW”: EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY AND

SCHOOL MATHEMATICS IN A DEMOCRACY
Introduction
Like the conservatives, we liberals, too, believe in a market capitalist

economy. However, a market economy is prone to cycles of recession. We
believe that if the free market is left unregulated, it will disadvantage the
most vulnerable groups of our society. Therefore, it is necessary for our
government to intervene. This minimizes the harmful consequences of
economic downturns. Rather than focus on educating our youth to main-
tain global economic leadership and ensuring a “common” culture, we
believe that schools should focus on providing equality of opportunity and
honoring the diverse cultures of the children who attend our schools.
Schools should socialize children in ways that promote a healthy and
thriving multicultural and just world. We are most concerned with educat-
ing a citizenry for full participation into a democratic society. Unlike
conservatives with their focus on individual initiative, we believe that
individual effort alone is not always sufficient to overcome adverse life
circumstances. If we are concerned about fair treatment for all citizens and
economic stability, then the government is responsible for economic and
EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY AND SCHOOL MATHEMATICS IN A DEMOCRACY 89
social interventions. We liberals, unlike conservatives, seek a balance

between the needs of the individual and the needs of the society.
Equality of Opportunity in the United States
As liberals, we acknowledge that our democracy and capitalist economic

systems are imperfect. Despite the flaws, we believe that our system has
provided economic and social mobility far better than any other system in
the world. Nonetheless, we must continue to improve. Our nation has
taken great strides to do just that. The University of Iowa, in 1856, was the
first to admit women. Shortly thereafter, Vassar, Wellesley, and Smith
Colleges were founded. Historically Black Colleges and Universities such
as Howard University in Washington, D.C. and Hampton Institute in
Virginia were established with the help of the Freedman’s Bureau in 1868.
At the same time, laws operated to limit civil rights. Plessy v. Ferguson, an
1896 Supreme Court decision, upheld a Louisiana law that segregated
railway passengers by race. Known as the “separate but equal” doctrine, it
wasn’t overturned until 1954 in the landmark Brown v. Board of Education
when the Supreme Court ruled that legalized racial segregation of schools
was unconstitutional. Unfortunately, the “separate but equal” doctrine
contributed to producing a set of inequitable conditions that we continue
to address to this day.
Equity and School Mathematics
School mathematics is just one example of how far we still need to go to

improve inequitable educational conditions. Tate (1997) examined
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) trends assessments
for 1973, 1978, 1982, 1986, 1990, and 1992. He reported good news and
bad news. The good news was that all three racial-ethnic groups showed
growth in mathematics proficiency. The bad news was that the data
showed large differences between the achievement of White students and
that of African American or Latino students at all age levels. Tate reported
that on average, by age 17, no racial-ethnic group was performing at the
highest performance level. This finding is especially disturbing since these
trends assessments are largely basic skills examinations. The NAEP 1999
trends assessment reports on what seems to be a chronic achievement gap.
In 1999, 17-year-old African American students performed significantly
better than 17-year-old African American students in 1982. Though not
significant there was a 6-point drop in scores between 1992 and 1999.
However, the gap between the performance of White and Black 17-year-
olds had widened. In 1990, the difference in scores between these popula-
tions was 21 points. In 1999, the difference in scores was 31 points. The
gap has been reported as not statistically significant.
The most recent long-term trends assessment (U.S. Department of
Education, 2005) reports that while 9-year-old and 13-year-old African
American and Latino students have made statistically significant gains in
closing the racial achievement gap, 17-year-old African American and
Latino students have not. Compared to the 31-point difference in 1999,
there remains a 28-point difference between White and Black 17-year-old
students. Compared to a 22-point difference in 1999, there remains a
24-point difference between White and Latino students. These gap differ-
ences are not statistically significant. The trends data do show that the gap
has narrowed significantly since 1973. Nevertheless, the racial achieve-
ment gap continues to be a persistent problem.
Opportunity to Learn Mathematics. To what do we attribute these

differences in achievement scores? There are a number of things, but it
should be no surprise that a student’s exposure to advanced mathematics
is related to his or her performance on standardized tests such as NAEP.
NAEP 1999 trends assessment documented that 13-year-olds taking alge-
bra scored higher, on average, than students taking pre-algebra. Those
taking pre-algebra scored higher than those taking regular mathematics. A
similar relationship was documented for 17-year-olds. NAEP reported
that since 1978 all groups are taking more advanced mathematics courses.
There remains, however, some discrepancy between groups. NAEP 2004
trends assessment reported that 71 percent of White students had taken
algebra II or calculus, while 68 percent of Black students and 63 percent
of Latino students had taken the same courses.
Opportunities to learn challenging mathematics are impeded by a
common school practice called tracking. Implicit in tracking practices is
the notion that making curriculum accommodations based on students’
differences in ability is a fair way to do schooling in a democracy. After
all, we expect students to have different abilities and talents. To many
Americans and certainly to conservatives, it seems to be a good idea. High
school graduates eligible for admissions into four-year colleges and uni-
versities are beneficiaries of tracking practices, since they take college
preparatory and advanced placement courses. On the other hand, tracking
practices place a good number of students, mostly poor and minority, in
non-college preparatory courses. The students, differentiated by race and
class, are enrolled in programs and courses that at best prepare students
for low-level occupations. Unfortunately, tracking differentiates curric-
ulum, producing a variety of forms of school mathematics that preclude,
for many, any real opportunities to learn high quality mathematics. Cogan
and his colleagues (2001) used TIMSS data to examine U.S. eighth
graders’ opportunities to learn mathematics. They concluded that the
rationale for tracking–individual student differences—was not an ade-
quate explanation for the curriculum differentiation that they observed in
8th-grade classrooms. The bottom line is that too many children do not
have opportunities to learn challenging mathematics.
Our Plan: Affirming the Child, Diversity, and Democracy
The Child and the Curriculum. Conservatives advocate a “social

Darwinism” where groups and individuals succeed or fail according to
their own intelligence and efforts. They also place little value in the child’s
socio-emotional well-being and the experiences that children bring to the
classroom. A liberal perspective places the child at the center of his or her
educational experiences, a perspective that has its origins in the phil-
osophy of John Dewey. In The Child and the Curriculum (1956), first
published in 1902, Dewey wrote about the tendency for educative
processes to pit “the child” against “the curriculum,” an idea that informs
our approach to mathematics education. Dewey argued that the fixed and
ready-made curriculum imposed on children stood in sharp contrast to
how the child experienced his or her everyday life. The child lives in a
world that he or she experiences through social experiences. It is a world
of personal and social interests without the hard divisions of subject mat-
ter disciplines, which fractionate the world into bodies of knowledge,
comprising abstractions and sets of facts. These facts, said Dewey, exist
without reference to the original experience that gave rise to such facts.
They are decontextualized and without any meaning in the child’s own
experience. According to Dewey, “[t]he child is the starting point, the
center, and the end. His development, his growth, is the ideal. It alone
furnishes the standard [for curriculum decisions]” (p. 9).
Dewey co-wrote with Georgia Alexander (Alexander & Dewey, 1921)
an elementary arithmetic textbook. It lists a number of suggestions for
teachers that are consistent with his ideas. Here are several of them:
• Introduce new ideas inductively and through situations that are

vitally interesting to the child. This can be best be done by a
generous use of dramatization. In dramatization throw the bur-

den of suggestion upon the pupils. The ingenuity fostered when
children transform schoolroom furniture or construct, at home,
playthings for school use, is of inestimable value to them. More-
over, the lesson thought out by twenty-five little minds is far
richer in suggestive material than one which only the teacher
plans. Insist on play for the sake of number—not for mere
amusement. Require the utmost courtesy at all times.
• Follow concrete and objective presentation with objective illus-
tration. In beginning classes use sticks, seeds, shoe pegs, etc. to
make all classes familiar with representation through group
counters [. . .].
• Teach the child to estimate answers before beginning to figure,
and to use his common sense on all occasions. What was the
difficulty in the case of the pupil who gave 238 years as the
answer to the following: “My uncle is 7 years older than my aunt,
who is 34 years old. How old is my uncle?” Give frequent exer-
cises in which the pupils do nothing but estimate answers in
round numbers, or in which they merely indicate the process by
which the answer is to be obtained.
• Put a premium on the original solution of a problem. Commend
highly the child who has ingenuity enough to see two or more
correct methods.
(Alexander & Dewey, 1921, pp. ix–x)
With Dewey’s ideas in mind, we believe that it is important to teach

mathematics that builds on the child’s prior knowledge and experiences.
For example, young children learn to count before entering kindergarten.
They know nursery rhymes and counting songs. Even when a young child
can count to 100 with ease, the child’s understanding of number relation-
ships still needs to be developed. When using concrete objects does the
child understand that each spoken number corresponds to one object in the
set? Does the child understand that 5 is one more than 4 and one less than
6? Can the child provide equivalent representations of a number? Building
on what children already know about numbers can develop these ideas.
Children can write their own counting song about the number 6, for
example. They can do a math walk around their neighborhood to find
objects that depict mathematical ideas. We claim that there are learning
activities built upon children’s experiences that promote meaningful
mathematical learning. We do not eschew worksheets or practice, as
conservatives claim. Even Dewey’s “progressive” philosophy, often

referred to pejoratively, calls for practice. “Follow the concrete introduc-
tion with objective illustration. Use large perception cards for this pur-
pose” (Alexander & Dewey, 1921, p. ix). We merely believe that there are
meaningful ways in which children can learn and practice mathematics.
Diversity. We believe in a multicultural curriculum that respects dif-

ferences, diversity, and honors the child. The child as the starting point
necessitates that we attend to the child’s culture, be it class, racial origins,
national heritage, or otherwise. How can we educate children without
accounting for who they are? Conservatives reduce multicultural math-
ematics curriculum to the addition of mere cultural curiosities of the
mathematics of ancient peoples. They claim that such an approach waters
down the curriculum since basic skills do not get taught. Conservatives
misunderstand our goals for mathematics education and schooling in a
democracy. Like the conservatives, we believe that the curriculum is an
important aspect of schooling. We don’t believe, however, in the inherited
curriculum that conservatives advocate since it emphasizes only Western
intellectual traditions. The curriculum should balance Western intellectual
traditions with the intellectual traditions of other groups. In an increas-
ingly multicultural society, such balance is important if we want our
democracy to survive.
Democracy. Like Dewey, we believe that both the curriculum and the
child’s needs and experiences are equally important. Too often the child’s
needs are left out of the equation. We believe that the teacher’s central task
is to meet the needs of all students with a mathematics curriculum that
honors the contributions of diverse cultures to the field. This can be done
without sacrificing basic skills knowledge. In fact, we believe that provid-
ing a historical and cultural context for the mathematical rules, pro-
cedures, and algorithms that we expect children to know enriches the
quality of their experiences in classrooms. In our plan, all children would
have equality of opportunity to learn challenging mathematics. This may
require compensatory programs such as summer enrichment camps for
disadvantaged students; nevertheless, the goal must be to provide for all
the opportunity to learn challenging mathematics. Meeting children’s
needs entails democratic practice. For Dewey (1916/1944) democracy was
more than how one characterizes a governance structure. Democracy is
also shared and ongoing communication, a social pact among numerous
individuals of diverse shared interests who act only after considering the
implications of the ideas of others, actions that operate in others’ best
interests. According to Dewey, this kind of democratic practice “is equiva-

lent to the breaking down of those barriers of class, race, and national
territory which [have] kept men [and women] from perceiving the full
import of their activity” (p. 87).
“The Liberal View and You”
General Questions
1 What aspects of the liberal view seemed to promote your under-

standing of the culture in mathematics debate?
2 What aspects of the public argument did you find disagreeable?
Why?
Specific Questions
1 What comprises the mathematics curriculum that liberals

propose?
2 Would a recognition of and value for cultural differences neces-
sarily enhance the mathematics curriculum? If so, how?
3 Will de-tracking promote opportunities to learn challenging
mathematics? Why or why not?
4 How might tracking be used to provide opportunities for all
students to learn challenging mathematics?
analyzed according to the liberal view just outlined. Do you think the
analysis fits with a liberal view of each case? Why or why not? After
considering each analysis, do you still feel the same way about the liberal
view?
A liberal view recognizes that race is undeniably related to educational

outcomes. In a society that continues to be highly stratified by race, Mrs.
Carlton ought to consider the possibility that it may be her beliefs about
children of color that play a role in her ineffectiveness with Benjamin.
Anna should share her case study with Mrs. Carlton. This is not unreason-
able since it is likely that Mrs. Carlton would be interested in what the
university requires of its pre-service teachers. While Mrs. Carlton may not
recognize her own bias as she considers the case study, it may offer a way
for her to see Benjamin in a different light.
A liberal might say that all children can learn the algebra typically taught
in high school regardless of race, gender, linguistic, or socio-economic
background. It may be the case that some children, because of circum-
stances beyond their control, may require compensatory services to help
them learn algebra. If children are learning English as a second language,
the school should provide services in ways that do not undermine the
substance of academic courses. All children must have an equal opportun-
ity to succeed in school. A solid mathematics background is necessary for
informed participation in a democracy.
Liberals might embrace a multicultural approach to mathematics curric-

ulum and instruction. They believe that offering both a cultural and histor-
ical context for the basic skills that we expect children to know will enrich
their mathematical experiences. Such an approach to mathematics may
improve achievement of children of color, affirm the cultures of those
typically not depicted in the curriculum, and make mathematics more
meaningful. Multicultural goals are consistent with democratic goals.
Liberals, like conservatives, want to hold schools accountable for child-

ren’s learning. However, liberals might say that it should not be at the
expense of high quality teaching and high quality learning. The impact of
policy in this case is not acceptable since it reduces mathematics to basic
skills. This amounts to an impoverished curriculum that inadequately
serves democratic goals and equity issues in schooling. Liberals would be
sympathetic to Professor Jordan’s plight. They would advocate a “bal-

anced approach” to teaching mathematics, but not at the expense of prob-
lem solving.
A “RADICAL MULTICULTURALIST VIEW”: MATHEMATICS

FOR DEVELOPING CRITICAL DISPOSITIONS FOR SOCIAL
RECONSTRUCTION
Introduction
For years conservatives and liberals have been “reforming” schools. These
reform efforts have had minimal, if any, impact on curriculum and instruc-
tion. Nor have they improved the quality of learning experiences and
opportunity for the poor, minorities, and women. Our education system
continues to fail these groups. It perpetuates inequality of both opportun-
ity and achievement results. Conservatives and liberals place significant
responsibility on the school to improve these conditions. We, radical
multiculturalists, do not believe that the school bears sole responsibility
for these failures. We attribute these inequities to larger structural issues.
The urban school crisis, in particular, “is in large part a result of economic
and political devastation in cities” (Anyon, 1997, p. 13). Schools will
improve when our culture undergoes fundamental social change. That is,
we need to create an economic system and a governance structure that
eliminates the gross inequities that plague our society. In this regard, we
call ourselves “radicals.” Like liberals, and even conservatives, we believe
in a democratic government, though our version of government looks
most like a social democratic government.
We take a different view of the role of schooling. Conservatives believe
that the role of schooling is to produce skilled workers for global eco-
nomic prominence. Liberals believe that the school should educate cit-
izens for full participation in a democratic society. Unlike conservatives
and liberals, we believe that schooling, as it is currently practiced, repro-
duces the existing social order, a political and economic structure that
serves the interests of those with the most wealth and power.
Bennett (2001) elaborates four broad principles for multicultural educa-
tion that we find useful in explaining our radical multiculturalist
perspective:
(a) the theory of cultural pluralism; (b) ideals of social justice and the
end of racism, sexism, and other forms of prejudice and discrimination;
MATHEMATICS FOR DEVELOPING CRITICAL DISPOSITIONS 97
(c) affirmations of culture in the teaching and learning process; and (d)
visions of educational equity and excellence leading to high levels of aca-
demic learning for all children and youth.
(Bennett, 2001, p. 173)
Like many liberals and multiculturalists, we believe in cultural pluralism,

social justice and the end of all forms of prejudice and discrimination. We
believe that children’s culture should be affirmed in the teaching and
learning process. We believe that educational equity should lead to aca-
demic excellence for all children. However, we take things a step further
than many liberals and multiculturalists. Since we cannot get to the heart
of the matter, that is, change the economic system that creates our soci-
ety’s abundant inequities, we do support efforts to empower teachers and
parents, pedagogies that address diverse populations, and curriculum that
sensitizes students to racism, sexism, classism, and the voices of the
oppressed. Schooling’s primary function ought to be about educating
young people into critical dispositions so that they can participate in the
construction of a society that is just for all of us. At the school level, we
believe, this is the democratic endeavor.
Our Plan: Social Justice and Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching
Culture and School Mathematics Curriculum
“Ethnomathematics” makes the most explicit connection between math-

ematics and culture. Ubiratan D’Ambrosio, a Brazilian mathematician,
first used ethnomathematics in the late 1960s to describe the mathematical
practices of identifiable cultural groups. Ethnomathematics, then, is often
defined as the study of mathematics and the cultural practices in which it
arises. As an anthropological endeavor, some ethnomathematicians like
Claudia Zaslavsky (1990) concern themselves with descriptions of
numeration systems, patterns and forms in art and architecture, and math-
ematics in games, as well as the mysticism associated with the mathemat-
ics that existed on the African continent. Such scholarly studies of culture
and mathematics make obvious that mathematics is a cultural production.
The notion that mathematics is not culture-free is a very difficult pill for
many to swallow, despite the work of ethnomathematicians like Zaslavsky
and other researchers who document the role of culture in mathematical
thinking (e.g., Brown et al., 1989; Carraher et al., 1985; Lave, 1988; Nasir,
2000; Saxe, 1991). Culture matters. When conservatives say that 2 + 2 = 4,
no matter what the cultural context, they misunderstand a great many

things—the nature of knowledge, the historical development of mathemat-
ics, the role that culture plays in cognition, to name a few. We quote
generously from Ascher and Ascher (1997), because the anecdote they
present is a powerful illustration of how culture is the process of sharing
symbolic systems among group members and how this cultural process
matters as we interpret our daily realities.
The anecdote tells of an exchange between a native African Demara sheep-

herder and someone else variously described as an explorer, trader, scien-
tist, anthropometrist, or ethnologist. It is intended to show that the herder
cannot comprehend the simple arithmetic fact that 2 + 2 (or 2 × 2) = 4. It
describes how the herder agrees to accept two sticks of tobacco for one
sheep but becomes confused and upset when given four sticks of tobacco
after a second sheep is selected. Of course, the problem is not that the
shepherd doesn’t understand arithmetic, it is rather that the scientist/trader
doesn’t understand sheep. Sheep are not standardized units. Since the
Demara herder finally agreed to the trade, his confusion could be attributed
to the trader’s willingness to pay an equal amount for the second, different
animal.
Other than demonstrating two people talking past each other, the anec-
dote raises the issue of the difference between a mathematical concept and
its application. When inferring mathematical ideas from concrete usage,
one is always dealing with applications. It is recognized, for example, that
2 + 2 = 4 does not apply when discussing combining volumes of gases or
combining elements of overlapping sets. Even more important, as was rec-
ognized as early as 1912 by Wertheimer, the applicability of even the most
[sic] simplest of mathematical models becomes a question of cultural cat-
egorization. We say, for example, that 2 apples + 2 pears = 4 fruit, but 2
pants + 2 jackets = 2 suits. A while ago we might have said that 2 men + 2
women = 2 couples, but now we are careful to say that 2 men + 2 women = 4
people. Further, we believe there is meaning in 2 in. × 2 in. = 4 sq. in. but
not in 2 apples × 2 apples = 4 sq. apples. A question that has been posed by
Western scholars when trying to determine the universality of mathematics,
is whether or not 2 + 2 always equals 4. Once 4 is recognized as the name
for 2 + 2, the question becomes, as it is here, whether or not the model
applies. That question can have different answers in different cultures and
even different answers within the same culture.
(Ascher & Ascher, 1997, pp. 29–30)
We believe that understanding the role of culture in mathematics is

important. We also believe that the distorted history of the development of
mathematics perpetuates the hegemony of white racial superiority.
“Mathematics is perceived as an exclusive product of White men and

European civilizations” (Joseph, 1987, p. 16). Joseph tells us that the
common historical view is that pre-Greek mathematics lacked the intel-
lectual characteristics of what gets called mathematics in the present day.
Pre-Greek civilizations are viewed as “non-literate” peoples incapable of
abstract thought. Specifically, there is no evidence that those who prac-
ticed pre-Greek mathematics had a well-defined concept of “proof.”
According to this view, mathematics served mere utilitarian purposes
“such as the construction of calendars, parceling out land, administration
of harvests, organization of public works (e.g., irrigation or flood control)
or collection of taxes” (Joseph, 1987, p. 23). These rules and procedures
were carried out without “proof ” or even the recognition that “proof ” was
needed. This view trivializes the mathematical contributions of non-White
civilizations and represents an intractable historiographical bias that has
led to the widespread myth that scientific progress can be solely attributed
to White European males.
Hence, some ethnomathematicians and radical educators take a critical
view of the curriculum that children experience in schools. We believe that
the traditional curriculum is racist, sexist, and classist. It ignores the cul-
ture and history of the oppressed. It operates to homogenize groups into a
“common” culture and does not invite critical inquiry of the social prob-
lems that threaten our democracy. Ethnomathematics, then, is used as a
vehicle to correct what is considered to be a distorted cultural view of
mathematics and to uncover its hidden history. Mathematics, as is the case
with any kind of knowledge, does not exist separate and apart from its
historical and political contexts. Mathematics is used to stratify indi-
viduals by race and class as evidenced in most high schools across our
country. Mathematics is also used to deceive the ordinary citizen. Even
in traditional school settings, curricula focused on making students
consumer-savvy have used statistics to teach students a form of quanti-
tative literacy to show how the ordinary consumer can be misled by
numerical data. We must always ask how mathematics is being used, for
what purposes, and for whose interests.
Frankenstein (1990) has attempted to address race, class, and gender in
curriculum that mathematizes social problems. She calls this a critical
mathematical literacy curriculum.
Critical mathematical literacy involves the ability to ask basic statistical

questions in order to deepen one’s appreciation of particular issues. It also
involves the ability to present data to change people’s perceptions of
those issues. This critical understanding of numerical data thus prompts
individuals to question taken-for-granted assumptions about how a society

is structured and enables them to act from a more informed position on
societal structures and processes (in Frankenstein & Powell, 1990, p. 336)
Frankenstein has used real-life data with largely working-class urban

adults. They were non-traditional students in that they were over thirty
years of age, held full-time jobs, and most had families. As ways of
learning the “basic facts” knowledge that conservatives claim is missing
from mathematics curriculum, these students examined a variety of
numerical data including statistics on the distribution of wealth, income by
educational attainment, welfare for the rich and the poor. More import-
antly, these students acquired high-level reasoning skills that allowed
them to see how social and political conditions deny members of certain
groups access to worthwhile educational opportunities and careers.
According to Frankenstein and Powell (1994), this critical awareness
builds self-confidence and can lead to the social activism necessary to
improve current conditions.
Social Justice Pedagogy
As with Frankenstein’s critical ethnomathematical approach, teaching

mathematics for social justice endeavors to imbue students with critical
dispositions toward the social conditions in which they live. Gutstein
(2006) theorizes that there are three mathematics pedagogical goals. They
are “(1) reading the mathematical word, (2) succeeding academically in
the traditional sense, and (3) changing one’s orientation to mathematics”
(p. 24). However, these goals are not sufficient. Teaching mathematics for
social justice entails three additional goals: “(1) reading the world with
mathematics, (2) writing the world with mathematics, and (3) developing
positive cultural and social identities” (p. 24). For Gutstein, reading the
world with mathematics means to use mathematics to understand relations
of power, inequities in economic and educational resources, the ability to
deconstruct racialized myths and other forms of representation and to
examine such conditions in light of one’s own circumstances. “Writing the
world with mathematics means using mathematics to change the world”
(p. 27). This is much like Frankenstein’s (1990) approach. She helps adult
students use mathematics to become informed about their positions in the
larger social context, which comprises a vast array of inequities.
Culturally Responsive Pedagogy
Ethnomathematical and social justices approaches are similar to culturally

responsive pedagogies in that these pedagogies consider the role of culture
in teaching and promoting critical reflection. Culturally responsive peda-
gogies are known by several names: culturally relevant, centered, compat-
ible, sensitive, contextualized, reflective, congruent, synchronized, etc.
There is no one “right” way or a set of prescriptions for teaching in ways
that recognize and accommodate the experiences that children bring to the
classroom.
Gay (2000) defines culturally responsive teaching “as using the cultural
knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance
styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more
relevant to and effective for them. It teaches to and through the strengths
of these students” (p. 29). Using Gay’s rubric, culturally responsive teach-
ing is validating and affirming, comprehensive, multidimensional,
empowering, transformative, and emancipatory. Gay borrows from
Diamond and Moore (1995 as cited in Gay, 2000) as she discusses the
implications for the teacher’s role and responsibility for structuring
learning environments for underperforming students.
Teachers must be cultural organizers. That is, they must attend to and
understand how culture manifests in the quotidian realities of classroom
life and create learning environments that promote high-quality learning
for all students. Teachers must be cultural mediators. They must encour-
age dialogue about cultural conflict in ways that clarify and honor ethnic
identity and deconstruct racist myths and stereotypes. Teachers must be
orchestrators of social contexts for learning. This means teachers must
acknowledge that children’s cultural heritages and experiences influence
learning and seek pedagogical processes that build upon the socio-
cultural knowledge and frames of references that children bring to the
classroom.
Gay (2000), Hollins (1996), and others offer conceptual frameworks in
which to think about what it means to teach in culturally relevant ways.
Ladson-Billings (1994) makes concrete the dispositions and practices of
successful teachers of African American students in The Dreamkeepers.
Irvine (2002) presents a collection of scholars’ work that provides theor-
etical and practice-based explications regarding the influence of race and
culture on African American teachers. Tharp and Gallimore (1991) provide
a detailed theoretical and empirical account of teaching as assisted per-
formance whereby the teacher’s approach to language development and
literacy builds upon the experiences, backgrounds, and “talk-story,” the
conversation style of native Hawaiian children. This conceptual and empir-

ical work about productive pedagogies for students of color is but a small
part of the socio-cultural work concerned with culture and school learning.
Also, it is a subset of the research concerned with culture and cognition.
For example, Lave (1988) challenges traditional psychological views of
cognition, offering a socially-situated account as the analytic frame for
making sense of adults’ practice of everyday mathematics. Brown, Col-
lins, and Duguid (1989) make the case that the problem with school learn-
ing is that it is divorced from activity and cultural contexts. The result is
that it produces knowledge that is not useful, nor particularly robust.
Attending to cognition, cultural contexts, and activity, Geoffrey Saxe
(1991) documented the socio-cultural processes entailed in the mathemat-
ical thinking that emerged in Brazilian children selling candy on the
streets for economic survival. The work of these scholars contributes to
our understanding of the central role that culture plays in school learning.
African-Centered Pedagogy
We highlight Peter Murrell’s (2002) work because he advances a theory

that attempts to unify scholars’ ideas in the previous paragraphs and
similarly-minded others about educational practice in a diverse society.
Murrell theorizes about a coherent and unified system of instructional
practices that integrate the cultural dimensions of the African American
experience in ways that maximize the academic and personal development
of African American children. Murrell’s theory, African-centered
pedagogy, serves as a tool for understanding and accommodating the
actual lives of African American children, so that teachers can develop
“accomplished practice” (p. x) with African American children.
According to Murrell, accomplished teachers critically examine the
larger socio-political context of schooling. Teachers must ask, “How does
this practice or policy perpetuate the underachievement of African Ameri-
can learners?” (p. xvii). This kind of interrogation is a systemic approach
to addressing the poor academic performance of African American stu-
dents, since it requires that teachers must think beyond the child’s indi-
vidual abilities or family background. It is also important to note that
Murrell’s theory is a deliberate critique of multicultural education of the
kind promoted by liberals. Murrell says that the purpose of multicultural
literature is to help children appreciate differences and to embrace diver-
sity. Such literature is designed for White children to help them expand
their awareness of other ethnic and cultural groups. This approach does
not meet the needs of many African American children. Multicultural

education gets confused with “pedagogy for Black children.” When Black
children have to learn about diverse cultures, it is usually done at the
expense of learning about their own culture and the identity work that is
critical to Black children’s academic and personal development. As rad-
ical multiculturalists, we agree. It is imperative that schools provide the
space for Black children to recover their lost heritages and affirm their
identities in ways that facilitate their personal and academic growth.
Only then, can African American children re-imagine themselves as
participants in a just democracy.
As you can see there is nothing “feel good” or “fuzzy,” as the conserva-
tives claim, about a radical multicultural approach to school mathematics.
We do not reduce mathematics to mere cultural curiosities, nor do we
believe that a multicultural curriculum can remedy social inequities, as
liberals tend to think. Only restructuring the economic and governance
systems can do that. We do, however, promote curriculum focused on
correcting the distorted historical and cultural views of mathematics, that
builds on children’s cultural backgrounds, as Tharp and Gallimore have
done, and mathematizing social problems, as Frankenstein does, and that
employ pedagogies that sensitize all students to racism, sexism, classism,
and affirming their cultural identities. Such an approach educates students
into a critical disposition. Such a disposition enables informed participa-
tion in activities aimed at reconstructing an economic and governance
system that justly serves its citizens. As stated at the start, Bennett’s
(2001) principles concerning cultural pluralism, social justice, culture in
teaching and learning, and academic excellence for young people inform
our radical multiculturalist stance. This is not a “feel good” approach to
school mathematics. This is a rigorous approach, requiring considerable
intellectual work and moral courage. There is much work to do. We must
get on with it.
“The Radical Multicultural View and You”
General Questions
1 With what claims made in this public argument did you disagree?
Why?
2 What claims did you find compelling? Why?
Specific Questions
1 Do you think it is unreasonable to think that schools and their

teachers cannot change larger cultural and social structures?
Why or why not?
2 What might be the impediments to using curricula and peda-
gogical practices that encourage critical dispositions?
3 What might be the benefits to using curricula and pedagogical
practices that encourage critical dispositions?
4 Do you agree that a liberal notion of multicultural curriculum is
harmful to African American students? Why or why not?
5 Is African-centered pedagogy exclusionary? That is, does it leave
out non-African American students in its efforts to diminish
schooling inequities for African American students? Why or why
not?
analyzed according to the radical multiculturalist view just outlined. Do
you think the analysis fits with how a radical multiculturalist would view
each case? Why or why not? After considering each case, do you still feel
the same way about the radical multicultural view?
It is Anna’s responsibility to share her case study with Mrs. Carlton.

Teachers like Mrs. Carlton must face their assumptions about students,
particularly students of color, their family backgrounds and their ability to
learn. At least Anna is on the right track in recognizing that learning about
her students’ backgrounds is an important aspect of educating them.
The good news is that Tara is showing a disposition toward critical mind-
edness in questioning both the pros and cons of the mandate to teach
algebra to all eighth graders. The bad news is that she lacks the knowledge
to deal appropriately with the dilemmas she faced in the teachers’ meet-
ing. Was Tara aware of the racist beliefs that underlie many of the
teachers’ concerns? Is she aware that school mathematics differentiates
students, usually by race and class? If she leaves unquestioned a Eurocen-

tric view of mathematics and the role it plays in school, it is likely that she
will concede that the teachers are correct—a position that only reproduces
and perpetuates social inequities.
Mr. Robinson’s anger typifies a common response to situations that shake

a person’s foundation to its core. However, why is it that the responses are
often angry and belligerent? Why is it that people like Mr. Robinson label
honest efforts at inclusion or correcting the historical record as “political
correctness”? Just because Mr. Robinson speaks Spanish, doesn’t mean
he’s capable of meeting the needs of students, even Spanish-speaking
students. Unless he sheds his Eurocentric view of mathematics, he will
likely continue to disenfranchise many students.
It is already the case that traditional school mathematics distorts the cul-
tural and historical development of the discipline. The current policy
environment embodies a limited view of “standards” and “accountability”
that places teachers in the impossible situation of meeting the social and
educational needs of diverse students. In fact, it further distorts the math-
ematics that children learn in school. Professor Jordan ought to tell the
principal how both the traditional approach and the current policy
environment works against teachers and students. Teachers will not
improve their practices. Students will not learn substantive mathematics in
ways that honor who they are.
III
CONCLUDING REMARKS,
SOME REFLECTIONS, AND
RESOURCES FOR FURTHER
REFLECTION
THE CENTRALITY OF CULTURE: UNDERSTANDING

THE HISTORICAL, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL
DIMENSIONS OF SCHOOL MATHEMATICS
If mathematics educators take seriously the goal of equity, they must ques-
tion not just the common view of school mathematics but also their own
taken-for-granted assumptions about its nature and worth.
(George M. A. Stanic, 1989, p. 58)
This final section begins appropriately with George Stanic’s words since
they capture a central problem to overcome if we are serious about equity
and school mathematics. We hold many assumptions about mathematics
and mathematics as it is practiced in schools. As discussed in this book,
many of us assume that mathematics is a given, a static body of knowledge
invented by White men many years ago. We assume no relationship
between mathematics and culture, including the political ways in which it
is used. We believe that only some students are capable of learning
mathematics. And, furthermore, we assume that mathematics is a neces-
sary part of the school curriculum since we believe that our increasingly
technological society will require a mathematically literate citizenry.
These assumptions arise from our cultural circumstances, that is to say,
the historical, social, and political contexts in which we live our lives.
These taken-for-granted assumptions inform the ways in which we think
107
about mathematics, its nature, and worth. Case 3, “Culture and School
Mathematics” elicits questions such as, What is mathematics? It is just
one of many questions with which to grapple regarding the nature of
mathematics. Its worth encompasses important questions ranging from its
utilitarian to its moral purposes. When we grapple with these issues, it
becomes clear that our cultural assumptions are difficult to overcome. For
example, because we regard mathematics as high status knowledge, we
think that only certain individuals are entitled to the mathematics offered
in college preparatory, Advanced Placement, or gifted classes. The mere
suggestion that this assumption is fallacious, inequitable, or immoral
leaves us reeling since it is difficult to imagine an alternative way of
thinking about who gets to learn mathematics.
Equity, according to the Principles and Standards for School Math-
ematics (PSSM) (NCTM, 2000), is one of the six principles that constitute
the features of a high quality mathematics curriculum. Touted as a core
aspect of mathematics reform, the PSSM states that
[a]ll students, regardless of their personal characteristics, backgrounds, or

physical challenges, must have opportunities to study—and support to
learn—mathematics. Equity does not mean that every student should
receive identical instruction; instead it demands that reasonable and
appropriate accommodations be made as needed to promote access and
attainment for all students.
(NCTM, 2000, p. 12)
According to PSSM we can accomplish equity when
[t]eachers communicate expectations in their interactions with students dur-

ing classroom instruction, through their comments on students’ papers,
when assigning students to instructional groups, through the pressure or
absence of consistent support for students who are striving for high levels of
attainment, and in their contacts with significant adults in a student’s life.
These actions, along with decisions and actions taken outside the classroom
to assign students to different classes or curricula, also determine students’
opportunities to learn and influence students’ beliefs about their own
abilities to succeed in mathematics.
(NCTM, 2000, p. 13)
While an equity principle seems to be a good start, an implicit claim

made in this book is that we can’t begin to address equity issues until we
first acknowledge and understand the ways in which the inequities are
produced in schools. The cases serve to problematize our assumptions
RESOURCES 109
about culture and school mathematics. “Mathematics for all” is a phrase

that has peppered many reform documents in recent years. Unfortunately,
phrases like these become mere slogans. Serious issues about equity are
rarely addressed, and even more rare are substantive actions that improve
learning opportunities for a great number of students. The case, “Math-
ematics for All,” illustrates this point. The teachers’ taken-for-granted
assumptions regarding their students, the nature of mathematics and its
worth remained unchallenged. If their assumptions remain unchallenged,
then there is no problem. If there is no problem, then the teachers will
proceed with business as usual. And this is precisely what happens.
Across all the cases, the teachers and other school stakeholders must
acknowledge and come to understand several things: the role of culture in
school learning and how school mathematics is a translation (rather than a
transformation) of the larger society’s structural features that stratify
groups by race and class. School mathematics distorts, even hides the
cultural and historical development of mathematics. School mathematics
conveys a static notion of the discipline, comprising mostly rules and
algorithms to be memorized. School mathematics is objective and neutral,
existing separate and apart from the cultural contexts in which it is prac-
ticed. School mathematics existing in myriad forms stratifies students by
race and class. These are just some of the pervasive, seemingly intractable
cultural beliefs and practices that must be challenged before we can make
the vision of equity in mathematics a reality.
In the years since Brown v. Topeka Board of Education, not much has
changed in providing equality of educational opportunity for children in
the U.S. Will federal mandates exacerbate or improve the problem? What
is certain is challenging our own assumptions is always a tremendous task.
We will know that we have partial success when we can think differently
and productively about the challenges we face in teaching mathematics to
diverse populations in a democratic society. The process of facing the
challenges will be like taking a long trip whose destination is unclear. But,
such a trip is worth taking.
RESOURCES
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

www.nctm.org
The Math Forum

www.mathforum.org
Enlaces en español para la matematica

www.matheformum.org/teachers/spanish/
Mathematically Correct
www.mathematicallycorrect.com/
Mathematically Sane
www.MathematicallySane.com
Children’s Defense Fund

25 E Street N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20001
Phone: 202-628-8787
E-mail: cdfi[email protected]
National Center for Children in Poverty

215 W. 125th Street, 3rd Floor
New York, NY 10027
Phone: 646-284-9600
Fax: 646-284-9623
E-mail: [email protected]
www.nccp.org
Center on Urban Poverty and Social Change

Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences
Case Western Reserve University
10900 Euclid Ave.
Cleveland, OH 44106-7164
www.povertycenter.cwru.edu/
The Civil Rights Project

8370 Math Sciences
Los Angeles, CA 90034
E-mail: [email protected]
www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/
Rethinking Schools
1001 E. Keefe Avenue
Milwaukee, WI 53212
Phone: 414-964-9646
www.rethinkingschools.org
EXERCISES 111
Teaching Tolerance
c/o The Southern Poverty Law Center
400 Washington Ave.
Montgomery, AL 36104
Phone: 334-956-8200
www.tolerance.org
EXERCISES
The following exercises are but a small number of activities to further

your thinking about culture and school mathematics. Most of the activities
require your powers of observation and interpretation. At first glance or
even with long association, classrooms seem to be very familiar places.
We tend to think that we know what’s happening in classrooms, since
virtually all of us have spent a large part of our childhoods in classrooms.
Because of its familiarity it is difficult to attend to how issues of race,
class, gender, or politics play out right before our eyes. Record your initial
impressions. Most likely they will express your biases. Then, record what
you see as objectively as possible. After spending time in classrooms,
interpret your observations in light of your initial impressions. Note other
questions that arise and see what other practitioners and classroom
researchers say about your observations.
Mathematics Inside and Outside School
Do a case study or a mathematical profile much like the one that Anna in
“Race and Teacher Expectations” did on Benjamin. Observe a linguistic-
minority child or a child identified (formally or informally) as under-
achieving. To the degree possible collect as much information about that
child as you can—standardized tests scores, particularly in mathematics,
and observe him or her in mathematical activities in class, on the play-
ground, and at home. Analyze the data you’ve collected. Were there any
surprises? Is there a discrepancy between the child’s mathematical per-
formance in school and out of school? When and where does the child
seem most mathematically competent? Is the teacher’s view of the child’s
mathematical competence similar to the one you’ve compiled? How might
your case study or mathematical profile serve as a tool for improving the
quality of the child’s mathematical experiences both in and out of school?
Mathematics and Diverse Learners
Visit a mathematics classroom with a preponderance of Anglo students,

one with mostly African American students, and one with students whose
primary language is not English. In each classroom, observe the students,
the mode of instruction, and the nature of interaction between teacher and
students. Record your observations. Here are some questions to consider:
What is the goal of the mathematics lesson? How would you characterize
the lesson—skills-based, conceptually based, problem solving based, etc.?
How would you characterize the nature of interaction between teacher and
students—teacher-directed, teacher-facilitated, student-directed, etc.? Did
the students seem to understand the material? How do you know? Com-
pare and contrast your observations. What other questions arise from this
experience?
Children of Color and their Mathematical Identities
Choose two or three underperforming children of color and/or linguistic-

minority. Choose two or three high achieving students of the same age. Do
an interview study regarding their experiences in math classrooms and
their attitudes about mathematics. Compare and contrast their responses.
Some possible questions: Are you good in math? How do you know? Do
you think everyone can be good at mathematics? Why or why not? How
would you define mathematics? Is mathematics mostly memorization? Is
there more than one way to solve a math problem? Do you plan on taking
more math when you get to high school/community college/university?
Do you use it in everyday life? How? Do you understand your math
lessons? What do you do when you don’t understand? What do you plan
to do when you grow up? Why have you chosen this profession? Does the
job require lots of mathematics?
Ethnomathematics and School Mathematics
The cases presented in this book give you a sense of the contentious nature
in decision-making processes involving school curriculum. Mathematics,
as you have explored, is no exception. Do some library research to investi-
gate the many sides of the debate around the issues that emerge when
promoting ethnomathematics as part of the mathematics curriculum. How
would you characterize the issues that emerge in this debate? On what
EXERCISES 113
grounds do those who oppose ethnomathematics make their case? On

what grounds do those who promote ethnomathematics make their case?
Are there intermediate stances on the issues? After researching the issues,
conduct a debate with some of your classmates. Take opposing sides of
any issue associated with ethnomathematics.
Policy and Mathematics Teaching
Interview a teacher from an elementary school, a math teacher from a

middle school and a math teacher from a high school. Talk to them about
how mandatory policies influence what they teach and how they teach.
Some questions to ask: What mandatory policies (formal and informal)
most impact what you do in your math class? Are these federal, state,
district or school level policies? Give me several examples of how it
impacts what you do? What benefits does the policy afford? Are there
disadvantages? What are they?
Children, Poverty, and Mathematics Learning
The impact of poverty on the lives of children cannot be overstated.

Many teachers, in their classrooms, deal daily with effects of poverty on
children. In addition to social service agencies, there are a number of
organizations concerned with children’s issues. Identify these organiza-
tions, using them to investigate the issues related to poverty. Discuss your
findings with your classmates, paying particular attention to how poverty
impacts children’s health, socio-emotional well-being, and school
learning.
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New York: IB Tauris.
*Joseph, G. G. (2000) The crest of the peacock: The non-European roots of mathematics
(new edn). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Lerman, S. (ed.) (1994). Cultural perspectives on the mathematics classroom. Dordrecht,
The Netherlands: Kluwer.
Powell, A. B. & Frankenstein, M. (eds). (1997). Ethnomathematics: Challenging Eurocen-
trism in mathematics education. Albany: SUNY Press.
Powell, A. B. & Temple, O. L. (2001). Seeding ethnomathematics with ‘oware’: Sankofa.
Teaching Children Mathematics, 7(6), 369–375.
*Volmink, J. D. (1994). Mathematics by all. In S. Lerman (ed.), Culture perspectives on the
mathematics classroom (pp. 69–83). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer
Publications.
*Zaslavsky, C. (1990). Africa counts: Number and pattern and African culture (2nd edn).
Brooklyn: Lawrence Hill Press (first published 1973).
Zaslavsky, C. (2002). Exploring world cultures in math class. Educational Leadership,
60(2), 66–69.
Zaslavsky, C. (1996). The multicultural math classroom: Bringing in the world. Ports-
mouth: Heinemann.
Zaslavsky, C. & Crespo, B. (2000). The Inka Quipu: Positional notation on a knotted cord.
Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 6(3), 164–166.
Legislation, Policy Documents, International and National Assessments
*Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

*Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, Pub. L. No. 94-142.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Pub. L. 89-10, 79 Stat. 77, 20 U.S.C.
(April 11, 1965).
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997, 120 U. S. C. § 1400 et
seq.
*National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2001). The Nation’s Report Card:
Mathematics 2000. Washington, DC: GPO.
*National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2003). Teaching mathematics in seven
countries: Results from the TIMSS 1999 Video Study (NCES 2003-013 Revised).
Washington, DC: Author.
*National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983). A nation at risk: The
imperative for educational reform. Washington, DC: GPO.
*National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (1989). Curriculum and
evaluation standards for school mathematics. Reston: Author.
*National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (1991). Professional standards
for teaching mathematics. Reston: Author.
*National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (1995). Assessment standards for
school mathematics. Reston: Author.
*National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2000). Principles and standards
for school mathematics. Reston: Author.
*National Research Council (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
National Research Council (2002). Studying classroom teaching as a medium for profes-
sional development. Proceedings of a U.S.–Japan workshop. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2001).
*Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
*U.S. Department of Education (2000). Before it’s too late: A report to the nation from the
National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st century.
*U.S. Department of Education (2005). NAEP 2004 trends in academic progress: Three
decades of student performance in reading and mathematics (NCES 2005-463).
INDEX
accountability 7, 25, 33, 59, 61, 69, 105 D’Ambrosio, U. 3, 39–40, 97

achievement gap 7, 24, 37, 89–90 de-tracking 82, 94
African-centered pedagogy 102, 104 Dewey, J. 91–4
Algebra Project 37 dimensions of culture xv, xvi
Dossey, J. 2
Banks, J. xvii
basic math facts 25, 83 Education for All Handicapped Children
bilingual education 25–6 Act 9
Bishop, A. 2, 39 educational system 14, 20
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka challenges to 20
77–8, 89, 109 equality of educational opportunity 77,
Burton, L. 2 109
ethnomathematics 3, 97, 99
“Child as Victim” 81, 84 definition of 3, 97
Conservative view 79, 86–7 work of ethnomathematicians 3, 39, 97,
see also public arguments 99
content knowledge x, xi Eurocentric curriculum 45, 51
content standards 53, 88
contextual issues of schooling xii Frankenstein, M. xvii, 3, 99–100, 103
Core Knowledge Foundation 6 critical mathematical literacy
Core Knowledge Sequence 6 curriculum 99
cultural dimensions of schooling 1, 77
cultural pluralism 96–7, 103 Gay, G. 101
culturally responsive pedagogies 101 Glenn, J. 4
culturally sensitive teaching 46 Gutstein, E. 100
culture
definitions of 1, 51–2 heuristics xvii
121
high stakes testing 59, 62, 66, 69, 77 National Commission on Excellence in
high status knowledge 34, 108 Education 6
Hirsch, E.D. 6 National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics (NCTM) 4–5, 53, 80,
Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) 9 99, 108–9
Joseph, G. 2, 99 opportunity to learn 7, 29, 90, 93
Ladson-Billings, G. 101 Plessy v. Ferguson 89

Liberal view 88, 94 policy initiatives
see also public arguments impact of 69
political conditions of schooling xii
Principles and Standards for School
McNeil, L. 69
Mathematics (PSSM) 4–6, 80,
mandates 24–5, 109
108
mandatory testing 25, 59, 62
professional development 29, 31, 77
“Math War” 53–4
professionalism 29–30, 69
Mathematically Correct 5–6, 85, 110
public arguments xiii, xv, xvii, 77–9
mathematics
Conservative 79–88
as a cultural activity 39
Liberal 88–96
assumptions about 107–8
Radical multiculturalists 96–105
constructivist teaching of 83
culture-free 39, 44, 97
cultural historical development of xvi, Quantitative Understanding: Amplifying
39, 52, 83, 105, 109 Student Achievement and Reasoning
curriculum 37, 39–40, 60 (QUASAR) 37
Eurocentric view of 2 Quirk, W. 80
formalist view of 2
“fuzzy” 3, 6, 8 Radical multiculturalist view 96, 104
historical development of 2, 48, 98 see also public arguments
multicultural approach to 42, 95, 103
multicultural issues in 41, 49 Saxon, J. 83
origins of 2 school mathematics xv, 1–3, 7–8, 77
pedagogical goals 100 characterization of 60
reform 3, 4 culture and xvi, 39–40, 44, 109
self-esteem and 81–4, 86 curriculum 97
traditional 3, 4, 40, 53 dimensions of 107
multicultural curriculum 84, 93, 103–4 equity and 89, 107
multicultural education 7, 102–3 ethnomathematics and 112–13
multiculturalists 39, 79, 81 politics and xvi, 53
Murrell, P. 102 reform of 3
teaching and learning of 78
Nation at Risk: The Imperative for “Separate but equal” 77, 89
Educational Reform 6 social conditions of schooling x, xi, xiii
National Assessment of Educational “Social Darwinism” 91
Progress (NAEP) 7, 24, 79, 84, 89–90 social justice 7, 96–7, 100–1, 103
National Center for Education Statistics stakeholders xv, xvi, xix, 8, 10, 24, 53, 61,
(NCES) 4, 24, 90 63
INDEX 123
standards-based learning 7 Third International Mathematics and

Stanic, G. 107 Science Study (TIMSS) 4, 84, 91
stratified curriculum 87 Tracking 82, 90–1
Tate, W. 51, 89 Volmink, J. 2

teacher biases xvi, 34
teacher burn out 14, 19 Zaslavsky, C. 2–3, 97

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What is the main topic of the book?

What is the main topic of the book?

What are some of the social issues discussed in relation to mathematics teaching?

What are some of the social issues discussed in relation to mathematics teaching?

MATHEMATICS

Zeichner/Liston • Reﬂective Teaching: An Introduction

© 2008 Taylor & Francis

ISBN 0-203-93021-5 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0–805–84419–8 (pbk)

ISBN13: 978–0–805–84419–1 (pbk)

I. CASES AND REACTIONS 9

II. PUBLIC ARGUMENTS 77

III. CONCLUDING REMARKS, SOME REFLECTIONS,

AN ESSENTIAL SERIES INTRODUCTION

We are two university teacher educators, both former elementary

IMPACTS OF THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF SCHOOLING

Prospective teachers need to be prepared for the problems and challenges

suﬃcient to teach. While we recognize the importance of teachers’ con-

EXAMINING THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF SCHOOLING

our own work with prospective and practicing teachers, we have

tive and pedagogical issues in a conscious and forthright manner. Such

UNDERSTANDING AND EXAMINING PERSONAL BELIEFS

ABOUT THE BOOKS IN THIS SERIES

Manning oﬀer a fruitful and illuminating introduction to beginning read-

Two individuals have been essential to the conception and execution of

THE CASE STUDIES

THE PUBLIC ARGUMENTS

While I was at the University of Southern California students in the

mathematics. Brazilian Professor Ubiratan D’Ambrosio popularized the

For mathematics educators who advocate this approach, a goal of

dominant approach to the teaching of mathematics in the U.S. is well-

(1) a review of previous material and homework, (2) a problem illustration

This approach was evident in a recent videotape study of 8th-grade

strategies, these strategies should be shared and discussed. The PSSM

The PSSM further explains that researchers and experienced teachers

These kinds of learning experiences, say math reformers, provide the

opposes the reforms embodied in the PSSM. On the homepage of their

The advocates support The Core Knowledge Sequence, which is a cur-

In addition to general introductions to the topics found in each book there

brought recommendations that included core curricula, computer literacy,

mathematics, what are the implications for democratic schooling practices

CASE 1: “RACE AND TEACHER EXPECTATIONS”

As soon as the dismissal bell rang, Benjamin Sykes, an energetic African

His resistance, Anna speculated, was because he found it boring to do 20

REACTIONS TO “RACE AND TEACHER EXPECTATIONS”

There were a wide variety of responses to this case. Many respondents

non-accusatory manner in order to get this situation cleared up. It could

Anna’s reaction to Benjamin Sykes is commendable. Her case study is

Unfortunately, I think that this happens with a signiﬁcant number of minor-

Discipline or Pedagogic Problem?

The research literature is replete with studies documenting school failure

illustrates, mere statistics do not provide an understanding of how the

Teachers either give their students permission to fail or demand success. It

Why do teachers want to resolve their management problems by referring

Teacher Burn Out

One respondent attributed Mrs. Carlton’s racist attitudes to “burn out.” He

My reaction to the racist expectations of Mrs. Carlton is extreme pity. I feel

Educational Challenges and Possibilities

The situation in Mrs. Carlton’s mathematics classroom represents two

Any educator who holds on to deﬁcit models does so to mask fear or to