Asia: Biographies and Personal Stories, Part II

DŌGEN Z
Sect Founder and Universal Philosopher
en master Dōgen (1200–1253) was the founder of the Sōtō sect,
one of the five major denominations of Japanese Buddhism that
spread rapidly in medieval Japan and remains an important reli-
gious movement in modern society. Dōgen transmitted the teachings he
His Life, Religion, and Poetry learned during a four-year visit from 1223 to 1227 to China, where he at-
tained enlightenment while training in Zen meditation under the tutelage
of mentor Rujing and was also immersed in studying Chinese styles of
By Steven Heine writing, including poetry. In response to Rujing’s exhortation to stay free of
distraction, even if it might limit the number of disciples, Dōgen eventually
decided to leave behind the secular society of Kyoto for a remote mountain
setting north of the capital following his return from the mainland. In the
1240s, he established a major monastery at Eiheiji Temple in Echizen (cur-
rently Fukui Prefecture), which is today one of the most frequently visited
sacred sites in Japan.
In one of his Japanese waka-style poems consisting of five lines and
thirty-one syllables, Dōgen writes lyrically of the environment at Eiheiji:
The white mountains of Echizen
Are my winter retreat. A blanket of clouds
Covers the frosted peaks
And snowy slopes.1
In this verse, successive shades and textures of wintry paleness are
accentuated by the wordplay on “white mountain” (shirayama, which is
another pronunciation for Mount Hakusan, a perpetually snow-covered
peak located near Eiheiji). This literary technique helps evoke the Buddhist
doctrine of nonduality, whereby an underlying unity allows for infinite va-
rieties of distinction, a theme similarly conveyed by a famous Zen saying
often cited by Nō playwright Zeami, “a white heron reflected by the moon-
light sits on a silver vase.”
This waka is one of many examples showing why Dōgen is greatly ap-
preciated for his profound philosophy of religion that has universal spiri-
tual and literary implications. A tremendously creative author of prose and
poetic works who integrates an eloquent use of Japanese rhetorical forms
featuring inventive wordplay and allusion with a remarkable knowledge of
Chinese Buddhist textual sources, Dōgen is often referred to as the premier
philosopher in Japanese history and one of the foremost exponents in the
overall development of Buddhist thought. Leading thinkers in Japan, such
as Nishida Kitarō, Tanabe Hajime, and Nishitani Keji, have interpreted Dō-
gen’s complex Chinese-Japanese texts. Dōgen’s works are also often com-
pared to those of classic and modern Western intellectuals, ranging from
Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas to Friedrich Nietzsche and Martin Heide-
gger. His principal treatises are now available in multiple translations; for
some sections, there are a dozen or more versions in English, in addition
to European languages and Chinese.2
The establishment of Sōtō Zen took place during a turbulent time that
was, from the standpoint of spawning many new religious factions, very
much a creative period of Japanese history. The beginning of the Kamaku-
ra Era marked the radical transition of Japanese society from the peaceful
leadership of the Fujiwara regency centered in Kyoto to the military rule
of the Hōjō shogunate, which moved the capital to the town of Kamakura,
now located about an hour south of Tokyo. Rapidly shifting social condi-
tions led to the emergence of the rising class of samurai warriors, many of
whom turned to Zen Buddhist practice as a form of discipline that helped
steady their minds during battle and also inspired, in addition to expertise
Dōgen, founder of the Sōtō Zen sect in Japan, viewing the full moon. This painting is held in martial skills, their participation in the literary and fine arts.
at Hōkyōji Temple. Source: Wikimedia Commons at http://tinyurl.com/pe4zjgh. The support of the Hōjō shoguns was crucial to the expansion of the
Zen sect yet ironically played a key role in shaping our image of Dōgen
as a tough-minded idealist. Toward the end of his life he was invited to
Kamakura, where he apparently spurned an offer from Hōjō Tokiyori to
lead a major temple in the new capital so that he could return to and stay

32 Education About ASIA Volume 20, Number 2 Fall 2015

secluded in his mountain monastery. During his travels back to Eiheiji, Visitors to Eiheiji gain a sense of
Dōgen wrote the following waka that captures dual feelings of vulnerability
and determination: Dōgen’s role as founder of a living
In the heart of the night,
The moonlight framing tradition based on the practice of
A small boat drifting,
Tossed not by the waves
Buddhist meditation conducted as
Nor swayed by the breeze. silent contemplation while sitting in
The Kamakura Era (1185–1333) was marked by the decline of the tra-
ditional Tendai Buddhist sect, which was based at Enryakuji Temple situ- the upright posture known as zazen.
ated on Mount Hiei just to the northeast of Kyoto and affiliated with the
Fujiwara clan. Tendai was challenged and changed by the on-
set of a number of innovative, charismatic Buddhist teachers.
One of these monks was Eisai, who traveled to China a couple
of decades before Dōgen and founded Rinzai, the other main
Zen sect that also practices a form of meditation. Three ad-
ditional leaders who favored a devotional style of Buddhist
practice were Hōnen (Pure Land), Shinran (True Pure Land),
and Nichiren (Nichiren).
All these denominations, referred to as examples of “New
Kamakura Buddhism,” are currently flourishing as main-
stays of Japanese religion that is characterized by the saying,
“Born Shintō, Die Buddhist,” in that Shintō shrines perform
ceremonies for birth and marriage whereas Buddhist temples
conduct funerals and memorials. Sōtō Zen remains the larg-
est Buddhist sect in terms of both the number of temples it
supports (about 14,000) and the number of adherents who
claim membership (over ten million).
Visitors to Eiheiji gain a sense of Dōgen’s role as founder
of a living tradition based on the practice of Buddhist medi-
tation conducted as silent contemplation while sitting in the Eiheiji Temple in snow. Photo courtesy of Yoshihide Yoshizu.
upright posture known as zazen. Dōgen learned the zazen
method during his stay in China. It was a practice he felt had been dimin- both in terms of personal experiences of sorrow and sadness—for example,
ished by an emphasis on various kinds of rituals in Japanese styles of train- when his parents died in childhood, he resolved to become a monk—and
ing. In a famous passage from his primary text, the Shōbōgenzō (Treasury as the basis for a view of reality as fundamentally shifting and uncertain
of the True Dharma-Eye), a collection of ninety-five sermons and essays, phenomena manifested in the fleeting beauty of natural surroundings, as
Dōgen maintains that during a single instant of sitting meditation there disclosed at Eiheiji.
arises unity of the mental and physical attributes of the practitioner, as well Dōgen’s view represents a productive combination of Indian Buddhist
as a sense of oneness joining the individual with reality: philosophy in regard to the insubstantial, selfless nature of reality with
We become whole when sitting in zazen and entering a state in the sensibility of the Japanese recognition through eloquent poetry of the
which we are no longer conscious of a separation of body and mind. effects of ephemerality. Schooled in the doctrines of Sakyamuni Buddha,
If someone, even for a short moment, sits up straight in the balanced Dōgen was greatly influenced by Japanese culture that emphasized com-
posture of the Buddha, it immediately becomes apparent that every- ing to terms with the vicissitudes of life, which were reflected in medieval
thing in the universe also exhibits the same equanimity and that this writings. Works such as The Tale of Heike (Heike monogatari), Chōmei’s An
realization spreads through all of existence. Account of My Hut (Hojoki), and Kenkō’s Essays in Idleness (Tsurezuregusa),
Only a small fraction of Sōtō temples, however, are considered mo- which respond to the impact of famines and natural disasters, as well as hu-
nastic training temples that focus on zazen practice for monks. The vast man conflict and war in a whirlwind of complex social and political entan-
majority function as sites for burials or rites dedicated to local deities such glements, evoke the ideals of mono no aware (poignant sadness based on
as Inari or Tengu that were assimilated over the centuries into Sōtō reli- the passing of things) and sabi (solitude). In that light, Dōgen emphasizes
giosity. Nevertheless, in the postwar period, there has been a significant that we should not view the experience of enlightenment, known as nirva-
movement at many temples toward promoting zazen-kai, or weekly med- na (extinction of desire) in India or as busshō (all-encompassing Buddha-
itation sessions for laypeople, in addition to Genzō-e, or monthly lectures nature) in Japan, as an eternal realm separable from impermanent reality.
and discussions about the Shōbōgenzō. Instead, a thorough appreciation of the transitory nature of all phenomena
Dōgen’s Unique View of Impermanence must serve as the touchstone of Buddhist meditative training and mystical
The single main feature of Dōgen’s distinctive approach to Buddhist theory realization.
and practice, which was reflected in his own background and upbringing Much of Dōgen’s emphasis on impermanence derives from his own
during the unstable and unsettling historical period of the dawn of the experiences as recorded in his traditional biographies. Although many of
Kamakura Era, is an approach to religious experience based on insightful the details of these records have been called into question by recent his-
reflection on mujō-kan (the meaning of impermanence). An understand- toriographical studies, the symbolism of the main events is still import-
ing of the transiency of human and natural existence is realized by Dōgen ant for understanding the meaning of his philosophy of Zen. According

33
 Asia: Biographies and Personal Stories, Part II

A panoramic view of the northern part of Fukui Prefecture, from the top of Mt. Murakuni in Echizen, Fukui. Photo by Osarusan. Source: Wikimedia Commons at http://tinyurl.com/nmgwvmf.

Dōgen seemed most content after he collection of sixty-three waka, Dōgen wrote several hundred verses in the
style of kanshi (Chinese poetry) that are contained in the last two sections
moved from the political strife occur- of his ten-volume Eihei kōroku (Recording Sayings). One of these from 1230
captures the feeling of serene reclusion, coupled with a restless longing to
ring in Kyoto to the splendor of the teach disciples:
Echizen Mountains, where he experi- How pitiful is life and death’s ceasing and arising,
I lose my way yet find my path as if walking in a dream.
enced a constant state of communion Even though there is still one thing left to do I must not forget,
The deep grass of Fukakusa settles in the sound of the evening rain.
with the natural environment. According to recent interpreters, Dōgen’s philosophy played a key role
in the formation of the Japanese “religio-aesthetic tradition,” for which
to the established accounts, Dōgen was born into an aristocratic family at spiritual ideals are expressed not so much in terms of doctrine or ritual but
a time when Japan was beginning to be plagued by ongoing civil warfare. through the arts. Literature and painting are prized not as exemplary as art
He experienced profound sorrow and tragedy at an early age as his father, for art’s sake but for instructing the audience in regard to the essence of re-
a prominent general, died when he was two and his beautiful mother, a ligious experience. A modern commentator on this cultural development,
mistress of the father, passed when he was seven. It is said that when he saw Karaki Junzō, suggests that there are three levels of impermanence articu-
the smoke of the incense rising and vanishing during his mother’s funeral, lated in the religio-aesthetics of Japan. The superficial stage is marked by
Dōgen was deeply moved by an awareness of the inevitability of death and a sensation of change felt during everyday ups and downs that can cause
the pervasiveness of impermanence. frustration, futility, disappointment, or despair. A more profound level is
The orphaned Dōgen had the opportunity through members of his no- an emotional response when, by confronting loss and regret at times of ill-
ble family to be trained for a courtly career but decided to renounce ordi- ness or dying faced by oneself or a beloved companion, a deep understand-
nary life to seek Buddhist enlightenment at the age of thirteen. At first, he ing of contingency, mortality, and limits comes into play. Karaki argues
studied on Mount Hiei in the dominant Japanese Tendai sect, which held that Dōgen attained the supreme level through cultivating contemplative
to the central doctrine of hongaku (original enlightenment), or the innate awareness of the impermanent nature of each and every person or thing by
potentiality of all beings to attain the primordial Buddha-nature. However, learning to transcend any fear of death while also overcoming a clinging or
Dōgen quickly felt a fundamental sense of “doubt” about the efficacy of attachment to staying alive.
this doctrine: if everyone is already enlightened in that they possess the The standpoint of impermanence is expressed in Dōgen’s essays on
truth of Buddha-nature, he wondered, then what is the need for sustained numerous Buddhist topics contained in the Shōbōgenzō, including chap-
meditative practice as required by the Buddha’s teaching? ters on the “Unity of All Beings and Time” (“Uji”), “Sounds of the Valleys,
Unable to resolve the doubt in Japan, Dōgen traveled to China, where Colors of the Mountains” (“Keisei sanshoku”), and “Mountains and Waters
the contemplative path of Zen (Chan, Chn) had become the dominant Form the Sutras” (“Sansuikyō”). A central feature of aesthetic realization
school during the Song Dynasty (960–1279). At first, Dōgen was disap- is Dōgen’s use of poetic language, especially elaborate metaphor, and phil-
pointed in the laxity of Chinese monks, who failed to inspire him to re- osophical punning to convey a sense of contemplation that enhances the
solve his uncertainty. Then, on the verge of returning to his native coun- enlightenment experience of detachment from worldly concerns.
try unfulfilled, he met Rujing, who insisted on an unrelenting approach One of the main examples of Dōgen’s creativity is the philosophical
to meditation. Under the guidance of his new teacher, Dōgen attained an wordplay he makes on the term uji (also pronounced arutoki), which in
awakening experience of shinjin datsuraku (“casting off of body-mind”), everyday conversation means “sometimes.” This word is composed of two
or a spontaneous yet continuing process of liberation from all intellectu- kanji (Chinese characters) for “being” (u) and “time” (ji). In the “Uji” chap-
al and volitional attachments, which signified the resolution of his doubt ter of the Shōbōgenzō, Dōgen uses uji to imply the principle of the para-
about the necessity of sustained practice. This occurred in a flash of insight doxical unity of “all being as all moments of time.” Beings, each existing
when Rujing scolded the monk sitting next to Dōgen, who was slumbering in space and time, and times of every instance of past, present, and future,
during a prolonged session of meditation. form wholeness so that the ordinary word “uji” means much more than the
Back in Japan, Dōgen practiced in solitude for several years before sum of its two parts.
he became leader of a thriving new group of followers. In addition to his Dōgen stresses that the unity of being-time does not function in the

34 Education About ASIA Volume 20, Number 2 Fall 2015

human dimension alone, but is fully cosmic in encompassing all forms of In Japanese court poetry, suzushi
existence, which is evident through awareness of the beauty of nature and
the cyclicality of seasonal rotation. Like many Zen masters in China and Ja- often implies the serene and cool
pan, as well as Far Eastern mystics of the Daoist and Shintō traditions, Dō-
gen seemed most content after he moved from the political strife occurring outlook—encompassing both objec-
in Kyoto to the splendor of the Echizen Mountains, where he experienced a
constant state of communion with the natural environment. In the follow-
tive appearance and subjective re-
ing waka, he equates Buddha-nature with natural phenomena and expresses sponse—generated by phenomena
an aesthetic rapture in which the rushing stream is experienced as the voice
of the living Buddha, while the mountain peak appears as his form: that are not literally cold.
Colors of the mountains,
Streams in the valleys,
All in one, one in all The aesthetic configuration of the waka, which reinforces its reli-
The voice and body gious message, is primarily based on the multiple nuances of the adjective
Of our Sakyamuni Buddha. suzushi appearing in the final line. Suzushi can be taken to mean, as Se-
Dōgen’s view of the fleeting quality of time is also conveyed in the waka idensticker’s version indicates, the physical characteristic or bodily sensa-
titled “Impermanence” (“Mujō”): tion of the brightness and coldness of the snow. Yet that rendering, which
To what suggests that suzushi merely amplifies kiede (frozen) in modifying snow,
Shall I liken this world of ours? represents but one level of meaning. In Japanese court poetry, suzushi of-
Moonlight, reflected ten implies the serene and cool outlook—encompassing both objective
In dewdrops appearance and subjective response—generated by phenomena that are
Shaken from a crane’s bill. not literally cold. The term is used by the poet Tamekane, for instance, to
Dōgen, a Literary Figure? describe the purity and coolness of the voice of the hototogisu (cuckoo), in
In 1968, Kawabata Yasunari, the first Japanese author to win the Nobel which one kind of stimulation evokes the impression of another sensation.
Prize in Literature, opened his acceptance speech in Stockholm by citing This phenomenon, called synesthesia, illustrates the underlying and com-
a waka composed by Dōgen. In the speech, “Japan, the Beautiful, and My- plex interrelatedness of personal reaction and external stimulus, body and
self (Utsukushii Nihon no watakushi),”3 Kawabata commented on the pro- mind, and sensation and awareness.
found influence of Zen aesthetics on his writing, beginning with Dōgen’s In the revised rendition, suzushi refers neither to just the snow nor
verse on “Original Face” (“Honrai no memmoku”). This term suggests the the observer, neither to the physical nor the mental. Rather, it suggests a
fundamental essence of human nature that stands fully in harmony with lyricism that is rooted and yet unlimited by the forms previously portrayed
the ultimate principle of Buddha-nature. First used in a famous story about in the poem. In this context, Dōgen uses the word suzushi in a religio-aes-
one of the early leaders of Zen in China, Huineng, “Original Face,” which thetic way to comment on human involvement in the rotation of the sea-
is also referred to as “the look on your face before you were born,” implies sons, or the immediate and renewable response to the perpetual cyclicality
a quality that is uncorrupted by ignorance or attachment. As highlighted of four distinct yet overlapping phenomena. Thus, suzushi reflects the lyr-
by a recent film biography of Dōgen titled Zen, in which a famous Kabuki icism of the entire poem by expressing the primordial unity encompassing
actor movingly plays the religious leader, this verse was one of the peda- infinite diversity and the possibility for momentary change by modifying
gogical tools Dōgen used during his visit to Kamakura to preach to Hōjō each of the seasonal images: the vivid colors and graceful scattering of
Tokiyori, who was trying to reconcile his violent life as a warrior with Bud- spring flowers, the sharp cry of the cuckoo at dawn or dusk, the clarity
dhist vows of nonviolence. and tranquility of autumn moonlight, and the purity of freshly fallen snow.
For Dōgen, the “Original Face” of humanity is found amid the beauty Like many other classic Zen masters, Dōgen was a reluctant writer of
of nature and the cyclicality of the four seasons. In Edward Seidensticker’s verse. In fact, he is probably better known for saying in a collection of ser-
translation, the waka reads: mons called Shōbōgenzō zuimonki: “Zen monks are fond of literature these
In the spring, cherry blossoms, days, finding it an aid to writing verses and tracts. This is a mistake . . . Yet
In the summer, the cuckoo, no matter how elegant their prose or how exquisite their poetry might be,
In autumn, the moon, they are merely toying with words and cannot gain the truth.” Dōgen uses a
And in winter, the snow, clear, cold. waka to convey mixed feelings about composing poetry and about the way
This poem is notable, according to Kawabata, because “by a sponta- his expressions are received by the audience:
neous though deliberate stringing together of conventional images and Will their gaze fall upon
words, it transmits the very essence of Japan.” Kawabata refers to “conven- The petals of words I utter,
tional images and words” in Dōgen’s verse in that a simple connecting of Shaken loose and blown free by the spring breeze
seasonal imagery typical of medieval poetry evokes the ephemeral yet re- As if only the notes
newable quality of nature. Thus, the true essence of the person, or “original Of a flower’s song? 4
face,” is one with the surroundings. An intriguing example of Dōgen’s Chinese poetry further highlights
Based on an analysis of the rhetoric of the verse, it is possible to rethink the intricate feelings of exaltation about religio-aesthetic inspiration
Seidensticker’s translation of “Original Face.” An alternative translation is: combined with regret for allowing himself to be distracted by literary
Haru wa hana In spring, the cherry blossoms, pursuits:
Natsu hototogisu In summer, the cuckoo’s song, Jiŭ shè rénjiān wú aìxī Living in the world for so
Aki wa tsuki In autumn, the moon, shining, long without attachments,
Fuyu yuki kiede In winter, the frozen snow. Wénzhāng bĭyàn jì pāo lái Since giving up using paper
Suzushi kari keri How pure and clear are the seasons! and pen.

35
 Asia: Biographies and Personal Stories, Part II

Jiàn huā wén niao fēnqíng shăo I see flowers and hear birds
Dōgen Timeline
Zhà zài shān yóu kuì bù cái
without feeling much,
Living on mountains, I am
1200 Born in Kyoto to aristocracy embarrassed by this meager
1202 Father, a prominent general, dies effort.
1204 Educated in Confucian classics and Japanese poetry The pinyin transliteration of this poem illustrates that Dōgen mastered
1207 Mother, a mistress of father, dies, so Dōgen the complex rules for writing Chinese poetry with four lines and seven
is orphaned syllables. These regulations include the use of end rhyme in the second and
1213 Becomes a monk after turning down a secular fourth lines, plus a pause or caesura that occurs after the fourth syllable in
position each line. In addition, the thematic progression in which the first line rep-
1217 Joins Kenninji, the first Zen temple in Japan, resents the opening statement, the second further develops the topic, the
founded by Eisai third creates a sense of turnabout or reversal, and the final line expresses
1223 Travels to China to seek authentic teaching and an ironic sense of closure regarding the contradiction.
overcome doubt One of Dōgen’s most eloquent poems was written near the end of life as
1225 Attains enlightenment and learns Chinese poetry he returned from Echizen to the capital for medical care. Making the trek
under master Rujing to Kyoto for the first time in ten years in what would prove to be his final
1227 Begins to transmit the Sōtō school to Japan journey, Dōgen spoke of his difficult yet thrilling travels:
Kusa no ha ni Like a blade of grass,
1231 Starts writing the Shōbōgenzō
Kadodeseru mi no My frail body
1233 Establishes his first temple in Kyoto
Kinobe yama Treading the path to Kyoto,
1236 Temple expands with Chinese-style buildings
Kumo ni oka aru Seeming to wander
1241 Prolific period of writing essays and poetry, and Kokochi koso sure Amid the cloudy mist on the
giving sermons narrow mountain pass.
1243 Leaves Kyoto for mountains in remote Echizen With the alliteration of “k” sounds in the first word of each line, the waka
Mountains conveys exhilaration, anxiety, expectation, and frailty during the trip. n
1244 Settles in newly constructed Eiheji Temple
1247 Travels to Kamakura at request of Hōjō Tokiyori NOTES
1248 Returns to Eiheiji after spending six months away 1. Some of the poems are cited from Steven Heine, The Zen Poetry of Dōgen (Mount
1252 Completes editing of Shōbōgenzō while falling ill Tremper, NY: Dharma Communications, 2004). Some of the translations have been
1253 Goes to Kyoto for medical care and dies modified. Dōgen’s collected works are in Dōgen Zenji Zenshū, ed. Kawamura Kōdō
et. al. (Tokyo: Shunjūsha, 1988–1993).
2. Two translations of Dōgen that are highly recommended for being complete versions
of their respective texts are Kazuaki Tanahashi, trans., Treasury of the True Dharma
Eye: Zen Master Dōgen’s Shōbōgenzō (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2010), and
Taigen Dan Leighton and Shohaku Okumura, trans., Dōgen’s Extensive Record: A
Translation of Eihei Kōroku (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2010). Another useful
translation is The Heart of Dōgen’s Shōbōgenzō (Albany: State University of New York
Press, 2002). For examinations of key components of Dōgen’s life and thought, see
Carl Bielefeldt, Dōgen’s Manuals of Zen Meditation (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990); William M. Bodiford, Sōtō Zen in Medieval Japan (Honolulu: University
of Hawai’i Press, 1993); Hee-Jin Kim, Eihei Dōgen: Mystical Realist (Boston: Wisdom
Publications, 2000); and Takeshi James Kodera, Dōgen’s Formative Years in China: An
Historical Study and Annotated Translation of Hōkyō-ki (Boulder: Prajna Press, 1980).
3. Kawabata Yasunari, Japan, the Beautiful, and Myself, trans. E.G. Seidensticker (To-
kyo: Kodansha, 1969); this is a bilingual edition.
4. This sentiment recalls the Rhymes of a Rolling Stone (1912) by modern American
poet Robert W. Service, who notes, “I have no doubt at all the Devil grins,/ At seas of
ink I spatter./ Ye gods, forgive my ‘literary’ sins—/ The other kind don’t matter.”

STEVEN HEINE is Professor and Director of Asian Studies at Florida International Universi-
ty,
and has published over two dozen books on East Asian religion and society, especially
the history and thought of Zen Buddhism. His books include several works on Dōgen,
such as Dōgen and the Kōan Tradition (State University of New York Press, 1994), The Zen
Poetry of Dōgen (Dharma Communications, 2004), Did Dōgen Go to China? (Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 2006), and Dōgen: Textual and Historical Studies (Oxford University Press, 2012).
He is currently completing a monograph on the role of rhetoric in understanding Zen
Buddhist kōan literature.

36 Education About ASIA Volume 20, Number 2 Fall 2015