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NAME : DIVYAAHSRI D/O RAGU

INDEX NUMBER : 2021302340408

IDENTITY CARD NUMBER : 030509060872

GROUP / UNIT : PENGAJIAN TAMIL 2

CODE & NAME OF COURSE : SCES 3373 GENERAL BIOLOGY

LECTURER’S NAME : DR. CHIN CHEE KEONG

I, DIVYAAHSRI D/O RAGU hereby acknowledge that I have received the coursework feedback
from my lecturer for SCES 3373 General Biology.

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 CONTENT

No. Content Pages

1 Cover Page i

2 Basic Process of Animal Cell Cloning 1-3

3 Reference 4

4 Attachments 5
Basic Process Of Animal Cell Cloning

Cloning is a process of creating a genetically identical copy or clone of a cell or an

The animal cloning process can occur via two different methods: artificial twinning and
somatic cell nuclear transfer. Artificial twinning is a moderately low-tech method for making
clones. In nature, twins structure right off the bat developing when the undeveloped organism
parts in two. Besides that, somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) which is known as nuclear
transfer utilizes an unexpected methodology in comparison to counterfeit incipient organism
twinning, yet it delivers a similar outcome like a precise hereditary duplicate, or clone, of a
person.

Researchers can add the DNA from the somatic cell to the empty egg in two ways. In the
primary strategy, they eliminate the DNA-containing nucleus of the somatic cell with a needle
and infuse it into the vacant egg. The essential system, by which a living cell nucleus is
relocated to an egg or oocyte, was by Briggs and Ruler (1952). They utilized Rana Pipiens and
sucked a blastula cell into a micropipette so the cell wall was broken yet the nucleus remained
intact and covered by cytoplasm. The entire cell was infused into an unfertilized egg in the
second meiotic metaphase. The egg was enucleated physically by eliminating the metaphase
spindle with its chromosomes from the outer layer of the egg. In the subsequent methodology,
they utilize an electrical flow to combine the whole substantial cell with the empty egg. To make
a clone, researchers move the DNA from an animal's somatic cell into an egg cell that has had
its nucleus and DNA will be eliminated. The egg forms into an undeveloped organism that
contains similar qualities to the donor cell. The fusion process will happen to activate the
fertilization process and then develop into an early-stage embryo. It will be implanted into the
womb of the surrogate mother.

Somatic cells undergo mitosis, which means that all cell types that function are not the
generation of gametes that go through this process. Mitosis happens in physical cells; this
implies that it happens in a wide range of cells that are not engaged with the creation of
gametes. Before each mitotic division, a duplicate of every chromosome is made; hence,
following division, a total arrangement of chromosomes is tracked down in the core of each new
cell. To be sure, aside from irregular transformations, each progressive duplicate cell will have a
similar genetic composition as its parent, because of the legacy of a similar chromosome set
and similar biological environment. Mitosis comprises five morphologically particular stages:
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

During prophase, the nuclear envelope begins to break into little vesicles, and the Golgi
mechanical assembly and endoplasmic reticulum part and spread to the outskirts of the cell.
The nucleolus vanishes. The centrosomes start to move to opposite poles of the cell. The
nucleolus that structures the premise of the mitotic spindle reaches out between the
centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as the microtubule strands extend. The sister
chromatids start to coil all the more firmly and become noticeable under a light microscope.

During prometaphase, many cycles that were started in prophase proceed to progress
and finish in the development of the connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton.
The remainder of the nuclear envelope vanishes. The mitotic spindle keeps on creating as
additional microtubules gather and stretch across the length of the former nuclear region.
Chromosomes become denser and outwardly discrete. Every sister chromatid joins to spindle
microtubules at the centromere by means of a protein complex called the kinetochore.

During metaphase, the chromosomes are all aligned on the metaphase plate, halfway
between the two poles of the cell. The sister chromatids are still firmly attached to one another.
Right now, the chromosomes are maximally consolidated.

During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the metaphyseal plane are separated at the
centromere. Every chromatid, presently called a chromosome, is pulled quickly toward the
centrosome to which its microtubule was attached. The will cell turn out to be noticeably
elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide against one another at the metaphase
plate where they cross-over.

During telophase, each of the occasions that set up the duplicated chromosomes for
mitosis during the initial three stages are switched. The chromosomes arrive at the opposite
poles and start to decondense. The mitotic spindles are broken into monomers that will be
utilized to collect cytoskeleton parts for each daughter cell. Nuclear envelopes structure around
chromosomes.

The egg is permitted to form into an early-stage embryo in the test-tube and afterward is
embedded into the womb of a grown-up female animal.

Eventually, the adult female gives birth to an animal that has the hereditary make up as
the animal that gave the somatic cell. This young animal is known as a clone. Reproductive
cloning might require the utilization of a surrogate mother to allow improvement of the cloned
embryo, similar to the case of Dolly the sheep.
(874 Words)
Reference

1. Briggs, R., King, T. J. (1952). Transplantation of living nuclei from blastula cells into
enucleated frogs’ eggs. Proc Natl Acad Sci.
a.
2. Briggs, R., King, T. J. (1957). Changes in the nuclei of differentiating endoderm cells as
revealed by nuclear transplantation. Journal of Morphology, 100(2), 269-311.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jmor.1051000204

3. Byju’s. (n.d). Animal Cell. https://byjus.com/biology/animal-cell/

4. Campbell, K. H., McWhir, J., Ritchie, W.A., Wilmut, I. (1996). Sheep cloned by nuclear
transfer from a cultured cell line. Nature, 380, 64–66.
https://www.nature.com/articles/380064a0

5. Cronkite, D. (2002). Science Explorer Cells and Heredity. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

6. Freeman, S. (2002). Biological Science. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

7. Gurdon, J. B., Wilmut, I. (2011). Nuclear Transfer to Eggs and Oocytes. Cold Spring
Harb Perspect Biol, 3(6). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3098674/

8. Kaskel, A., J. Hummer. Jr, P., & Daniel, L. (2003). Glencoe Biology. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

9. Medline Plus. (2021). How do cells divide? https://bit.ly/3BqVnYJ

10. Simnett, J. D. (1964). The development of embryos derived from the transplantation of
neural ectoderm cell nuclei in Xenopus laevis. Dev Biol, 10, 467–486.
https://bit.ly/3d3pkVr

11. Yang, X., Smith, S. L., Tian, X. C., Lewin, H. A., Renard, J. P., Wakayama, T. (2007).
Nuclear reprogramming of cloned embryos and its implications for therapeutic cloning.
Nature Genetics, 39, 295–302. https://www.nature.com/articles/ng1973

12. Willasden, S. M. (1986). Nuclear transplantation in sheep embryos. Nature, 320, 63–65.
https://www.nature.com/articles/320063a0
Attatchments

Figure 1
Epigenetic Reprogramming

Figure 2
Schematic diagram of the
somatic cloning process

Figure 3 Process of Mitosis Figure 4 Type of Microtubules Involved in Mitosis