Group Theory

Topic No. 1
Group Theory

Properties of Real
Numbers
Properties of Real Numbers

Number Systems
ℕ ={ 1, 2, 3, … }
ℤ={…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, … }
ℚ={p/q | p, q ∊ ℤ and
q≠0}
ℚˊ= Set of Irrational
Numbers
ℝ=ℚ ∪ ℚˊ
Properties of Real Numbers

0.131313…=0.13+
0.0013+0.000013+…
=13/100+13/10000+
13/1000000+…
=(13/100)(1+1/100+
1/10000+…)
=(13/100)(100/99)
=13/99
 Properties of Real Numbers

 e=2.718281828459045… ∊ ℚˊ
 √2=1.414213562373095… ∊ ℚˊ
 √5=2.23606797749978… ∊ ℚˊ
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a.b ∊ ℝ
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a+b ∊ ℝ
 ∀ a, b, c ∊ ℝ, (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)
 For example, (1/4+3)+ √7=(13+4 √7)/4=1/4+(3+ √7)
 Properties of Real Numbers
 ∀ a, b, c ∊ ℝ, (ab)c=a(bc)
 For instance, ((-2/3)4)√2=(-8/3) √2 =(-2/3)(4 √2)
 For every a ∊ ℝ and 0 ∊ ℝ, a+0=a=0+a
 For every a ∊ ℝ and 1 ∊ ℝ, a.1=a=1.a
 For every a ∊ ℝ there exists -a ∊ ℝ such that
a+(-a)=0=(-a)+a
 For every a ∊ ℝ\{0} there exists 1/a ∊ ℝ\{0} such that
a(1/a)=1=(1/a)a
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a+b=b+a
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a.b=b.a
Group Theory

Topic No. 2
Group Theory

Properties of Complex
Numbers
 Properties of Complex Numbers

 ℂ={a+bi | a, b ∊ ℝ}
 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ, (a+bi)+(c+di)=(a+c)+(b+d)i ∊ ℂ
 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ, (a+bi).(c+di)=(ac-bd)+(ad+bc)i ∊ ℂ
 ∀ a+bi, c+di, e+fi ∊ ℂ, [(a+bi)+(c+di)]+(e+fi)=
[(a+c)+(b+d)i]+(e+fi)=[(a+c)+e]+[(b+d)+f]i
=[a+(c+e)]+[b+(d+f)]i=(a+bi)+[(c+e)+(d+f)i]=
(a+bi)+[(c+di)+(e+fi)]
 Properties of Complex Numbers

 ∀ a+bi, c+di, e+fi ∊ ℂ, [(a+bi).(c+di)].(e+fi)

=[(ac-bd)+(bc+ad)i].(e+fi)
=[(ac-bd)e-(bc+ad)f]+[(bc+ad)e+(ac-bd)f]i
=[a(ce-df)-b(de+cf)]+[a(de+cf)]+b(ce-df)]i
=(a+bi).[(ce-df)+(de+cf)i]=(a+bi).[(c+di).(e+fi)]
 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ and 0=0+0i ∊ ℂ, (a+bi)+0=
(a+bi)+(0+0i)=(a+0)+(b+0)i=a+bi=0+(a+bi)
 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ and 1=1+0i ∊ ℂ, (a+bi).1=
(a+bi).(1+0i)=(a.1-0b)+(b.1+0.a)i=a+bi=1.(a+bi)
 Properties of Complex Numbers

 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ there exists -a-bi ∊ ℂ such that

(a+bi)+(-a-bi)=(a+(-a))+(b+(-b))i=0+0i=0=(-a-bi)+(a+bi)
 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ\{0} there exists
1/(a+bi)=a/(a2+b2)-(b/(a2+b2))i ∊ ℂ\{0}
such that (a+bi).(a/(a2+b2)-(b/(a2+b2))i )
= (a2+b2)/(a2+b2)+((ab-ab)/(a2+b2))i=1+0i=1
=(a/(a2+b2)-(b/(a2+b2))i )(a+bi)
Properties of Complex Numbers

 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ, (a+bi)+

(c+di)=(a+c)+(b+d)i
=(c+a)+(d+b)i=(c+di)+(a+bi)
 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ,
(a+bi).(c+di)
=(ac-bd)+ (ad+bc)i
=(ca-db)+(cb+da)i
=(c+di).(a+bi)
Group Theory

Topic No. 3
Group Theory

Binary Operations
Binary Operations

Definition
A binary operation ∗ on a
set S is a function
mapping S x S into S.
For each (a, b) ∈ S x S, we
will denote the element
∗((a, b)) of S by a∗b.
Binary Operations

 Usual addition ‘+’ is a

binary operation on the
sets ℝ, ℂ, ℚ, ℤ, ℝ+, ℚ+,
ℤ+
 Usual multiplication ‘.’ is
a binary operation on
the sets ℝ, ℂ, ℚ, ℤ, ℝ+,
ℚ+, ℤ+
 Usual multiplication ‘.’ is
a binary operation on
the sets ℝ\{0}, ℂ\{0},
ℚ\{0}, ℤ\{0}
Binary Operations

Let M(ℝ) be the set of all

matrices with real entries.
The usual matrix addition
is not a binary operation
on this set since A+B is
not defined for an
ordered pair (A, B) of
matrices having different
numbers of rows or of
columns.
Binary Operations

Usual addition ‘+’ is not a

binary operation on the
sets ℝ\{0}, ℂ\{0}, ℚ\{0},
ℤ\{0} since
2+(-2)=0 ∉ ℤ\{0}⊂ℚ\{0}
⊂ ℝ\{0} ⊂ ℂ\{0}.
Binary Operations

Definition
Let ∗ be a binary
operation on S and
let H be a subset of
S.
The subset H is
closed under ∗ if for
all a, b ∈ H we also
have a∗b ∈ H.
In this case, the
binary operation on
H given by
restricting ∗ to H is
the induced
Binary Operations

Usual addition ‘+’ on the

set ℝ of real numbers
does not induce a binary
operation on the set ℝ\
{0} of nonzero real
numbers because 2∈ℝ\
{0} and -2∈ℝ\{0},
but 2+(-2)=0 ∉ ℝ\{0}.
Thus ℝ\{0} is not
closed under +.
Binary Operations

Usual multiplication ‘.’ on

the sets ℝ and ℚ induces
a binary operation on the
sets ℝ\{0}, ℝ+ and ℚ\
{0},
ℚ+, respectively.
Group Theory

Binary Operations
Binary Operations

Let Sbe a set and

a, b  S .
Binary Operations

Let Sbe a set and

a, b  S .
A binary operation on
S which assigns
is a rule
to any ordered pair
( a, b)
an element
a b  S
.
Binary Operations

Examples
For S , , , ,  ,
a  b a  b
Binary Operations

Examples
For S , , , ,  ,
a  b a  b
For S , , , ,  ,
a  b ab

Binary Operations

Examples
For S , , , ,  ,
a  b a  b
For S , , , ,  ,
a  b ab
For S , , ,  ,
a  b a  b
Binary Operations

Examples
For S , , , ,  ,
a  b a  b
For S , , , ,  ,
a  b ab
For S , , ,  ,
a  b a  b
For S , , , ,
a  b min(a, b)
Binary Operations

Examples
For S 1, 2,3
a  b b
Binary Operations

Examples
For S 1, 2,3
a  b b
For example
1  2 2,
1 1 1,
2  3 3.
 Binary Operations

Examples
For S , a  b a / bis not everywhere defined
since no rational number is assigned by this rule
to the pair (3, 0).
 Binary Operations

Examples
For S , a  b a / bis not everywhere defined
since no rational number is assigned by this rule
to the pair (3, 0).
For S  , a  b a /isb not a binary operation on
 is not
since closed under .
Binary Operations

Definition
A binary operation on 
S
a set is commutative if
and only if
for all a  b b  a
a, b  S .
Binary Operations

Definition
A binary operation on 
S
a set is associative if

(a  b)  c a  (b  c)
for all
a, b, c  S .
 Binary Operations

Examples
The binary operation 
defined by
a  b a  b
is commutative and associative in .
 Binary Operations

Examples
The binary operation 
defined by
a  b a  b
is commutative and associative in .
The binary operation defined
 by
a  b ab
is commutative and associative in .
 Binary Operations

The binary operation defined by a  b a  b

is not commutative in .
 Binary Operations

The binary operation defined by a  b a  b

is not commutative in .
The binary operation given by a  b a  isb
not associative in .
 Binary Operations

The binary operation defined by a  b a  b

is not commutative in .
The binary operation given by a  b a  isb
not associative in .
For instance,
(a  b)  c (4  7)  2  5
but
a  (b  c ) 4  (7  2)  1.
Group Theory

Bijective Maps
Bijective Maps

Definition
A function f : X  Yis
called injective or one-to-
one if
f  x1   f  x2   x1 x2 .
Bijective Maps

Definition
A function f : X  Yis
called injective or one-to-
one if
f  x1   f  x2   x1 x2 .
or
x1  x2  f  x1   f  x2 .
Bijective Maps

Definition
A function f : X  Yis
called surjective or onto if
for any y  Y , there exists
x  X with y  f ( x) .
Bijective Maps

Definition
A function f : X  Yis
called surjective or onto if
for any y  Y , there exists
x  X with y  f ( x) .
i.e. if the image f ( x) is
Y
the whole set .
Bijective Maps

Definition
A bijective function or one-
to-one correspondence is a
function that is both
injective and surjective.
 Bijective Maps

Example
f :    , f ( x) 10 x
 Bijective Maps

Example
f :    , f ( x) 10 x
x y
f ( x)  f ( y )  10 10  x  y
Therefore, f is one-to-one.
 Bijective Maps

Example
f :    , f ( x) 10 x
x y
f ( x)  f ( y )  10 10  x  y
Therefore, f is one-to-one.
r , then log10 r   such that

If  
f (log10 r ) 10log10 r r .
 Bijective Maps

Example
f :    , f ( x) 10 x
x y
f ( x)  f ( y )  10 10  x  y
Therefore, f is one-to-one.
r , then log10 r   such that

If  
f (log10 r ) 10log10 r r .
It implies that f is onto.
 Bijective Maps

Example
f :    , f ( x) 10 x
x y
f ( x)  f ( y )  10 10  x  y
Therefore, f is one-to-one.
r , then log10 r   such that

If  
f (log10 r ) 10log10 r r .
It implies that f is onto.
Hence f is bijective.
 Bijective Maps

Example
f :   , f (m) 3m
 Bijective Maps

Example
f :   , f (m) 3m

f (m)  f (n)  3m 3n  m n

Therefore, f is one-to-one.
 Bijective Maps

Example
f :   , f (m) 3m

f (m)  f (n)  3m 3n  m n

Therefore, f is one-to-one.
We assume that m   is the pre-image of 4   ,
then f (m) 3m 4  m 4 / 3  .
It implies that f is not onto.
 Bijective Maps

Example

f :   , f ( x)  x 2.
 Bijective Maps

Example

f :   , f ( x)  x 2.
f ( 3)  f (3) 9 but  3 3 .
Therefore, f is not one-to-one.
 Bijective Maps

Example

f :   , f ( x)  x 2.
f ( 3)  f (3) 9 but  3 3 .
Therefore, f is not one-to-one.
We assume that x   is the pre-image of  5   ,
2
then f ( x )  x  5  x   5  .
It implies that f is not onto.
Bijective Maps

Definition
Let f : X  Ybe a function
and let be a subsetH of .
The image of X
H under f is given by
f  H  { f h  | h  H }
.
Bijective Maps

Definition
A function f : X  Yis
called surjective or onto if
f  X  Y .
Bijective Maps

Example
f :     , f ( x ) 10 x
Bijective Maps

Example
f :     , f ( x ) 10 x
f    

f
Therefore, is onto.
Bijective Maps

Example
f :   , f (m) 3m
Bijective Maps

Example
f :   , f (m) 3m
f   3 
f
It implies that is not onto.
Bijective Maps

Example

f :   , f ( x) x 2
Bijective Maps

Example

f :   , f ( x) x 2
f    {0} 
So, f is not onto.
Group Theory

Inversion Theorem
 Inversion Theorem

Lemma
If f : X  Y and g : Y  Z are two functions, then:
(i) If f and g are injective, g  f is injective.
 Inversion Theorem

Lemma
If f : X  Y and g : Y  Z are two functions, then:
(i) If f and g are injective, g  f is injective.
(ii) If f and g are surjective, g  f is surjective.
 Inversion Theorem

Lemma
If f : X  Y and g : Y  Z are two functions, then:
(i) If f and g are injective, g  f is injective.
(ii) If f and g are surjective, g  f is surjective.
(iii) If f and g are bijective, g  f is bijective.
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
(i) Suppose that  g  f  x1   g  f  x2 . Then,
g  f  x1  g  f  x2   f  x1   f x2   x1 x2.
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
(i) Suppose that  g  f  x1   g  f  x2 . Then,
g  f  x1  g  f  x2   f  x1   f x2   x1 x2.
(ii) Let z  Z . Since g is surjective, there exists y  Y
with g ( y )  z .
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
(i) Suppose that  g  f  x1   g  f  x2 . Then,
g  f  x1  g  f  x2   f  x1   f x2   x1 x2.
(ii) Let z  Z . Since g is surjective, there exists y  Y
with g ( y )  z . Since f is also surjective, there exists
x  X with f ( x)  y .
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
(i) Suppose that  g  f  x1   g  f  x2 . Then,
g  f  x1  g  f  x2   f  x1   f x2   x1 x2.
(ii) Let z  Z . Since g is surjective, there exists y  Y
with g ( y )  z . Since f is also surjective, there exists
x  X with f ( x)  y . Hence,
 
 g  f  x  g f  x  g  y  z .
So, g  f is surjective.
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
(i) Suppose that  g  f  x1   g  f  x2 . Then,
g  f  x1  g  f  x2   f  x1   f x2   x1 x2.
(ii) Let z  Z . Since g is surjective, there exists y  Y
with g ( y )  z . Since f is also surjective, there exists
x  X with f ( x)  y . Hence,
 
 g  f  x  g f  x  g  y  z .
So, g  f is surjective.
(iii) This follows from parts (i) and (ii).
Inversion Theorem

Theorem
The function f : X  Y has
an inverse if and only if f is
bijective.
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
Suppose that h : Y  X is an inverse of f .
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
Suppose that h : Y  X is an inverse of f .
The function f is injective because
f  x1   f  x2   h  f  x1  h  f  x2   x1 x2 .
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
Suppose that h : Y  X is an inverse of f .
The function f is injective because
f  x1   f  x2   h  f  x1  h  f  x2   x1 x2 .
The function f is surjective because if for any y  Y
 
with x h  y  , it follows that f  x   f h  y   y .
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
Suppose that h : Y  X is an inverse of f .
The function f is injective because
f  x1   f  x2   h  f  x1  h  f  x2   x1 x2 .
The function f is surjective because if for any y  Y
 
with x h  y  , it follows that f  x   f h  y   y .
Therefore, f is bijective.
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
Conversely, suppose that f is bijective. We define the
function h : Y  X as follows.
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
Conversely, suppose that f is bijective. We define the
function h : Y  X as follows. For any y  Y , there
exists x  X with y  f  x .
Since f is injective, there is only one such element x.
 Inversion Theorem

Proof
Conversely, suppose that f is bijective. We define the
function h : Y  X as follows. For any y  Y , there
exists x  X with y  f  x .
Since f is injective, there is only one such element x.
Define h  y   x . This function h is an inverse of f
because
 
f h  y   f  x   y and h f  x  h  y  x .
 
Group Theory

Isomorphic Binary
Structures
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Let us consider a binary algebraic structure S , to

S
be a set together with a binary operation  S.
on
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Let us consider a binary algebraic structure S , to

S
be a set together with a binary operation on  S.
Two binary structures S , and S , are said to be
isomorphic if there is a one-to-one correspondence
between the elements of and the elements x S of
such that x S 
x  x and y  y  x  y  x y.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Let us consider a binary algebraic structure ( S , to)

S
be a set together with a binary operation on  S.
Two binary structures ( S , and
) ( S , are
) said to be
isomorphic if there is a one-to-one correspondence
between the elements of and the elements x S of
such that x S 
x  x and y  y  x  y  x y.
A one-to-one correspondence exists if the sets and S
S  same number of elements.
have the
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Definition
Let S , and S , be
 binary algebraic structures.
An isomorphism of with S S  function
is a one-to-one
mapping onto  such that S S
 ( x  y )  ( x)  ( y )  x, y  S .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are isomorphic

Step 1. Define the function that gives the
isomorphism of S
and S .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are isomorphic

Step 1. Define the function that gives the
isomorphism of S
and S .
Step 2. Show that is one-to-one.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are isomorphic

Step 1. Define the function that gives the
isomorphism of S
and S .
Step 2. Show that is one-to-one.
Step3. Show that  is onto S .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are isomorphic

Step 1. Define the function that gives the
isomorphism of S
and S .
Step 2. Show that  is one-to-one.
Step3. Show that  is onto S .
Step 4. Show that
 ( x  y )  ( x)  ( y )  x, y  S .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure  
,. .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure  
,. .
Step 1.
x
 :    ,  ( x) e

 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure  
,. .
Step 1.
x
 :    ,  ( x) e


Step 2.
 ( x)  ( y )  e x e y  x  y.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure  
,. .
Step 1.
x
 :    ,  ( x) e


Step 2.
 ( x)  ( y )  e x e y  x  y.
Step3. If r  , then

ln(r )  
and
 (ln r ) eln r r.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure  ,. .
Step 1.  :    ,  ( x) e x
x y
Step 2.  ( x)  ( y )  e e  x  y.

Step3. If r  , then ln r  and

 (ln r ) eln r r.
Step 4.  ( x  y ) e x  y e x e y  ( x) ( y )  x, y  .
Group Theory

Isomorphic Binary
Structures
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure 2,.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure 2,.
Step 1.  :   2,  ( m) 2m
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure 2,.
Step 1.  :   2,  ( m) 2m
Step 2.  (m)  (n)  2m 2n  m . n
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure 2,.
Step 1.  :   2,  ( m) 2m
Step 2.  (m)  (n)  2m 2n  m . n
Step3. If n  2,then m n / 2   and
 (m) 2 n / 2  n.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We show that the binary structure , is
isomorphic to the structure 2,.
Step 1.  :   2,  ( m) 2m
Step 2.  (m)  (n)  2m 2n  m . n
Step3. If n  2,then m n / 2   and
 (m) 2 n / 2  n.
Step 4.
 (m  n) 2 m  n  2m  2n  (m)   (n)  m, n  .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are not isomorphic

How do we demonstrate that two binary structures
S ,  and S ,  are not isomorphic?
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are not isomorphic

How do we demonstrate that two binary structures
S ,  and S ,  are not isomorphic?

There is no one-to-one function from Sonto S
with the property
 ( x  y )  ( x)  ( y )  x, y  S .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are not isomorphic

How do we demonstrate that two binary structures
S ,  and S ,  are not isomorphic?

There is no one-to-one function from Sonto S
with the property
 ( x  y )  ( x)  ( y )  x, y  S .
In general, it is not feasible to try every possible one-
to-one function mapping onto S and test S  whether
it has homomorphism property.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are not isomorphic

A structural property of a binary structure is one that
must be shared by any isomorphic structure.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are not isomorphic

A structural property of a binary structure is one that
must be shared by any isomorphic structure.
It is not concerned with names or some other
nonstructural characteristics of the elements.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are not isomorphic

A structural property of a binary structure is one that
must be shared by any isomorphic structure.
It is not concerned with names or some other
nonstructural characteristics of the elements.
A structural property is not concerned with what we
consider to be the name of the binary operation.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are not isomorphic

A structural property of a binary structure is one that
must be shared by any isomorphic structure.
It is not concerned with names or some other
nonstructural characteristics of the elements.
A structural property is not concerned with what we
consider to be the name of the binary operation.
The number of elements in the set S is a structural
property of S ,.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

How to show binary structures are not isomorphic

In the event that there are one-to-one mappings of
S onto S , we usually show that S ,  is not
isomorphic to S ,  by showing that one has
some structural property that the other does not
possess.
Isomorphic Binary Structures

Possible Structural
Properties
The set has four elements.
Isomorphic Binary Structures

Possible Structural
Properties
The set has four elements.
The operation is
commutative.
Isomorphic Binary Structures

Possible Structural
Properties
The set has four elements.
The operation is
commutative.
 x  x for
x all x . S
Isomorphic Binary Structures

Possible Structural
Properties
The set has four elements.
The operation is
commutative.
 x  x forx all x . S
The equation a  x b
has a solution x in S
for all a, b  S.
Isomorphic Binary Structures

Possible Nonstructural
Properties
The number 4 is an element.
Isomorphic Binary Structures

Possible Nonstructural
Properties
The number 4 is an element.
The operation is called
“addition”.
Isomorphic Binary Structures

Possible Nonstructural
Properties
The number 4 is an element.
The operation is called
“addition”.
The elements of are
matrices. S
Isomorphic Binary Structures

Possible Nonstructural
Properties
The number 4 is an element.
The operation is called
“addition”.
The elements of are
matrices. S
 is a subset of .
S 
Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
The binary structures
,  , 
and are
not
 isomorphic because0
has cardinality
(aleph-null)
 0 while
.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We prove that the binary structures , and
, 
under the usual addition are not isomorphic.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We prove that the binary structures , and
, 
under the
 usual addition are
0not isomorphic.
 
 Both and have cardinality , so there are lots
of one-to-one functions mapping onto .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We prove that the binary structures ,and

, 
under the
 usual addition arenot
0
isomorphic.
 Both and have cardinality , so there
 are lots
 of
one-to-one functions
x mapping
x c onto . x
The equation has a solution for all
c 
but this is not the case in .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We prove that the binary structures , 
and
, 
under the usual addition are not isomorphic.
 Both   cardinality , so there0 are lots of one-
and have
to-one functions mapping onto .  
The equation ac solution for all x
x  xhas
c  but this is not the case in . 
For example, the equation x has
x no3solution in .

Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
The binary structures
 ,. and ,.
under usual
multiplication are
not isomorphic because
the equation
x.x c
has solution for all
x
but has
c x . x  1
no solution in .

 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
 The binary structures M 2  ,.and ,.
under usual matrix multiplication and number
multiplication, respectively because multiplication
of numbers is commutative, but multiplication of
matrices is not.
Group Theory

Isomorphic Binary
Structures
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) 3for
n n
an isomorphism?
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) 3for
n n
an isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( n) 3n
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) 3for
n n
an isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( n) 3n
  (m)  (n)  3m 3n  m n
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) 3for
n nan isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( n) 3n
  (m)  (n)  3m 3n  m n
Choose 5  ,  (m) 3m 5
but m 5 / 3  
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) for
3n n an
isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( n) 3n
  (m)  (n)  3m 3n  m n
Choose 5,  (m) 3m but
5 m 5 / 3  

 :   ,  ( n) 3n
Is homomorphism?
 (m  n) 3 m  n  3m  3n  (m)   (n)  m, n  
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) for
3n nanisomorphism?

  :   ,  ( n) 3n

 (m)  (n)  3m 3n  m n
Choose , but
5   (m) 3m 5 m 5 / 3  

Is  :   ,  ( n) 3n
homomorphism?
 (m  n) 3 m  n  3m  3n  (m)   (n)  m, n  

 ,   3, 
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) n for
1 n
an isomorphism?
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) n for
1 n
an isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( n) n  1
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) n for
1 n an isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( n) n  1
  (m)  (n)  m  1 n  1  m n
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) n for
1 n an isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( n) n  1
  (m)  (n)  m  1 n  1  m n
For every n  ,there exists n  1  such that
 (n  1) n  1  1 n
.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  (n) n for
1 n an isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( n) n  1
  (m)  (n)  m  1 n  1  m n
For every n  ,there exists n  1  such that
 (n  1) n  1  1 n
 (m  n) m  n  1  (m)   (n) m  n  2 .

 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  ( x)  x /for
2 x
isomorphism?
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  ( x)  x /for
2 x
isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( x )  x / 2
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  ( x)  x /for
2 x isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( x )  x / 2
  ( x)  ( y )  x / 2  y / 2  x  y
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  ( x)  x /for
2 x isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( x )  x / 2
  ( x)  ( y )  x / 2  y / 2  x  y
For every y  ,there exists 2 y  such that
 (2 y ) 2 y / 2  y
.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
Is  :   ,  ( x)  x /for
2 x isomorphism?
  :   ,  ( x )  x / 2
  ( x)  ( y )  x / 2  y / 2  x  y
For every y  ,there exists 2 y  such that
 (2 y ) 2 y / 2  y
x y x y .
 ( x  y)     ( x)   ( y )
 2 2 2
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We prove that the binary structures ,. and
 ,.
under the usual multiplication are not
isomorphic.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We prove that the binary structures ,. and
 ,.
under the usual multiplication are not
isomorphic.
   0

 Both and have cardinality , so  
there are lots
of one-to-one functions mapping onto .
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We prove that the binary structures ,.
and
 ,.
under the usual multiplication are not
isomorphic.
 Both 
and  cardinality , so

have 0
there are lots of
one-to-one functions mapping onto .  
In ,. are two elements such xthat
there , x.x  x
namely, 0 and 1.
 Isomorphic Binary Structures

Example
We prove that the binary structures and,.
 under the usual multiplication are not
 ,.
isomorphic.
 Both and have cardinality , so there are lots of one-
 mapping
to-one functions  
onto . 0

In there are two elements such that , 
,. 0 and 1.
namely, x x.x  x
However, in , there is only the single element 1.
 ,.
Group Theory

Isomorphic Binary
Structures
Group Theory

Groups
Group Theory

Associative Binary
Operation
A binary operation is
called associative if
(a  b)  c a  (b  c).
Group Theory

Example
Can we solve
3  x 2
in  ?
The equation is

unsolvable in since
 3  .
Group Theory

Example
Can we solve 3  x 2
in  ?
Group Theory

Example
Can we solve 3  x 2
in  ?
3 both sides
add  on
 3  (3  x)  3  2
Group Theory

Example
Can we solve 3  x 2
in  ?
3 both sides
add  on
 3  (3  x)  3  2
( 3  3)  x  3  2
Group Theory

Example
Can we solve 3  x 2
in  ?
3 both sides
add  on
 3  (3  x)  3  2
( 3  3)  x  3  2
Thus

0  x  3  2
Group Theory

Example
Can we solve 3  x 2
in  ?
3 both sides
add  on
 3  (3  x)  3  2
( 3  3)  x  3  2
Thus
0  x  3  2
 x  1.
 Group Theory

Example
Can we solve 3  x 2
in  ?
3 both sides
add  on
1. We use associative  3  (3  x)  3  2
property ( 3  3)  x  3  2
2. Existence of 0 Thus
with 0  x  x 0  x  3  2
3. Existence of  3
 x  1.
with  3  3 0
 Group Theory

Group(Definition)
A group G,  is a set G with binary operation 
satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G :
 Group Theory

Group(Definition)
A group (G , ) is a set G with binary operation 
satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G :

1.For a, b  G
, a b G (closure)
 Group Theory

Group(Definition)
A group (G , ) is a set G with binary operation 
satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G :

1.For a, b  G , a b G (closure)
2. ( a  b)  c a  (b  c ) (associative)
 Group Theory

Group(Definition)
A group G,  is a set G with binary operation 
satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G :

1.For a, b  G , a b G (closure)
2. ( a  b)  c a  (b  c ) (associative)
3.There exists e  Gsuch that (identity)
e  a a  e a
 Group Theory

Group(Definition)
A group (G , ) is a set G with binary operation 
satisfying the following axioms for all a, b, c  G :

1.For a, b  G , a b G (closure)
2. ( a  b)  c a  (b  c ) (associative)
3.There exists e  Gsuch that (identity)
e  a a  e a
1
4. For every a  G, there exists a  Gsuch that
a  1  a a  a  1 e (inverse)
 Group Theory

Example
Can we solve equations of the form
a  x b in a group G,  ?
 Group Theory

Example
Can we solve equations of the form
a  x b in a group G,  ?
a (a  x) a b
 Group Theory

Example
Can we solve equations of the form
a  x b in a group G,  ?
a (a  x) a b
(a a)  x a b
 Group Theory

Example
Can we solve equations of the form
a  x b in a group G,  ?
a (a  x) a b
(a a)  x a b
e  x a b
 Group Theory

Example
Can we solve equations of the form
a  x b in a group G,  ?
a (a  x) a b
(a a)  x a b
e  x a b
x a b
Group Theory

Examples of Groups
 Group Theory

Example
, 
 Group Theory

Example
, 
Closure  m, n  , m  n  
 Group Theory

Example
, 
Closure  m, n  , m  n  
Associative
 m, n, p  , (m  n)  p m  (n  p )
 Group Theory

Example
, 
Closure  m, n  , m  n  
Associative
 m, n, p  , (m  n)  p m  (n  p )
Identity
For every m  , 0  , 0  m m m  0.
 Group Theory

Example
, 
Closure  m, n  , m  n  
Associative
 m, n, p  , (m  n)  p m  (n  p )
Identity
For every m  , 0  , 0  m m m  0.
inverse
For every m     m   such that
m  ( m) 0 ( m)  m.
 Group Theory

Example
, 
 Group Theory

Example
, 
closure
 m, n  , m  n  
 Group Theory

Example
, 
closure
 m, n  , m  n  
associative
(2  3)  4  5 3 2  (3  4)
 Group Theory

Example
,.
 Group Theory

Example
,.
closure  m, n  , m.n  
 Group Theory

Example
,.
closure  m, n  , m.n  
associative
 m, n, p  , (m.n). p m.(n. p )
 Group Theory

Example
,.
closure  m, n  , m.n  
associative
 m, n, p  , (m.n). p m.(n. p )
identity
For every m  , 1  , 1.m m m.1.
 Group Theory

Example
,.
closure  m, n  , m.n  
associative
 m, n, p  , (m.n). p m.(n. p )
identity
For every m  , 1  , 1.m m m.1.
Inverse
1
2   but  
2
 Group Theory

Example
, 
 Group Theory

Example
, 
Closure  r , s  , r  s  
 Group Theory

Example
, 
Closure  r , s  , r  s  
Associative
 r , s, t  , (r  s )  t r  ( s  t )
 Group Theory

Example
, 
Closure  r , s  , r  s  
Associative
 r , s, t  , (r  s )  t r  ( s  t )
Identity
For every r   , 0  r r r  0, 0  .
 Group Theory

Example
, 
Closure  r , s  , r  s  
Associative
 r , s, t  , (r  s )  t r  ( s  t )
Identity
For every r   , 0  r r r  0, 0  .
inverse
For every r     r   such that
r  ( r ) 0 ( r )  r.
 Group Theory

Example
,.
 Group Theory

Example
,.
closure  r , s  , r.s  
 Group Theory

Example
,.
closure  r , s  , r.s  
associative
 r , s, t  , (r.s ).t r.( s.t )
 Group Theory

Example
,.
closure  r , s  , r.s  
associative
 r , s, t  , (r.s ).t r.( s.t )
identity
For every r   , 1.r r r.1, 1  .
 Group Theory

Example
,.
closure  r , s  , r.s  
associative
 r , s, t  , (r.s ).t r.( s.t )
identity
For every r   , 1.r r r.1, 1  .
Inverse
Inverse of 0   does not exist
Group Theory

Examples

   {0},.is a group.
Group Theory

Examples

   {0},.is a group.

   {0},.is a group.
Group Theory

Examples

   {0},.is a group.

   {0},.is a group.

   {0},.is a group.
Group Theory

Uniqueness of Identity
and Inverse
Group Theory

Proposition
Let G, be a group.
Then
Group Theory

Proposition
Let G, be a group.
Then
1) Ghas exactly one
identity element
Group Theory

Proposition
Let G, be a group.
Then
1) Ghas exactly one
identity element
2)Each element of Ghas
exactly one inverse.
Group Theory

Proof
1) Suppose e, e are
identity elements.
Group Theory

Proof
1) Suppose e, e are
identity elements. So
e  x x  e x
Group Theory

Proof
1) Suppose e, e are
identity elements. So
e  x x  e x
e x  x  e  x
Group Theory

Proof
1) Suppose e, e are
identity elements. So
e  x x  e x
e x  x  e  x
holds for all x  G
Group Theory

Proof
1) Suppose e, e are
identity elements. So
e  x x  e x
e x  x  e  x
holds for all x  G
In particular
e e  e e.
Group Theory

Proof
2) Let x  G and
suppose x,are
x
inverses of x.
Group Theory

Proof
2) Let x  G and
suppose x,are
x
inverses of xSo
.
x x  x  x e
Group Theory

Proof
2) Let x  G and
suppose x,are
x
inverses of xSo
.
x x  x  x e
x x  x  x e
Group Theory

Proof
2) Let x  G and
suppose x,are
x
inverses of xSo
.
x x  x  x e
x x  x  x e
Then
x  x  e
Group Theory

Proof
2) Let x  G and
suppose x,are
x
inverses of xSo
.
x x  x  x e
x x  x  x e
Then
x  x  e
 x ( x  x)
Group Theory

Proof
2) Let x  G and
suppose x,are
x
inverses of xSo
.
x x  x  x e
x x  x  x e
Then
x  x  e
 x ( x  x)
( x x)  x
Group Theory

Proof
2) Let x  G and
suppose x,are
x
inverses of xSo
.
x x  x  x e
x x  x  x e
Then
x  x  e
 x ( x  x)
( x x)  x
e  x  x.
Group Theory

An Interesting
Example of Group
An Interesting Example of Group

Example
Let G = {x ∊ ℝ| x ≠ 1}

and define

x *y = xy – x – y + 2.

Prove that (G, *) is a

group.
An Interesting Example of Group

Solution
Closure:
Let a, b∊ G, so a ≠ 1
and b ≠ 1.
Suppose a * b = 1.
Then ab – a – b + 2 = 1
and so (a – 1)(b – 1) = 0
which implies that a = 1
or b = 1, a contradiction.
An Interesting Example of Group

Associative:
(a * b) * c
=(a * b)c – (a* b) – c + 2
= (ab – a – b + 2)c –
(ab – a – b + 2) – c + 2
= abc – ac – bc + 2c – ab
+a+b–2–c+2
= abc – ab – ac – bc + a +
b+c
Similarly a * (b * c) has
the same value.
An Interesting Example of Group

Identity:
An identity, e, would
have to satisfy:
e * x = x = x * e for all x
∊ G,
that is,
ex – e –x + 2 = x,
or
(e – 2)(x – 1) = 0 for all x.
Clearly e = 2 works.
An Interesting Example of Group

Inverses:
If x * y = 2, then
xy – x – y + 2 = 2.
So
y(x – 1) = x and
hence
y =x/(x – 1).
An Interesting Example of Group

This exists for all x ≠ 1,

i.e. for all x ∊ G. But we
must also check that it is

itself an element of G.

This is so because

x/(x – 1) ≠ 1
for all x≠1.
Group Theory

Topic No. 14
Group Theory

Elementary Properties
of Groups
Elementary Properties of Groups

Theorem
If G is a group with binary
operation * then the left
and right cancellation
laws hold in G, that is,
a * b = a * c implies b = c,
and b * a = c * a implies
b = c for all a, b, c ∊ G.
Elementary Properties of Groups

Proof
Suppose a * b = a * c.
Then, there exists a'∊ G, and
a'* (a* b) =a'*(a*c).
(a'* a)* b =(a'* a)* c.
So, e * b = e *c implies b = c.
Similarly, from b * a = c * a
one can deduce that b = c
upon multiplication by a'∊ G
on the right.
Elementary Properties of Groups

Theorem
If G is a group with binary
operation *, and if a and b
are any elements of G, then
the linear equations a * x=b
and y * a=b have unique
solutions x and y in G.
 Elementary Properties of Groups

Proof
First we show the existence of at least one solution by just
computing that a' * b is a solution of a* x = b.
Note that
a* (a'* b) =(a* a')* b= e * b= b.
Thus x = a' *b is a solution of a * x = b.
In a similar fashion, y = b * a' is a
solution of y *a = b.
Group Theory

Topic No. 15
Elementary Properties of Groups

Theorem
Let G be a group. For all
a, b∊ G, we have
(a*b)' = b' *a'.
Elementary Properties of Groups

Proof
Note that in a group G,
we have
(a* b) * (b' *a')
= a* (b * b') *a'
= (a* e) *a‘
= a* a'= e.
Elementary Properties of Groups

It shows that b' * a' is the

unique inverse of a* b.
That is,
(a * b )' = b' * a'.
Elementary Properties of Groups

Theorem
n 1 1 n
For any n ∈ ℕ, (a )− = (a− ) .
 Elementary Properties of Groups

Proof
By definition, (an)-1 is the unique element of G whose product
with an in any order is e.
But by associativity,

an ∗ (a−1 )n = (an−1 ∗ a) ∗ (a−1 ∗(a−1)n−1)

n−1 −1 −1 n−1
=a ∗ (a ∗ (a ∗ (a ) ))
n−1 −1 −1 n−1
=a ∗ ((a ∗ a ) ∗ (a ) )
n−1 −1 n−1
=a ∗ (e ∗ (a ) ))
n−1 −1 n−1
=a ∗ (a ) ,
 Elementary Properties of Groups

which by induction on n equals e (the cases n = 0

and n = 1 are trivial).

Similarly, the product of an and (a−1 )n in the other

order is e.

This proves that (a−1 )n is the inverse of an.

Group Theory

Groups of Matrices
 Groups of Matrices

Is ⟨ Mmn(ℝ), + ⟩ group?
 ∀ [aij], [bij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ), [aij] + [bij]=[aij + bij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ)
 ∀ [aij], [bij], [cij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ),
([aij] + [bij])+ [cij] =[aij + bij]+ [cij]
=[(aij + bij)+ cij]
=[aij +( bij+ cij)]
= [aij]+[bij+ cij]
= [aij] + ([bij]+ [cij])
 Groups of Matrices

 For every [aij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ) and [0] ∊ Mmn(ℝ),

[aij] + [0]=[aij+0]=[aij]=[0]+[aij]
 For every [aij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ) there exists [-aij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ) such
that [aij] + [-aij]=[aij+(- aij)]= [0]= [-aij]+[aij]
Group Theory

Groups of Matrices
Groups of Matrices

 ∀ [aij], [bij] ∊ Mmn(ℝ),

[aij] + [bij]=[aij + bij]
=[bij+ aij]= [bij] + [aij]
Therefore, ⟨ Mmn(ℝ), + ⟩
is abelian group.
 Similarly, ⟨ Mmn(ℤ), +
⟩,
⟨ Mmn(ℚ), + ⟩ and
⟨ Mmn(ℂ), + ⟩ are also
abelian groups.
Groups of Matrices

Is ⟨ Mnn(ℝ), . ⟩ group?
 ∀ A, B ∊ Mnn(ℝ),
AB ∊ Mnn(ℝ)
 ∀ A, B, C ∊ Mnn(ℝ),
(AB)C=A(BC)
 For every A ∊ Mnn(ℝ)
and In ∊ Mnn(ℝ),
AIn=A=InA
 A-1 does not exist for all
those A ∊ Mnn(ℝ)
having det(A)=0
Groups of Matrices

Field
(F,+,.)
 ⟨F,+⟩ is abelian
group
 ⟨F\{0},.⟩ is
abelian group
∀ a, b, c ∊ F,
 a(b+c)=ab+ac
 (a+b)c=ac+bc
Groups of Matrices

, 
, 
  {0},.
, 
  {0},.
, 
  {0},.
Group Theory

Abelian Groups
Group Theory

Let F 
or .
Group Theory

Let F 
or .

Let [aijbe
] a matrix
over F all
i.e.
aij  F
Group Theory

Let F 
or .

Let [aijbe
] a matrix
over F all
i.e.
aij  F

Let GL(n, Fdenotes

)
the set of all n n
invertible matrices
over . F
Group Theory

In general set of all

n n matrices is not
a group under matrix
multiplication.
Group Theory

In general set of all

n n matrices is not
a group under matrix
multiplication.

But GL(n, Fis) a group

under matrix
multiplication.
 Group Theory

Axioms
Let G GL(n, F. )
 Group Theory

Axioms
Let G GL(n, F. )
Closure: For all A, B  G
, AB  G
.
 Group Theory

Axioms
Let G GL(n, F. )
Closure: For all A, B  G , AB  G .
Associative property also holds in .G
 Group Theory

Axioms
Let G GL(n, F. )
Closure: For all A, B  G , AB  G.
Associative property also holds in .G
 Iisn the identity matrix.
 Group Theory

Axioms
Let G GL(n, F. )
Closure: For all A, B  G , AB  G.
Associative property also holds in .G
 Iisn the identity matrix.
Since both Aand A 1
are invertible so inverse exists.
 Group Theory

Example
Let G GL(2, and
) A, B  Gsuch that
 1  1  0 1
A   , B  
0 2   1 0
 Group Theory

Example
Let G GL(2, and
) A, B  Gsuch that
 1  1  0 1
A   , B  
0 2   1 0
then
 1  1  0 1    1 1 
AB     
 0 2   1 0  2 0
 Group Theory

Example
Let G GL(2, and
) A, B  Gsuch that
 1  1  0 1
A   , B  
0 2   1 0
then
 1  1  0 1    1 1 
AB     
 0 2   1 0  2 0
 0 1   1  1  0 2 
BA     
 1 0   0 2   1  1
Group Theory

Definition
Let G, be a group. If
for all a, b  G ,
a  b b  a
We call G an abelian
group.
Group Theory

Definition
Let G, be a group. If
for all a, b  G ,
a  b b  a
We call G an abelian
group.
 Examples
n, 
Group Theory

Definition
Let G, be a group. If
for all a, b  G ,
a  b b  a
We call G an abelian
group.
 Examples
n, 

  {0},.
Group Theory

Examples

, 
Group Theory

Examples

, 

, 
Group Theory

Examples

, 

, 

  {0},.
Group Theory

Examples

, 

, 

  {0},.

  {0},.
Group Theory

Examples

GL(n, )
Group Theory

Examples

GL(n, )
 1  1
A  
0 2 
Group Theory

Examples

GL(n, )
 1  1
A  
0 2 

11  2 1
A   
2  0 1
Group Theory

Examples

GL(n, )
 1  1
A  
0 2 

11  2 1
A   
2  0 1

GL(n, )
Group Theory

Abelian Groups
Abelian Groups

Theorem
If a ∗ b = b ∗ a, then for all/any
n n n
one n ∈ ℤ, (a ∗ b) = a ∗ b .
 Abelian Groups
Proof
If n = 0 or n = 1, this holds trivially. Now let n > 1.
m m
By commutativity, b ∗a=a∗b for all m ≥ 0.
Then by induction on n,
n 1 n 1 n 1
(a ∗b)n = (a ∗ b) − ∗(a ∗b)= (a − ∗ b − ) ∗(a ∗b)
n−1 n− 1 n− 1 n−1
= ((a ∗b ) ∗ a) ∗ b = (a ∗ (b ∗ a)) ∗ b
n− 1 n−1 n− 1 n−1
= (a ∗ (a ∗ b )) ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ b )∗b
n n−1 n n
= a ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗ b .
Thus the result holds for all n∊ℕ.
Abelian Groups
If n<0, then by the positive case
and commutativity,

(a ∗b)n
n
= (b ∗a)
-n -1
= ((b ∗a) )
-n -n -1
=(b ∗a )
-n -1 -n -1
=(a ) ∗ (b )
n n
=a ∗b
Group Theory

Modular Arithmetic
Modular Arithmetic

Definition

Let n be a fixed positive integer and a

and b any two integers.

We say that a is congruent to b

modulo n if n divides a−b.

We denote this by a ≡ b mod n.

Modular Arithmetic

Theorem

Show that the congruence relation

modulo n is an equivalence relation

on .
Modular Arithmetic

Proof

Write “n|m” for “ n divides m,”

which means that there is some

integer k such that m = nk.

Hence a ≡ b mod n if and

only if n|(a−b).

(i) For all a ∈ , n |(a−a), so

a ≡ a mod n and the relation is

reflexive.
Modular Arithmetic

(ii) If a ≡ b mod n, then n|(a−b), so

n|−(a −b).

Hence n|(b−a) and b ≡ a mod n.

(iii) If a ≡ b mod n and b ≡ c mod n,

then n|(a−b) and n|(b−c), so n |

(a−b)+(b−c).

Therefore, n|(a−c) and a ≡ c mod n.

Hence congruence modulo n is an

equivalence relation on .
Modular Arithmetic

The set of equivalence

classes is called the set of

integers modulo n and is

denoted by .
 Modular Arithmetic

In the congruence relation modulo 3, we have the following equivalence classes:

[0]={...,−3,0,3,6,9,...} [1]={...,−2,1,4,7,10,...} [2]={...,−1,2,5,8,11,...}

[3]={...,0,3,6,9,12,...}=[0]

Any equivalence class must be one of [0], [1], or [2], so ={[0],[1],[2]}.

In general, ={[0],[1],[2],...,[n−1]}, since any integer is congruent modulo n to its

remainder when divided by n.

Group Theory

Order of a Group
Order of a Group

Definition

The number of elements of a

group G is called the order of G.

We denote it as |G|.

We call G finite if it has only

finitely many elements; otherwise

we call G infinite.
Order of a Group

Definition
Let G be a group and a
∈ G.
If there is a positive
integer n such that an
= e, then we call the
smallest such positive
integer the order of a.
If no such n exists,
we say that a has
infinite order.
The order of a is
denoted by |a|.
 Order of a Group

In the congruence relation modulo 4, we have the

following equivalence classes:

[0]={...,−4,0,4,8,12,...} [1]={...,−3,1,5,9,13,...} [2]={...,

−2,2,6,10,14,...} [3]={...,-1,3,7,11,15,...}

Any equivalence class must be one of [0], [1], [2] or [3],

so ={[0],[1],[2],[3]}.

Let +4 be addition modulo 4. Then, 2 +4 3 = 1.

 Order of a Group

We can write out its Cayley table:

+4 [0] [1] [2] [3]

[0] [0] [1] [2] [3]

[1] [1] [2] [3] [0]

[2] [2] [3] [0] [1]

[3] [3] [0] [1] [2]

Therefore, ⟨ℤ4,+4 ⟩ is a group.

 Order of a Group

 |ℤ4|=4
 1+41+41+41=4(1)=0 ⟹ |[1]|=4
 2+42=2(2)=0 ⟹ |[2]|=2
 3+43+43+43=4(3)=0 ⟹ |[3]|=4
 1(0)=0 ⟹ |[0]|=1
 ℤ4=⟨1⟩=⟨3⟩

 Let ℤn={[0], [1], [2],…,[n-1]}. Then, ⟨ℤn,+n ⟩ is a

group.
 | ℤn |=n
Order of a Group

, 
, 
  {0},.
, 
  {0},.
, 
  {0},.
Group Theory

Finite Groups
 Finite Groups

Let U4 = {1, −1, i, −i}, and let “.” be multiplication. Then U4 is a

group, and we can write out its multiplication table (Cayley table):

. 1 -1 i -i

1 1 -1 i -i

-1 -1 1 -i i

i i -i -1 1

-i -i i 1 -1
 Finite Groups

 |U4|=4
 (-1)(-1)=(-1)2=1 ⟹ |-1|=2
 i.i.i.i=i4=1 ⟹ |i|=4
 (-i)(-i)(-i)(-i)=(-i)4=1 ⟹ |-i|=4
 11=1 ⟹ |1|=1
 U4=⟨i⟩=⟨-i⟩
Finite Groups

Is ⟨U4, .⟩≅⟨ℤ4,+4 ⟩?
1⟷[0]
-1 ⟷[2]
i ⟷[1]
-i ⟷[3]
Finite Groups

Let Un={ei2kπ/n: k=0, 1, …, n-1}.

Then, ⟨Un,.⟩ is a
group.
⟨Un, .⟩≅⟨ℤn,+n ⟩
Group Theory

Finite Groups
 Finite Groups
Since a group has to have at least one element,
namely, the identity, a minimal set that might give
rise to a group is a one-element set { e}.
The only possible binary operation on
{ e} is defined by e ∗ e = e.
The three group axioms hold.
The identity element is always its own
inverse in every group.
 Finite Groups

Let us try to put a group structure on a set of two

elements.
Since one of the elements must play the role of
identity element, we may as well let the set be
{ e, a}.
Let us attempt to find a table for a binary

structure on { e, a}.
Finite Groups

Since e is to be the
identity, so e∗x=x∗e=x
for all x∊{e, a}.
Also, a must have an
inverse a' such that
a ∗ a' = a' ∗ a = e.
In our case, a' must be
either e or a. Since a' =
e obviously does not
work, we must have
Finite Groups

So, we have to complete

the table as follows:

∗ e a
e e a
a a e
 Finite Groups
We know that
ℤ2 ={[0], [l]}
under addition modulo
2 is a group, and by
+2 [0] [1] our arguments, its table
[0] [0] [1]
must be the one above
[1] [1] [0]
with e replaced by [0]
and a by [1].
Group Theory

Finite Groups
 Finite Groups

Suppose that G is any group of three

elements and imagine a table for G with identity
element appearing first.
Since our filling out of the table for G = { e, a, b}
could be done in only one way, we see that if we
take the table for G and rename the identity e, the
next element listed a, and the last element b, the
resulting table for G gives an isomorphism of the
group G with the group G' ={[0], [1], [2]}.
 Finite Groups

∗ e a b +3 [0] [1] [2]

e e a b [0] [0] [1] [2]
a a b e [1] [1] [2] [0]
b b e a [2] [2] [0] [1]

∗b = b ⟹ a=e
apossible not

∗b = a ⟹ b=e
apossible not

∗a = a ⟹ a=e
apossible not

∗b = b ⟹ b=e
bpossible not
 Finite Groups

Our work above can be summarized by saying that

all groups with a single element are isomorphic, all
groups with just two elements are isomorphic, and
all groups with just three elements are isomorphic.
We may say:
There is only one group of single element (up to
Isomorphism), there is only one group of two
elements (up to isomorphism) and there is only
one group of three elements (up to isomorphism).
 Finite Groups

There are two different types of group structures of

order 4.
 The group ⟨ℤ4 , +4⟩ is isomorphic to the group
U4 = { 1, i, -1, -i} of fourth roots of unity under
multiplication.
 The group V=⟨a,b | a2=b2=(ab)2=e ⟩
is the Klein 4-group, and the notation V comes
from the German word Vier for four.
Finite Groups
We describe Klein 4-group by
its group table.

∗ e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
Group Theory

Finite Groups
Finite Groups
Is ⟨ℤ6\{[0]}, .6 ⟩ a group?

.6 [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

[1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
[2] [2] [4] [0] [2] [4]
[3] [3] [0] [3] [0] [3]
[4] [4] [2] [0] [4] [2]
[5] [5] [4] [3] [2] [1]
Finite Groups
Is ⟨ℤ5\{[0]}, .5 ⟩ a group?

.5 [1] [2] [3] [4]

[1] [1] [2] [3] [4]
[2] [2] [4] [1] [3]
[3] [3] [1] [4] [2]
[4] [4] [3] [2] [1]

⟨ℤp\{[0]}, .p ⟩ is a group,
where p is a prime number
Group Theory

Subgroups
Subgroups

Subgroups
Let G, be a group. A
subgroup of is G
a
subset of G
which is
itself a group under . 
 Subgroups

Examples
 , is a subgroup of , 
 Subgroups

Examples
 , is a subgroup of , 

   {0},.is not a subgroup of , 

 Subgroups

Examples
 , is a subgroup of , 

   {0},.is not a subgroup of , 

 {1,  1},. is a subgroup of {1,  1, i,  i},.

 Subgroups

Examples
 , is a subgroup of , 

   {0},.is not a subgroup of , 

 {1,  1},. is a subgroup of {1,  1, i,  i},.

 {1, i},.is not a subgroup of

{1,  1, i,  i},.
Subgroups

Proposition
Let Gbe a group. Let
H  G . Then H is a
subgroup of ifGthe
following are true:
Subgroups

Proposition
Let Gbe a group. Let
H  G . Then H is a
subgroup of ifGthe
following are true:
1) e  H
Subgroups

Proposition
Let Gbe a group. Let
H  G . Then H is a
subgroup of ifGthe
following are true:
1) e  H
2) hif, k  H then
hk  H
Subgroups

Proposition
Let Gbe a group. Let
H  G . Then H is a
subgroup of ifGthe
following are true:
1) e  H
2) hif, k  H then
hk  H
3) hif H then
h 1  H
 Subgroups

Example
Let G GL(2, )
Let  1 n  
H   n  
 0 1  
 Subgroups

Example
Let G GL(2, )
Let  1 n  
H   n  
 0 1  

1) e  H
 Subgroups

Example
Let G GL(2, )
Let  1 n  
H   n  
 0 1  

1) e  H
2) let  1 n 1 p
h   , k  
 0 1 0 1
then  1 p  n
hk    H.
0 1 
Subgroups

Example
3) let  1n
h  .
 0 1
Then
1 1  n
h    H.
0 1 
Subgroups

Example
3) let  1n
h  .
 0 1
Then
1 1  n
h    H.
0 1 

Hence H is a subgroup
of . G
Group Theory

Examples of Subgroups
 Groups of Matrices

If F is a field GL(n, F) denotes the group of

all invertible n  n matrices over F under
multiplication. This group is called the general
linear
group of degree n over F.
We know that the associative law holds for matrix
multiplication. Checking the closure law requires us
to know that the product of two invertible matrices is
invertible. And we need to know more than just the
fact that every invertible matrix has an inverse. We
need to observe that such an inverse is itself
invertible.
 Groups of Matrices

An interesting subgroup of GL(n, F) is T+(n, F) the

set of all n  n upper- triangular matrices over F,
that is, n  n matrices of the form:
 a11 a12 a13 ... a1n 
 0 a a23 ... a2 n 
 22

 0 0 a33 ... a3n 

 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 0 0 0 ... ann 
where each diagonal component is
non-zero.
 Groups of Matrices

Then there are the lower triangular matrices

T(n, F) which are the transposes of the upper
triangular ones.
 a11 0 0 ... 0 
a a22 0 ... 0 
 12
 a13 a23 a33 ... 0 
 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 a1n a2 n a3n ... ann 
 Groups of Matrices

Diagonal matrices D(n, F). It’s closed under

multiplication,
+
identity and inverses simply because
each of T (n, F) and T (n, F) are.
This is a special case of the general fact that:
The intersection of any collection of subgroups is
itself a subgroup.
 a11 0 0 ... 0 
 0 a 0 ... 0 
 22

 0 0 a33 ... 0 
 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 0 0 0 ... ann 
 Groups of Matrices

Within D(n, F) we have the non-zero scalar

matrices S(n, F). These are simply the diagonal
matrices that have the same non-zero entry down
the diagonal, that is, non-zero scalar multiples of
the identity matrix.

 0 0 ... 0 1 0 0 ... 0
0  0 ... 0  0 1 0 ... 0 
 
0 0  ... 0    0 0 1 ... 0   I n ,  0
   
 ... ... ... ... ...  ... ... ... ... ...
 0 0 0 ...    0 0 0 ... 1 
 Groups of Matrices

Another interesting subgroup of T+(n, F) is the

group of uni-upper-triangular matrices UT+(n, F).
These are the upper-triangular matrices with 1’s down
the diagonal:
 1 a12 a13 ... a1n 
0 1 a23 ... a2 n 

0 0 1 ... a3n 
 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 0 0 0 ... 1 
 Groups of Matrices


And inside T (n, F) we have the uni-lower-triangular

matrices UT (n, F).

 1 0 0 ... 0
a 1 0 ... 0 
 12
 a13 a23 1 ... 0
 
 ... ... ... ... ...
 a1n a2 n a3n ... 1 
 Groups of Matrices

We can summarize the connections between these

subgroups in a “lattice diagram”:
GL(n, F)

T+(n, F) T(n, F)

D(n, F)

UT+(n, F) UT(n, F)

S(n, F)

1
Groups of Matrices

Another
important very
subgroup
F) is of GL(n,
SL(n,
of F) consisting
all the matrices with
determinant 1.
It’s called
special the
linear
degreegroup of
n over F.
Group Theory

Topic No. 28
Group Theory

The Two Step Subgroup

Test
 The Two Step Subgroup Test

Theorem
A subset H of a group G is a
subgroup of G if and only if
1. H is closed under the binary operation ∗ of G,
2. for all a ∈ H it is true that a-1 ∈ H also.
 The Two Step Subgroup Test

Proof
The fact that if H is subgroup of G then conditions
1 and 2 must hold follows at once from the
definition of a subgroup.
Conversely, suppose H is a subset of a group G
such that conditions 1 and 2 hold.
By 1 we have at once that closure property is
satisfied. The inverse law is satisfied by 2.
Therefore, for every a∊H there exists a-1∊H
such that e=a∗a-1∊H by 1. So,
e∗a=a∗e=a by 1.
The Two Step Subgroup Test

It remains to check the

associative axiom.
But surely for all a, b, c ∊
H it is true that
(ab)c = a(bc)
in H, for we may actually
view this as an equation
in G, where the
associative law holds.
Group Theory

Topic No. 29
Group Theory

Examples on Subgroup
Test
Examples on Subgroup Test

Recall
Let G be a group and H a
nonempty subset of G. If
a∗b is in H whenever a and
b are in H, and a-1 is in H
whenever a is in H, then H is
a subgroup of G.
Examples on Subgroup Test

To Apply the Two Step

Subgroup Test:

Note that H is
nonempty

Show that H is closed
with respect to the
group operation

Show that H is closed
with respect to inverses.

Conclude that H is a
subgroup of G.
 Examples on Subgroup Test

Example
Show that 3Q* is a subgroup of Q*, the non-zero rational
numbers.

3Q* is non-empty because 3 is an element of 3Q*.

For a, b in 3Q*, a=3i and b=3j where i, j are in Q*.
Then ab=3i3j=3(3ij), an element of 3Q* (closed)
For a in 3Q*, a=3i for i an element in Q*.
Then a-1=(i-13-1), an element of 3Q*. (inverses)
Therefore 3Q* is a subgroup of Q*.
Group Theory

Topic No. 30
Group Theory

The One Step Subgroup

Test
The one Step Subgroup Test

Theorem
If S is a subset of the
group G, then S is a
subgroup of G if and
only if S is nonempty
and whenever a, b ∈ S,
then ab−1 ∈ S.
The one Step Subgroup Test

Proof
If S is a subgroup, then
of course S is nonempty
and whenever a, b ∈ S,
then ab−1 ∈ S.
 The one Step Subgroup Test

Conversely suppose S is a nonempty subset of

the Group G such that whenever a, b ∈ S, then
ab−1 ∈ S.
Let a ∈ S, then e = aa -1 ∈ S and so a-1 = ea-1 ∈ S.
Finally, if a, b ∈ S, then b-1 ∈ S by the above and
so ab = a(b -1)-1 ∈ S.
Group Theory

Topic No. 31
Group Theory

Examples on Subgroup
Test
Examples on Subgroup Test

Recall
Suppose G is a group and H
is a non-empty subset of G.
If, whenever a and b are in
H, ab-1 is also in H,
then H is a subgroup of G.

Or, in additive notation:

If, whenever a and b are in
H, a - b is also in H,
then H is a subgroup of G.
Examples on Subgroup Test

To apply this test:


Note that H is a
non-empty subset
of G.

Show that for any
two elements
a and b in H, ab-1 is

also in H.

Conclude that H is a
subgroup of G.
 Examples on Subgroup Test

Example
Show that the even integers are a subgroup of the
Integers.
Note that the even integers is not an empty set because
2 is an even integer.
Let a and b be even integers.
Then a = 2j and b = 2k for some integers j and k.
a + (-b) = 2j + 2(-k) = 2(j-k) = an even integer
Thus a - b is an even integer
Thus the even integers are a subgroup of the integers.
Examples on Subgroup Test

Example
For a, b in 3Q*, a=3i and b=3j
where i, j are in Q*
Then
ab-1=3i(3j)-1 =3i(j-13-1)=3(ij-13-1),
an element of 3Q*
Group Theory

Topic No. 32
Group Theory

The Finite Subgroup

Test
The finite Subgroup Test

Theorem
If S is a subset of the
finite group G, then S is
a subgroup of G if and
only if S is nonempty

and whenever a, b ∈ S,

then ab ∈ S.
 The finite Subgroup Test
Proof
If S is a subgroup then obviously S is nonempty
and whenever a, b ∈ S, then ab ∈ S.
Conversely suppose S is nonempty and
whenever a, b ∈ S, then ab ∈ S.
Then let a ∈ S. The above property says that
2 3 2 4 3
a =aa∈S and so a =aa ∈S and so a =aa ∈S
and so on and on and on.
The finite Subgroup Test

That is an ∈ S for all integers

n > 0.
But G is finite and thus so is S.
Consequently the sequence,
a, a2, a3, a4,…,an,…
cannot continue to produce
new elements.
That is there must exist m<n
such that am=an.
Thus e= an-m ∈ S.
The finite Subgroup Test

Therefore for all a ∈ S, there

is a smallest integer k > 0
such that ak = e.
Moreover, a-1 = ak-1 ∈ S.
Finally if a, b ∈ S, then b -1 ∈ S
by the above and so by the
assume property we have
a b-1 ∈ S.
Therefore S is a subgroup as
desired.
Group Theory

Topic No. 33
Group Theory

Examples on Subgroup
Test
Examples on Subgroup Test

Example
 ({1,−1, i,−i}, ・ )
 {1,i}
 {1,-i}
 {1,−1}
 {1,-1,i}
 {1,-1,-i}

30
 Examples on Subgroup Test

Example
 ({[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]}, +6 )
 {[0], [1]} or {[0], [4]} or {[0], [5]} or {[0], [2]}
 {[0], [3]}
 {[0], [2], [4]}
 {[0], [2], [3], [4]}

31
Group Theory

 Cyclic Groups
Cyclic Groups

Definition
Let G be a group and let
a ∊ G.
Then the subgroup
H={an| n ∊ ℤ}
of G is called the cyclic
subgroup of G generated
by a, and denoted by 〈a〉.
Cyclic Groups

Definition
 An element a of a group G
generates G and is a
generator for G if a=G.
 A group G is cyclic if there
is some element a in G that
generates G.
Cyclic Groups

 Let a be an element of a
group G.
 If the cyclic subgroup a is
finite, then the order of a is
the order | a | of this
cyclic subgroup.
 Otherwise, we say that a is
of infinite order.
 Cyclic Groups

• 

𝑰𝒎
𝝎𝟑
𝝎𝟐
𝝎
𝟏 𝑹𝒆
Group Theory

Examples of Cyclic
Groups
Examples of Cyclic Groups
Examples of Cyclic Groups
Examples of Cyclic Groups
Group Theory

Elementary Properties
of Cyclic Groups
Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Theorem
Every cyclic group is
abelian.
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Proof
 Let G be a cyclic group and let a be a generator of G so
that
G = a ={an|n ℤ}.
 If g1 and g2 are any two elements of G, there exists
integers r and s such that g1=ar and g2=as.
 Then
g1g2= aras = ar+s = as+r = asar = g2g1.
 So, G is abelian.
Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups
Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups
Group Theory

Elementary Properties
of Cyclic Groups
Group Theory

Elementary Properties
of Cyclic Groups
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Definition: G is cyclic if G = <a> for some a in G.

Theorem
If |a| = ∞, ai=aj iff i =j
If |a| = n, ai=aj iff n| i – j
<a> = {a, a2, … an-1,e}
Corollary 1: |a| = |<a>|
Corollary 2: ak = e implies |a| | k
Example: U5=< ω |ω5=1>=< ω2 >=< ω3 >= < ω4 >, ω=ei(2𝜋/5)
ω2≠ω4 5⫮4 – 2 ; ω5=ω10 5|10 – 5
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Example
U6=< ω |ω6=1>={ω,ω2, ω3, ω4, ω5,1} with ω=ei(2𝜋/6)
(ω5)2= ω10= ω6ω4= ω4
(ω5)3= ω15= (ω6)2ω3= ω3
(ω5)4= ω20= (ω6)3ω2= ω2
(ω5)5= ω25= (ω6)4ω= ω
(ω5)6= ω30= (ω6)5= 1
U6 =< ω5>={ω5, ω4, ω3, ω2,ω,1}
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Example
U6=< ω |ω6=1>={ω,ω2, ω3, ω4, ω5,1} with ω=ei(2𝜋/6)
< ω2>={ω2, ω4,1} < U6
< ω3>={ω3,1} < U6
< ω4>={ω4, ω2,1} = < ω2>
Group Theory

Elementary Properties
of Cyclic Groups
Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Theorem 1
If |a| = n, then
<ak> = <agcd(n,k)>
|ak| = n/gcd(n,k)
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

To prove the |ak| = n/gcd(n,k) , we begin with a little

lemma.
Prove: If d | n = |a|, then |ad| = n/d.
Proof: Let n = dq. Then e = an = (ad)q.
So |ad| ≤ q.
If 0< i < q, then 0 < di < dq = n = |a|
so (ad)i ≠ e
Hence, |ad| = q which is n/d as required.
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Now, we prove that |ak| = n/gcd(n,k).

Let d = gcd(n,k). Then, we have
|ak| = |<ak>| by Corollary 1
= |<ad>| by Part 1 of Theorem 1
= |ad| by Corollary 1
= n/d by above Lemma.
This concludes the proof.
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Example
Suppose G = <a> with |a| = 30.
Find |a21| and <a21>.
By Theorem 1, |a21| = 30/gcd(30,21) = 10
Also <a21> = <a3>
= {a3, a6, a9, a12,a15, a18, a21, a24, a27, e}
Group Theory

Elementary Properties
of Cyclic Groups
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Theorem 1
If |a| = n, then <ak> = <agcd(n,k)> and |ak| = n/gcd(n,k).
Corollaries to Theorem 1
1.In a finite cyclic group, the order of an element divides
the order of the group.
2.Let |a| = n in any group. Then
a) <ai> = <aj> iff gcd(n,i) = gcd(n,j)
b) |ai| = |aj| iff gcd(n,i) = gcd(n,j)
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Corollaries to Theorem 1
3. Let |a| = n.
Then < ai > = aj iff gcd(n,i) = gcd(n,j)
4. An integer k in ℤn is a generator of ℤn iff gcd(n,k)

=1
 Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

Example
Find all the generators of U(50) = 〈3〉.
U(50) ={1,3,7,9,11,13,17,19,21,23,27,29,31,33,
37,39,41,43,47,49} |U(50)| = 20
The numbers relatively prime to 20 are 1, 3, 7, 9, 11,
13, 17, 19
The generators of U(50) are therefore
31, 33, 37, 39, 311, 313, 317, 319
i.e. 3, 27, 37, 33, 47, 23, 13, 17
Group Theory

Fundamental
Theorem of Cyclic
Groups
 Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups

Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups

a)Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
b)If |a| = n, then the order of any subgroup of <a> is a
divisor of n
c)For each positive divisor k of n, the group <a> has
exactly one subgroup of order k, namely <an/k>
 Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups

Subgroups are cyclic

Proof: Let G = <a> and suppose H ≤ G. If H is trivial, then
H is cyclic.
Suppose H is not trivial.
Let m be the smallest positive integer with am in H.
(Does m exist?) ________
 Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups

By closure, <am> is contained in H.

We claim that H = <am>. To see this,
choose any b = ak in H. There exist integers q,r with
0≤ r < m such that
ak = aqm + r (Why?) ___________
 Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups

Since b = ak = aqma r, we have

ar = (am)-q b
Since b and am are in H, so is ar.
But r < m (the smallest power of a in H)
so r = 0.
Hence b = (am)q and b is in H.
It follows that H = <am> as required.
 Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups

|H| is a divisor of |a|

Proof: Given |<a>| = n and H ≤ <a>. We showed H =
<am> where m is the smallest positive integer with am in
H.
Now e = an is in H, so as we just showed, n = mq for
some q.
Now |am| = q is a divisor of n as required.
 Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups

Exactly one subgroup for each divisor k of n

(Existence) Given |<a>| = n. Let k | n.
Say n = kq. Note that gcd(n,q) = q
So |aq| = n/gcd(n,q) = n/q = k.
Hence there exists a subgroup of order k, namely
<an/q>
 Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups

 (Uniqueness) Let H be any subgroup of <a> with order

k. We claim H = <an/k>
From (a), H = <am> for some m.
From (b), m | n so gcd(n,m) = m.
So k = |am| = n/gcd(n,m) by Theorem 1
= n/m
Hence m = n/k
So H = <an/k> as required.
Group Theory

Subgroups of Finite
Cyclic Groups
 Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups

Theorem
Let G be a cyclic group with n elements and generated
by a. Let bG and let b=ak. Then b generates a cyclic
subgroup H of G containing n/d elements, where d =
gcd (n, k).
Also <ak >= <as> if and only gcd (k, n) = gcd (s, n).
 Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups

Example
using additive notation, consider in ℤ12, with the
generator a=1.
 3 = 31, gcd(3, 12)=3, so  3  has 12/3=4 elements.
 3 ={0, 3, 6, 9}
 Furthermore,  3 =  9  since gcd(3, 12)=gcd(9, 12).
 Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups

Example
 8= 81, gcd (8, 12)=4, so  8  has 12/4=3 elements.
 8 ={0, 4, 8}
 5= 51, gcd (5, 12)=1, so  5  has 12 elements.
 5 =ℤ12.
 Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups

Corollary
If a is a generator of a finite cyclic group G of order n,
then the other generators of G are the elements of the
form ar, where r is relatively prime to n.
 Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups

Example
Find all subgroups of ℤ18 and give their subgroup diagram.
 All subgroups are cyclic
 By above Corollary is the generator of Z 18, so is 5, 7, 11,
13, and 17.
 Starting with 2,  2  ={0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 }is of
order 9, and gcd(2, 18)=2=gcd(k, 18) where k is 2, 4, 8, 10,
14, and 16. Thus 2, 4, 8, 10, 14, and 16 are all generators
of 2.
 Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups

Example
 3={0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15} is of order 6, and gcd(3,
18)=3=gcd(k, 18) where k=15
 6={0, 6, 12} is of order 3, so is 12
 9={0, 9} is of order 2
Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups

1

2 3

6 9

0
Group Theory

Theorem on Cyclic
Group
Theorem on Cyclic Group

Theorem
Let G be a cyclic group
with generator a.
If the order of G is
infinite, then G is
isomorphic to (ℤ, +).
If G has finite order n,
then G is isomorphic to
(ℤn, +n).
 Theorem on Cyclic Group

Proof
Case 1
For all positive integers m, am ≠ e.
In this case we claim that no two distinct
exponents h and k can give equal elements ah
and ak of G.
Suppose that ah = ak and say h > k.
Then aha-k = ah-k = e, contrary to our Case 1
assumption.
Theorem on Cyclic Group

Case 1
Hence every element
of G can be expressed
as am for a unique m
∊ ℤ.
The map ϕ : G → ℤ
given by ϕ(ai) = i is
thus well defined, one
to one, and onto ℤ.
Theorem on Cyclic Group

Case 1
Also,
ϕ(aiaj)=ϕ(ai+j)
=i+j
=ϕ(ai )+ϕ(aj),
so the homomorphism
property is satisfied and
ϕ is an isomorphism.
 Theorem on Cyclic Group

Case 2
am = e for some positive integer m.
Let n be the smallest positive integer such that
an = e.
If s ∊ ℤ and s = nq + r for 0 < r < n, then
as = anq+r = (an)q ar = eq ar = ar.
As in Case 1, if 0 < k < h < n and
ah = ak, then ah-k = e and 0 < h-k < n, contradicting
our choice of n.
Theorem on Cyclic Group

Case 2
Thus the elements
a0=e, a, a2, a3, ···, an-1
are all distinct and
comprise all elements
of G.
The map 𝛹 : G → ℤn
given by 𝛹(ai) = i for i
= 0, 1, 2, ···, n - 1 is
thus well defined, one
to one, and onto ℤn.
Theorem on Cyclic Group
Case 2
Because an = e, we see
that ai aj = ak
where k = i +n j.
Thus 𝛹(ai aj) = i +n j
= 𝛹(ai) +n 𝛹(aj),
so the homomorphism
property is satisfied
and 𝛹 is an
isomorphism.
Group Theory

Permutation Groups
Permutation Groups

Definition
A permutation of a set
A is a function from A to
A that is both one to
one and onto.
 Permutation Groups

Array Notation
 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
 Here are two permutations of A:

 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
     
 2 3 1 4  2 1 4 3

 (2) 3  (4) 3
 (4) 4  (1) 2
 (2)  (3) 4
 Permutation Groups

Composition in Array Notation

 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
   
 2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4
 1 2 3 4
 
 1 
 Permutation Groups

Composition in Array Notation

1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
   
2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4
 
1 4 
 Permutation Groups

Composition in Array Notation

1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
   
2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4
 
1 4 2 
 Permutation Groups

Composition in Array Notation

1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
   
2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4

1 4 2 3 
 Permutation Groups

Composition in Array Notation

1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
   
2 1 4 3  2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4

1 4 2 3 
Permutation Groups

Definition
A permutation group of
a set A is a set of
permutations of A that
forms a group under
function composition.
 Permutation Groups

Example
 The set of all permutations on {1,2,3} is called the
symmetric group on three letters, denoted S3
 There are 6 permutations possible:

 1 2 3
 
 __ __ __ 
3  2  1 6
Group Theory

Examples of
Permutation Groups
 Examples of Permutation Groups

S3
 The permutations of {1,2,3}:
1 2 3 1 2 3
     
1 2 3 2 3 1
2 1 2 3 1 2 3
     
 3 1 2 1 3 2
 1 2 3 2  1 2 3
      
 2 1 3  3 2 1
 Examples of Permutation Groups

Is S3 a group?
 Composition of functions is always associative.
 Identity is .
 Since permutations are one to one and onto, there
exist inverses (which are also permutations).
 Therefore, S3 is group.
 Examples of Permutation Groups

Computations in S3

3  1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3
      
 2 3 1  3 1 2  1 2 3

2  1 2 3   1 2 3   1 2 3 
     1 2 3  
1 3 2  1 3 2   

1 2 3   1 2 3  1 2 3 2
       
1 3 2   2 3 1  3 2 1
 Examples of Permutation Groups

Simplified Computations in S3

 

 

 Double the exponent of when switching with .
 We can simplify any expression in S3!
Group Theory

Examples of
Permutation Groups
 Examples of Permutation Groups

Symmetric Groups, Sn
 Let A = {1, 2, … n}. The symmetric group on n
letters, denoted Sn, is the group of all permutations
of A under composition.
 Sn is a group for the same reasons that S3 is group.
 |Sn| = n!
 Examples of Permutation Groups

Symmetries of a Square, D4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
R0   H  
1 2 3 4 2 1 4 3
1 2 3 4 2
1 2 3 4 3
R90   V  
2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1
 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
R180   D  
 3 4 1 2 1 4 3 2 4 1
 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
R270   D   D4 ≤ S4
 4 1 2 3   3 2 1 4 
 Examples of Permutation Groups

Why do we care?
 Every group turns out to be a permutation group on
some set!
(To be proved later).
Group Theory

Permutation Groups
Permutation Groups

Definition
Let f : A → B be a
function and let H be a
subset of A. The image
of H under f is
{f (h) I h ∊ H} and is
denoted by f[H].
Permutation Groups

Lemma
Let G and G' be groups
and let ϕ : G → G' be a
one-to-one function such
that ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x )ϕ(y)
for all x, y ∊ G.
Then ϕ[ G] is a subgroup
of G' and ϕ provides an
isomorphism of G with
ϕ[G].
 Permutation Groups

Proof
Let x', y' ∊ ϕ[G]. Then there exist x, y ∊ G such that
ϕ(x) = x' and ϕ(y) = y'.
By hypothesis, ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) = x'y', showing that x'y'
∊ ϕ[G].
We have shown that ϕ[G] is closed under the
operation of G'.
Permutation Groups

Let e' be the identity of G'.

Then
e'ϕ(e) = ϕ(e)
= ϕ(ee)
= ϕ(e)ϕ(e).
Cancellation in G' shows
that e' = ϕ(e) so e' ∊ ϕ[G].
Permutation Groups

For x' ∊ ϕ[G] where x' =

ϕ(x), we have
e'=ϕ(e)
= ϕ(xx-1)
= ϕ(x) ϕ(x-1)
= x' ϕ(x-1)
which shows that
x'-1 = ϕ(x-1) ∊ ϕ[G].
Therefore, ϕ[G]<G'.
Permutation Groups

Note that ϕ provides an

isomorphism of G with
ϕ[G] follows at once
because ϕ provides a one-
to-one map of G onto ϕ[G]
such that ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y)
for all x, y ∊ G .
Group Theory

Cayley’s Theorem
Cayley’s Theorem

Theorem
Every group is isomorphic
to a group of permutations.
Cayley’s Theorem

Proof
Let G be a group.
We show that G is
isomorphic to a
subgroup of SG.
We Need only to define
a one-to-one function
ϕ: G → SG such that
ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y)
for all x, y ∊ G.
 Cayley’s Theorem

For x ∊ G, let λx : G → G be defined by λx (g) = xg

for all g ∊ G. (We think of λx as performing left
multiplication by x.)
The equation λx(x-1c) = x(x-1c) = c for all c ∊ G
shows that λx maps G onto G. If λx(a) = λx(b),
then xa = xb so a= b by cancellation. Thus λx is
also one to one, and is a permutation of G.
 Cayley’s Theorem

We now define ϕ: G → SG by defining ϕ(x) = λx for

all x ∊ G.
To show that ϕ is one to one, suppose that
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y ).
Then λx = λy as functions mapping G into G.
In particular λx(e) = λy(e), so xe = ye and x = y.
Thus ϕ is one to one.
 Cayley’s Theorem

It only remains to show that ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x )ϕ(y ),

that is, λxy = λx λy .
Now for any g ∊ G, we have λxy(g) = (xy)g.
Permutation multiplication is function
composition, so (λx λy)(g) = λx(λy(g)) = λx(yg) =
x(yg).
Thus by associativity, λxy = λx λy .
Group Theory

Examples of
Permutation Groups
 Examples of Permutation Groups

There is a natural correspondence between the

elements of S3 and the ways in which two copies of
an equilateral triangle with vertices 1, 2, and 3 can
be placed, one covering the other with vertices on
top of vertices.
For this reason, S3 is also the group D3 of
symmetries of an equilateral triangle. We used , for
rotations and µ; for mirror images in bisectors of
angles. The notation D3 stands for the third dihedral
group.
The nth dihedral group Dn is the group of
symmetries of the regular n-gon.
 Examples of Permutation Groups

ρ0 = do nothing
1
μ1 = reflect in line l1 1
3 2

3
l3 l2
μ2 = reflect in line l2 2 1
2

1 3 2 3
l1
μ3 = reflect in line l3
3

1 2

ρ1 = rotate anticlockwise 120o 2

3 1

o
 Examples of Permutation Groups
1 2 3
 0  
1 2 3
1 2 3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 μ1 μ2 μ3
1  
2 3 1
ρ0 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 μ1 μ2 μ3
1 2 3
 2   ρ1 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0 μ3 μ1 μ2
3 1 2
1 2 3  ρ2 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1 μ2 μ3 μ1
1  
1 3 2  μ1 μ1 μ2 μ3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2
1 2 3
 2   μ2 μ2 μ3 μ1 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1
3 2 1
μ μ3 μ1 μ2 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0
1 2 3 3
3  
2 1 3
Group Theory

Examples of
Permutation Groups
 Examples of Permutation Groups

Recall
We form the dihedral group D4 of permutations
corresponding to the ways that two copies of a
square with vertices 1, 2, 3, and 4 can be placed,
one covering the other with vertices on top of
vertices.
D4 is the group of symmetries of the square.
It is also called the octic group.
 Examples of Permutation Groups

Symmetries of a Square, D4
12 3 4 1 2 3 4
 0   1  
12 3 4 2 1 4 3
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 3 2
1  
2 3 4 1  2  4 3 2

1

 1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
 2   1  
 3 4 1 2 1 4 3 2
4 1
 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
3 
4 1 2 3
  2   D4 ≤ S4
   3 2 1 4
Examples of Permutation Groups
Group Theory

Orbits
Orbits

Definition
An orbit of a permutation
p is an equivalence class
under the relation:
a ~ b ⇔ b = pn(a),
for some n in ℤ.
 Orbits

Find all orbits of   1 2 3 4 5 

 2 3 1 5 4
 
Method:
Let S be the set that the permutation works on.
0) Start with an empty list
1) If possible, pick an element of the S not already
visited and apply permutation repeatedly to get
an orbit.
2) Repeat step 1 until all elements of S have been
visited.
 Orbits

 Look at what happens to elements as a

permutation is applied.

 1 2 3 4 5
  
 2 3 1 5 4
α(1)=2, α2(1)=3, α3(1)=1 {1,2,3}

α(4)=5, α2(4)=4 {4,5}

Group Theory

Orbits
Orbits

Theorem
Let p be a permutation
of a set S.
The following relation
is an equivalence
relation:
a ~ b ⇔ b =pn(a),
for some n in ℤ.
Orbits

Proof
1) reflexive:
a = p0(a) ⇒ a~a
2) symmetric:
a~b ⇒ b = pn(a), for

some n in ℤ
⇒ a = p-n(b),
with -n in ℤ
⇒ b~a
 Orbits

3) transitive:
a~b and b~c
⇒ b = (a) and c = (b) , for some n1 and n2 in
ℤ
⇒ c = ((a)) , for some n1 and n2 in ℤ
⇒ c = (a) , with n2 + n1 in ℤ
⇒ a~c
Group Theory

Cycles
Cycles

Definition
A permutation is a
cycle if at most one of
its orbits is nontrivial
(has more than one
element).
Cycles

Definition
A cycle of length 2 is
called a transposition.
Cycles

Example

 1 2 3 4 5
  
 2 3 1 5 4

=(1, 2, 3)(4, 5)
=(1,3)(1,2)(4,5)
 Cycles

Composition in cycle notation

 = (1 2 3)(1 2)(3 4)
= (1 3 4)(2)
= (1 3 4)
 = (1 2)(3 4)(1 2 3)
= (1)(2 4 3)
= (2 4 3)
Group Theory

Disjoint Cycles
Disjoint Cycles

Definition
Two permutations are
disjoint if the sets of
elements moved by
the permutations are
disjoint.
 Disjoint Cycles

Symmetries of a Square, D4 ≤ S4
1 2 3 4
0   (1 2)(1 2)
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1   (1 2 3 4) (1 4)(1 3)(1 2)
2 3 4 1
1 2 3 4
 2   (1 3)(2 4)
3 4 1 2
1 2 3 4
3   (1 4 3 2) (1 2)(1 3)(1 4)
4 1 2 3
 Disjoint Cycles

Symmetries of a Square, D4 ≤ S4
 1 2 3 4
1   (1 2)(3 4)
 2 1 4 3
1 2 3 4
2   (1 4)(2 3)
4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4
1   (2 4)
1 4 3 2
 1 2 3 4
 2   (1 3)
 3 2 1 4
Group Theory

Cycle Decomposition
Cycle Decomposition

Theorem:
Every permutation of
a finite set is a product
of disjoint cycles.
Cycle Decomposition

Proof:
Let σ be a permutation.
Let B1, B2, …, Br be the
orbits.
Let μi be the cycle
defined by μi (x) = σ(x)
if x in Bi and x
otherwise.
Then σ = μ1 μ2 … μr .
Note: Disjoint cycles
Cycle Decomposition

Lemma
Every cycle is a product
of transpositions.
Proof
Let (a1, a2, …, an) be a
cycle, then
(a1, an) (a1, an-1) … (a1, a2)
= (a1, a2, …, an).
Cycle Decomposition

Theorem
Every permutation can
be written as a product
of transpositions.
Proof
Use the lemma plus the
previous theorem.
Group Theory

Parity of Permutation
Parity of a Permutation

Definition
The parity of a permutation
is said to be even if it can
be expressed as the
product of an even number
of transpositions, and odd
if it can be expressed as a
product of an odd number
of transpositions.
Parity of a Permutation

Theorem
The parity of a
permutation is even or
odd, but not both.
 Parity of a Permutation

Proof
We show that for any positive integer n, parity is a
homomorphism from Sn to the group ℤ2, where 0
represents even, and 1 represents odd.
These are alternate names for the equivalence classes
2ℤ and 2ℤ+1 that make up the group ℤ2.
There are several ways to define the parity map.
They tend to use the group {1, -1} with multiplicative
notation instead of {0, 1} with additive notation.
 Parity of a Permutation

One way uses linear algebra: For the permutation π

define a map from Rn to Rn by switching coordinates
as follows
Lπ(x1, x2, …, xn) = (x , xπ(2), …, xπ(n)).
π(1)

Then Lπ is represented by a n x n matrix Mπ whose

rows are the corresponding permutation of the rows
of the n x n identity matrix.
The map that takes the permutation π to Det (Mπ) is
a homomorphism from Sn to the multiplicative group
 Parity of a Permutation

Another way uses the action of the permutation on

the polynomial
P(x1, x2, …, xn ) = Product{(xi - xj )| i <
j }.
Each permutation changes the sign of P or leaves it
alone.
This determines the parity: change sign = odd parity,
leave sign = even parity.
Group Theory

Alternating Group
Alternating Group

Definition
The alternating group
on n letters consists of
the even permutations
in the symmetric group
of n letters.
Alternating Group

Definition
The alternating group
on n letters consists of
the even permutations
in the symmetric group
of n letters.
Alternating Group

Theorem
If n≥2, then the
collection of all
even permutations of
{1, 2, …, n}
forms a subgroup of
order n!/2 of the
symmetric group Sn.
 Alternating Group

1 2 3
 0   (12)(12)
1 2 3
1 2 3
1   (1 2 3) (1 3)(1 2)
2 3 1
1 2 3
 2   (1 3 2) (1 2)(1 3)
3 1 2
1 2 3
1   (2 3)
1 3 2
1 2 3
2   (1 3)
3 2 1
1 2 3
3   (1 2)
2 1 3
 Alternating Group

A3={(1), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}

(1) (1 2 3) (1 3 2)

(1) (1) (1 2 3) (1 3 2)

(1 2 3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2) (1)

(1 3 2) (1 3 2) (1) (1 2 3)
Group Theory

Direct Products
Direct Products

Definition
The Cartesian product of

n.
The Cartesian product is
denoted by either
 Direct Products

Let G 1, ···, Gn be groups, and let us use

multiplicative notation for all the group operations.
Regarding the G as sets, we can form ∏i=1n Gi.
Let us show that we can make ∏i=1n Gi into a group
by means of a binary operation of multiplication by
components.
 Direct Products

Theorem
Let G1, …, Gn be groups.
For (a1, …, an) and (b1,…, bn) in ∏i=1n Gi,
define (a1, …, an)(b1,…, bn) to be the element
(a1 b1, …, an bn).
Then ∏i=1n Gi is a group, the direct product of the
groups Gi , under this binary operation.
 Direct Products

Proof
Note that since ai , bi ∊ G, and Gi is a group, we
have aibi ∊ G.
Thus the definition of the binary operation on
∏i=1n Gi given in the statement of the theorem
makes sense, that is, ∏i=1n Gi is closed under the
binary operation.
 Direct Products

The associate law in

∏i=1n Gi is thrown back onto the associative law in
each component as follows:
(a1,···, an)[(b1,···, bn)(c1,···, cn)]
=(a1, ···, an)(b1c1,···, bncn)= (a1(b1c1),···, an(bncn))
= ((a1b1)c1,···, (anbn)cn)=(a1b1,…,anbn)(c1,…,cn)
=[(a1,…,an)(b1,…,bn)](c1,…,cn)
 Direct Products

If ei is the identity element in Gi, then clearly,

with multiplication by components, (e1,···,en) an
identity in ∏i=1n Gi.
Finally, an inverse of (a1,···, an) is (a1-1,···, an-1);
compute the product by components.
Hence ∏i=1n Gi is a group.
Group Theory

Direct Products
 Direct Products

In the event that the operation of each Gi is

commutative, we sometimes use additive
notation in ∏i=1n Gi, and refer to ∏i=1n Gi as the
direct sum of the groups Gi. The notation
⨁i=1nGi is sometimes used in this case in place of
∏i=1n Gi, especially with abelian groups with
operation +. The direct sum of abelian groups G1,
G2,···, Gn may be written as G1 ⨁… ⨁Gn.
Direct Products

Proposition
A direct product of
abelian groups is
abelian.
Direct Products

Proof
Let G1, …, Gn be abelian
groups. For (a1, …, an)
and (b1,…, bn) in
∏i=1n Gi ,
(a1, …, an)(b1,…, bn)
=(a1 b1, …, an bn)
=(b1a1,…,bnan)
=(b1,…, bn) (a1, …, an).
Direct Products

If the Si has ri elements

for i =1,···,n, then ∏i=1n Si
has r1…rn elements, for in
an n-tuple, there are r1
choices for the first
component from S1, and
for each of these there
are r2 choices for the
next component from S2,
and so on.
Group Theory

Direct Products
 Direct Products

Example
Consider the group ℤ2 x ℤ3, which has 2·3=6
elements, namely (0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (l, 0), (1, 1),
and (1, 2). We claim that ℤ2 x ℤ3 is cyclic. It is only
necessary to find a generator. Let us try (1, 1). Here
the operations in ℤ2 and ℤ3 are written additively,
so we do the same in the direct product ℤ2 x ℤ3.
 Direct Products
• 1(1, 1) = (1, 1)
• 2(1. 1) = (l, l) + (1, 1) = (0, 2)
• 3(1, 1) = (1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 0)
• 4(1, 1) = 3(1. 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 0) + (1. 1) = (0, 1)
• 5(1, 1) = 4(1, 1) + (1, 1) = (0, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2)
• 6(1, 1) = 5(1. 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2) + (1, 1) = (0, 0)
Thus (1, 1) generates all of ℤ2 x ℤ3. Since there is,
up to isomorphism, only one cyclic group structure
of a given order, we see that ℤ2 x ℤ3 is isomorphic
to ℤ6.
 Direct Products

Example
Consider ℤ3 x ℤ3. This is a group of nine elements.
We claim that ℤ3 x ℤ3 is not cyclic.
Since the addition is by components, and since in ℤ3
every element added to itself three times gives the
identity, the same is true in ℤ3 x ℤ3 . Thus no
element can generate the group, for a generator
added to itself successively could only give the
identity after nine summands. We have found
another group structure of order 9. A similar
argument shows that ℤ2 x ℤ2 is not cyclic. Thus ℤ2 x
ℤ2 must be isomorphic to the Klein 4-group.
Group Theory

Direct Products
 Direct Products

Theorem
The group ℤm x ℤn is cyclic and is isomorphic to ℤmn
if and only if m and n are relatively prime, that is, the
gcd of m and n is 1.
 Direct Products

Proof
Consider the cyclic subgroup of ℤm x ℤn generated
by (1,1). The order of this cyclic subgroup is the
smallest power of (1,1) that gives the identity (0,0).
Here taking a power of (1,1) in our additive
notation will involve adding (1,1) to itself
repeatedly. Under addition by components, the
first component 1 ∊ ℤm yields 0 only after m
summands, 2m summands, and so on, and the
second component 1 ∊ ℤn yields 0 only after n
summands, 2n summands, and so on.
 Direct Products

For them to yield 0 simultaneously, the number of

summands must be a multiple of both m and n. The
smallest number that is a multiple of both m and n
will be mn if and only if the gcd of m and n is 1; in this
case, (1,1) generates a cyclic subgroup of order mn,
which is the order of the whole group. This shows
that ℤm x ℤn is cyclic of order mn, and hence
isomorphic to ℤmn if m and n are relatively prime.
 Direct Products

For the converse, suppose that the gcd of m and

n is d > 1. The mn/d is divisible by both m and n.
Consequently, for any (r, s) in ℤmx ℤn, we have
(r,s) + ··· + (r,s) = (0,0).
mn/d summands

Hence no element (r, s) in ℤm x ℤn can generate

the entire group, so ℤm x ℤn is not cyclic and
therefore not isomorphic to ℤmn.
Direct Products

Corollary
The group ∏i=1n is cyclic
and isomorphic to if
and only if the numbers
mi for i = 1,…, n are
such that the gcd of any
two of them is 1.
Direct Products

Example
If n is written as a product
of powers of distinct prime
numbers, as in n=…
then ℤn is isomorphic to
x … x.
In particular, ℤ72 is
isomorphic to ℤ8 x ℤ9.
Group Theory

Direct Products
Direct Products

We remark that changing

the order of the factors
in a direct product yields
a group isomorphic to
the original one. The
names of elements have
simply been changed via
a permutation of the
components in the n-
tuples.
 Direct Products

It is straightforward to prove that the subset of ℤ

consisting of all integers that are multiples of both r
and s is a subgroup of ℤ, and hence is cyclic group
generated by the least common multiple of two
positive integers r and s.
Likewise, the set of all common multiples of n positive
integers r1,···, rn is a subgroup of ℤ, and hence is cyclic
group generated by the least common multiple of n
positive integers r1,···, rn.
 Direct Products

Definition
Let r1,···, rn be positive integers. Their least
common multiple (abbreviated lcm) is the positive
generator of the cyclic group of all common
multiples of the ri, that is, the cyclic group of all
integers divisible by each ri, for i = 1,···, n.
 Direct Products

Theorem
Let (a1,···, an)∊ ∏i=1n Gi. If ai is of finite order ri in
Gi, then the order of (a1,···,an) in ∏i=1n Gi is equal to
the least common multiple of all the ri.
 Direct Products

Proof
This follows by a repetition of the argument used
in the proof of previous Theorem. For a power of
(a1,···, an) to give (e1, ···,en), the power must
simultaneously be a multiple of r1 so that this
power of the first component a1 will yield e1, a
multiple of r2, so that this power of the second
component a2 will yield e2, and so on.
Group Theory

Direct Products
 Direct Products

Example
Find the order of (8, 4, 10) in the group ℤ12 x ℤ6o x
ℤ24.
Solution
Since the gcd of 8 and 12 is 4, we see that 8 is of
order 3 in ℤ12. Similarly, we find that 4 is of order
15 in ℤ6o and 10 is of order 12 in ℤ24. The lcm
of 3, 15, and 12 is 3·5·4 = 60, so (8, 4,10) is of
order 60 in the group ℤ12 x ℤ60 x ℤ24.
 Direct Products

Example
The group ℤ x ℤ2 is generated by the elements
(1, 0) and (0, 1). More generally, the direct
product of n cyclic groups, each of which is
either ℤ or ℤm for some positive integer m, is
generated by then n-tuples
(1, 0,···, 0), (0, 1,···, 0),…,(0, 0,···, 1). Such a direct
product might also be generated by fewer
elements. For example, ℤ3 x ℤ4 x ℤ35 is generated
by the single element (1, 1, 1).
Group Theory

Fundamental Theorem
of Finitely Generated
Abelian Groups
Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated
Abelian Groups

Theorem
Every finitely generated abelian group G is
isomorphic to a direct product of cyclic groups in the
form
x … xx ℤ x … x ℤ
where the pi are primes, not necessarily distinct,
and the ri are positive integers. The direct product is
unique except for possible rearrangement of the
factors; that is, the number (Betti number of G) of
factors ℤ is unique and the prime powers are
unique.
Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated
Abelian Groups

Example
Find all abelian groups, up to isomorphism, of
order 360. The phrase up to isomorphism
signifies that any abelian group of order 360
should be structurally identical (isomorphic) to
one of the groups of order 360 exhibited.
Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated
Abelian Groups

Solution
Since our groups are to be of the finite order
360, no factors ℤ will appear in the direct
product shown in the statement of the
fundamental theorem of finitely generated
abelian groups.
First we express 360 as a product of prime
powers 23.32.5.
Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated
Abelian Groups

Then, we get as possibilities

1. ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ3 x ℤ3 x ℤ5
2. ℤ2 x ℤ4 x ℤ3 x ℤ3 x ℤ5
3. ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ2 x ℤ9 x ℤ5
4. ℤ2 x ℤ4 x ℤ9 x ℤ5
5. ℤ8 x ℤ3 x ℤ3 x ℤ5
6. ℤ8 x ℤ9 x ℤ5 
Thus there are six different abelian groups (up
to isomorphism) of order 360.
Group Theory

Applications
 Applications

Definition
A group G is decomposable if it is isomorphic to
a direct product of two proper nontrivial
subgroups. Otherwise G is indecomposable.
 Applications

Theorem
The finite indecomposable abelian groups are
exactly the cyclic groups with order a power of a
prime.
 Applications

Proof
Let G be a finite indecomposable abelian group.
Then, G is isomorphic to a direct product of
cyclic groups of prime power order. Since G is
indecomposable, this direct product must
consist of just one cyclic group whose order is a
power of a prime number.
Conversely, let p be a prime. Then ℤp' is
indecomposable, for if ℤp' were isomorphic to
x , where i + j = r, then every element would
have an order at most pmax{i,j}<pr.
Group Theory

Applications
 Applications

Theorem
If m divides the order of a finite abelian group
G, then G has a subgroup of order m.
 Applications

Proof
We can think of G as being
x … xwhere not all primes pi need be distinct.
Since … is the order of G, then m must be of the
form … , where 0≤ si ≤ri.
generates a cyclic subgroup of of order equal to
the quotient of by the gcd of and . But the gcd of
and is . Thus generates a cyclic subgroup of order
[ ]/[]= .
 Applications

Recalling that <a> denotes the cyclic subgroup

generated by a, we see that
<>x…x< >
is the required subgroup of order m.
Group Theory

Applications
 Applications

Theorem
If m is a square free integer, that is, m is not
divisible by the square of any prime, then
every abelian group of order m is cyclic.
 Applications

Proof
Let G be an abelian group of square free order
m. Then, G is isomorphic to
x … x,
where m= … . Since m is square free, we must
have all ri = 1 and all pi distinct primes. Then,
G is isomorphic to , so G is cyclic.
Group Theory

Cosets
 Cosets

Definition
Let H be a subgroup of a group G, which may be of
finite
or infinite order and a in G.
The left coset of H containing a is the set
aH = {ah | h in H}
The right coset of H containing a is the set
Ha = {ha | h in H}
In additive groups, we use a+H and H+a for left and
right cosets, respectively.
 Cosets

Example
We exhibit the left cosets and the right cosets of the
subgroup 3ℤ of ℤ.
0+3ℤ= 3ℤ ={…, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, … }
1+3ℤ={…, -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, … }
2+3ℤ={…, -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, … }
ℤ= 3ℤ⊔1+3ℤ ⊔ 2+3ℤ
So, these three left cosets constitute the
partition of ℤ into left cosets of 3ℤ.
 Cosets

Example
3ℤ+0= 3ℤ ={…, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, … }=0+3ℤ
3ℤ+1={…, -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, … }=1+3ℤ
3ℤ+2={…, -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, … }=2+3ℤ
ℤ= 3ℤ⊔3ℤ+1 ⊔ 3ℤ+2
So, the partition of ℤ into right cosets is the
same.
Group Theory

Cosets
Group Theory

Topic No. 67
Group Theory

Partitions of Groups
Partitions of Groups

Let H be a subgroup of a
group G, which may be of
finite or infinite order.
We exhibit two partitions
of G by defining two
equivalence relations, ∼L
and ∼R on G.
 Partitions of Groups

Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of a group G.
Let the relation ∼L be defined on G by a ∼L b iff a-
1
b∊H.
Let ∼R be defined by a ∼R b iff ab-1∊H.
Then ∼L and ∼R are both equivalence relations on G.
Partitions of Groups

Proof
Reflexive
Let a∊G.
Then a-1a = e ∊ H
since H is a subgroup.
Thus a∼La.
Partitions of Groups

Symmetric
Suppose a∼Lb.
Then a-1b∊H.
Since H is a subgroup,
(a-1b)-1=b-1a ∊H.
It implies that b ∼L a.
Partitions of Groups

Transitive
Let a∼Lb and b∼Lc .
Then a-1b∊H and b-1c∊H.
Since H is a subgroup,
(a-1b)(b-1c)=a-1c ∊H.
So, a ∼L c.
Partitions of Groups

 a is called the coset

representative of aH.
 Similarly, aHa-1 ={aha-1 |
h in H}
Group Theory

Topic No. 68
Group Theory

Examples of Cosets
 Examples of Cosets

Vectors under addition are a group:

(a,b) + (c,d) = (a+c,b+d)∊ℝ2
Identity is (0,0) ∊ℝ2
Inverse of (a,b) is (-a,-b) in ℝ2
((a,b)+(c,d))+(e,f)=(a+c,b+d)+(e,f)=((a+c)+e,(b+d)
+f)=(a+(c+e),b+(d+f))=(a,b)+(c+e,d+f)=(a,b)+((c,d)+
(e,f))
H = {(2t,t) | t∊ℝ} is a subgroup of ℝ2.
Proof: (2a,a) - (2b,b) = (2(a-b),a-b) ∊H
 Examples of Cosets

Visualizing H={(2t,t) | t∊ℝ}

Let x = 2t, y = t
Eliminate t:
y = x/2
H
 Examples of Cosets

Cosets of H={(2t,t) | t ∊ ℝ}
(a,b) + H = {(a+2t,b+t)}
Set x = a+2t, y = b+t and eliminate t:
y = b + (x-a)/2
The subgroup H is the line y = x/2.
The cosets are lines parallel to y = x/2 !
 Examples of Cosets

H and some cosets

(0,1) + H

H
(–3,0)+H

(1,0) + H
Group Theory

Examples of Cosets
Group Theory

Topic No. 69
Group Theory

Examples of Cosets
Examples of Cosets

Left Cosets of <(23)> in S3

Let H = <(23)> {, (23)}
H = {, (23)}=H
(123)H = {(123), (12)}
(132)H = {(132), (13)}
S3= H ⊔ (123)H ⊔ (132)H
Examples of Cosets

Right Cosets of <(23)> in S3

Let H = <(23)> {, (23)}
H = {, (23)}=H
H(123) = {(123), (13)}
H(132) = {(132), (12)}
S3= H ⊔ H(123) ⊔ H(132)
 Examples of Cosets

Left Cosets of <(123)> in A4

Let H = <(123)> {, (123), (132)}
H = {, (123), (132)}
(12)(34)H = {(12)(34), (243), (143)}
(13)(24)H = {(13)(24), (142), (234)}
(14)(23)H = {(14)(23), (134), (124)}
Group Theory

Examples of Cosets
Group Theory

Topic No. 70
Group Theory

Properties of Cosets
Properties of Cosets

Proposition
Let H be a subgroup of G,
and a,b in G.
1. a belongs to aH
2. aH = H iff a belongs to

H
Properties of Cosets
Properties of Cosets
Group Theory

Properties of Cosets
Group Theory

Topic No. 71
Group Theory

Properties of Cosets
 Properties of Cosets

Proposition
Let H be a subgroup of G, and a,b in G.
3. aH = bH iff a belongs to bH
4. aH and bH are either equal or disjoint
5. aH = bH iff a-1b belongs to H
Properties of Cosets
 Properties of Cosets

4. aH and bH are either disjoint or equal.

Proof: Suppose aH and bH are not disjoint. Say x is in
the intersection of aH and bH.
Then aH = xH = bH by (3).
Consequently, aH and bH are either disjoint or equal,
as required.
Properties of Cosets
Group Theory

Properties of Cosets
Group Theory

Topic No. 72
Group Theory

Properties of Cosets
Properties of Cosets

Proposition
Let H be a subgroup of G,
and a in G.
6. |aH| = |bH|
7. aH = Ha iff H = aHa-1
8. aH ≤ G iff a belongs to H
 Properties of Cosets

6. |aH| = |bH|
Proof: Let ø: aH → bH be given by
ø(ah) = bh for all h in H.
We claim ø is one to one and onto.
If ø(ah1) = ø(ah2), then bh1 = bh2
so h1 = h2. Therefore ah1 = ah2.
Hence ø is one-to-one.
ø is clearly onto.
It follows that |aH| = |bH| as required.
Properties of Cosets
Properties of Cosets
Group Theory

Properties of Cosets
Group Theory

Lagrange’s Theorem
Lagrange’s Theorem

Lagrange’s Theorem
Statement
If G is a finite group and H
is a subgroup of G, then |
H| divides |G|.

2
 Lagrange’s Theorem

Proof
The right cosets of H in G form a partition of G, so G
can be written as a disjoint union
G = Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ ·· ·∪ Hak
for a finite set of elements a1, a2, . . . , ak ∈ G.
The number of elements in each coset is |H|.
Hence, counting all the elements in the disjoint
union above, we see that |G| = k|H|.
Therefore, |H| divides |G|.
3
Lagrange’s Theorem

Subgroups of ℤ12
|ℤ12|=12
The divisors of 12 are
1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.
The subgroups of ℤ12
are
H1={[0]}
H2={[0],[6]}
H3={[0],[4],[8]}
H4={[0],[3],[6],[9]} 4
Group Theory

Applications of
Lagrange’s Theorem
Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem

Corollary
Every group of prime
order is cyclic.
 Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem

Proof
Let G be of prime order p, and let a be an element of
G different from the identity.
Then the cyclic subgroup <a> of G generated by a
has at least two elements, a and e.
But the order m≥2 of <a> must divide the prime p.
Thus we must have m = p and <a>=G, so G is cyclic.
Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem

Since every cyclic

group of order p is
isomorphic to ℤp, we
see that there is only
one group structure,
up to isomorphism, of
a given prime order p.
Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem

Theorem
The order of an
element of a finite
group divides the
order of the group.
Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem

Proof
Remembering that the
order of an element is
the same as the order
of the cyclic subgroup
generated by the
element, we see that
this theorem follows
directly from
Lagrange’s Theorem.
Group Theory

Indices of Subgroups
Indices of Subgroups

Definition
Let H be a subgroup of
a group G.
The number of left (or
right) cosets of H in G
is the index (G:H) of H
in G.
Indices of Subgroups

The index (G:H) just

defined may be finite or
infinite.
If G is finite, then
obviously (G:H) is finite
and (G:H)=IGI/IHI, since
every coset of H contains
IHI elements.
Indices of Subgroups

Example
μ=(1,2,4,5)(3,6)
μ2=(2,5)(1,4)
μ3=(1,5,4,2)(3,6)
μ4=ε
<μ> < S6
(S6:<μ>)=|S6|/|< μ
>|
=6!/
4=6.5.3.2=180.
Indices of Subgroups

Example
Find the right cosets of
H = {e, g4, g8} in
C12 = {e, g, g2, . . . , g11}.

15
 Indices of Subgroups

Solution
H={e, g4, g8} itself is one coset.
Another is Hg = {g, g5, g9}.
These two cosets have not exhausted all the
elements of C12, so pick an element, say g2, which is
not in H or Hg.
A third coset is Hg2 = {g2, g6, g10} and a fourth is
Hg3 ={g3, g7, g11}.
Since C12 = H ∪ Hg ∪ Hg2 ∪ Hg3, these are all the
cosets. Therefore, (C12:H)=12/3=4. 16
Indices of Subgroups

Theorem
Suppose H and K are
subgroups of a group
G such that K ≤ H ≤ G,
and suppose (H:K) and
(G:H) are both finite.
Then (G:K) is finite, and
(G:K)=(G:H)(H:K).
Group Theory

Converse of Lagrange’s
Theorem
Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem

Lagrange’s Theorem
shows that if there is
a subgroup H of a finite
group G, then the
order of H divides the
order of G.
Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem

Is the converse true?

That is, if G is a group
of order n, and m
divides n, is there
always a subgroup of
order m?
We will see next that
this is true for abelian
groups.
Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem

However, A4 can be
shown to have no
subgroup of order 6,
which gives a
counterexample for
nonabelian groups.
Converse of Lagrange’s Theorem

A4 = {(1), (1, 2)(3, 4),

(1, 3)(2, 4),(1, 4)(2, 3),
(1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2),
(1, 3, 4), (1, 4, 3),
(1, 2, 4),(1, 4, 2),
(2, 3, 4), (2, 4, 3)}
Group Theory

An Interesting Example
An Interesting Example

Example
A translation of the plane
R2 in the direction of the
vector (a, b) is a function
f :R2 → R2 defined by
f (x, y) = (x + a, y + b).

2
An Interesting Example

The composition of this

translation with a
translation g in the
direction of (c, d) is the
function
f g:R2 → R2, where
f g(x, y) = f (g(x, y))
= f (x + c, y + d)
= (x + c + a, y + d + b).
This is a translation in the
direction of (c + a, d + b).
An Interesting Example

It can easily be verified

that the set of all
translations in R2 forms
an abelian group, under
composition.

4
An Interesting Example

A translation of the plane

R2 in the direction of the
vector (0, 0) is an identity
function 1R2:R2 → R2
defined by
1R2(x, y)=(x+0, y+0)=(x, y).

5
An Interesting Example

The inverse of the

translation of the plane
R2 in the direction of the
vector (a, b) is an inverse
function f -1 :R2 → R2
defined by
f -1 (x, y) = (x - a, y - b)
such that
f f -1(x, y)=(x, y)=f-1 f(x, y).

6
An Interesting Example

The inverse of the

translation in the
direction (a, b) is the
translation in the
opposite direction
(−a,−b).

7
Group Theory

Homomorphism of
Groups
Homomorphism of Groups

Structure-Relating Maps
Let G and G' be groups.
We are interested in
maps from G to G' that
relate the group structure
of G to the group
structure of G'.
Such a map often gives
us information about one
of the groups from
known structural
properties of the other. 2
Homomorphism of Groups

Structure-Relating Maps
An isomorphism ϕ: G →
G', if one exists, is an
example of such a
structure-relating map. If
we know all about the
group G and know that ϕ
is an isomorphism, we
immediately know all
about the group structure
of G', for it is structurally
just a copy of G.
3
 Homomorphism of Groups

Structure-Relating Maps
We now consider more general structure-relating
maps, weakening the conditions from those of an
isomorphism by no longer requiring that the maps
be one to one and onto. We see, those conditions
are the purely set-theoretic portion of our definition
of an isomorphism, and have nothing to do with the
binary operations of G and of G'.

4
Homomorphism of Groups

Definition
If (G, ・ ) and (H, ) are
two groups, the function
f :G → H is called a group
homomorphism if
f(a ・ b)=f(a)f(b)
for all a, b ∈ G.

5
Homomorphism of Groups

 We often use the

notation
f : (G, ・ ) → (H, )
for such a homorphism.
 Many authors use
morphism instead of
homomorphism.

6
Homomorphism of Groups

Definition
A group isomorphism is a
bijective group
homomorphism.
If there is an isomorphism
between the groups (G,
・ ) and (H,), we say that
(G, ・ ) and (H,) are
isomorphic and write
(G, ・ )  (H,  ).
7
 Homomorphism of Groups

Example
Let ϕ: G → G' be a group homomorphism of G onto
G'. We claim that if G is abelian, then G' must be
abelian. Let a', b' ∊ G'. We must show that a' b' =
b' a'. Since ϕ is onto G', there exist a, b ∊ G such
that ϕ(a)= a' and ϕ(b) = b', Since G is abelian,
we have ab= ba. Using homomorphism property,
we have a'b' = ϕ(a) ϕ(b) = ϕ(ab)= ϕ(ba) =
ϕ(b) ϕ(a) = b' a', so G' is indeed abelian.

8
Group Theory

Examples of Group
Homomorphisms
Homomorphism of Groups

Example
The function f : Z → Zn ,
defined by f (x) = [x] is
the group
homomorphism,
for if i, j  ℤ, then
f(i+j)=[i+j]
=[i]+n[j]
=f(i)+nf(j).
10
Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Example
Let be R the group of all real numbers with
operation addition, and let R+ be the group of all
positive real numbers with operation multiplication.
The function f : R → R+ , defined by f (x) = ex , is a
homomorphism, for if x, y  R, then
f(x + y) = ex+y = ex ey = f (x) f (y).

11
 Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Now f is an isomorphism, for its inverse function

g :R+ → R is ln x.
Therefore, the additive group R is isomorphic to the
multiplicative group R+ .
Note that the inverse function g is also an
isomorphism:
g(x y) = ln(x y) = lnx + lny = g(x) + g(y).

12
Group Theory

Examples of Group
Homomorphisms
 Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Example
Let Sn be the symmetric group on n letters, and let :
ϕ: Sn → ℤ2 be defined by
ϕ(σ) = 0 if σ is an even permutation,
= 1 if σ is an odd permutation.
Show that ϕ is a homomorphism.

14
 Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Solution
We must show that ϕ(σ, µ) = ϕ(σ) + ϕ(µ) for all
choices of σ, µ ∊ Sn. Note that the operation on the
right-hand side of this equation is written additively
since it takes place in the group ℤ2. Verifying this
equation amounts to checking just four cases:
 σ odd and µ odd,
 σ odd and µ even,
 σ even and µ odd,
 σ even and µ even.
15
Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Checking the first case, if σ and µ can both be

written as a product of an odd number of
transpositions, then σµ can be written as the
product of an even number of transpositions. Thus
ϕ(σ, µ) = 0 and ϕ(σ) + ϕ(µ) = 1 + 1 = 0 in ℤ2.
The other cases can be checked similarly.

16
Group Theory

Properties of
Homomorphisms
Properties of Homomorphisms

Proposition
Let ϕ :G → H be a
group morphism, and
let eG and eH be the
identities of G and H,
respectively.
Then
(i) ϕ (eG) = eH .
(ii) ϕ (a−1) = ϕ (a)−1 for
all a ∈ G.
18
Theorems on Group Homomorphisms

Proof
(i) Since ϕ is a morphism,
ϕ (eG) ϕ (eG)
= ϕ (eG eG)
= ϕ (eG)
= ϕ (eG)eH
Hence (i) follows by
cancellation in H.

19
Theorems on Group Homomorphisms

Proof
(ii) ϕ (a) ϕ (a−1)
= ϕ (a a−1)
= ϕ (eG)
= eH by (i).
Hence ϕ (a−1) is the
unique inverse of ϕ (a);
that is ϕ (a−1) = ϕ (a)−1.

20
Group Theory

Properties of
Homomorphisms
Properties of Homomorphisms

We tum to some
structural features of G
and G' that are
preserved by a
homomorphism
ϕ: G → G'.
First we review set-
theoretic definitions.

22
Properties of Homomorphisms

Definition
Let ϕ be a mapping of
a set X into a set Y, and
let A ⊆ X and B ⊆ Y.
The image ϕ[A] of A in
Y under ϕ is {ϕ(a) |
a∊A}. The set ϕ[X] is
the range of ϕ. The
inverse image ϕ-1[B] of
B in X is {x∊X|
ϕ(x)∊B}.
23
Properties of Homomorphisms

Theorem
Let ϕ be a
homomorphism of a
group G into a group G'.
1. If H is a subgroup of
G, then ϕ[H] is a
subgroup of G'.
2. If K' is a subgroup of
G', then ϕ-1[K'] is a
subgroup of G.
24
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Proof
(1) Let H be a subgroup of G, and let ϕ(a) and
ϕ(b)
be any two elements in ϕ[H]. Then ϕ(a) ϕ(b) =
ϕ(ab), so we see that ϕ(a) ϕ(b) ∊ ϕ[H]; thus, ϕ[H]
is closed under the operation of G'. The fact that
ϕ(eG) = and ϕ (a−1) = ϕ (a)−1 completes the
proof that ϕ[H] is a subgroup of G’.

25
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Proof
(2) Let K' be a subgroup of G'. Suppose a and b are
in ϕ-1 [K']. Then ϕ(a)ϕ(b)∊K' since K' is a subgroup.
The equation ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a) ϕ(b) shows that
ab∊ϕ-1 [K']. Thus ϕ-1[K'] is closed under the binary
operation in G.

26
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Also, K' must contain the identity element = ϕ(eG),

so eG ∊ ϕ-1[K']. If a ∊ ϕ-1[K'], then
ϕ(a) ∊ K', so ϕ(a)-1 ∊ K'. But ϕ(a)-1 = ϕ(a-1), so we
must have a-1 ∊ ϕ-1[K'].
Hence ϕ-1[K'] is a subgroup of G.

27
Group Theory

Properties of
Homomorphisms
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Theorem: Let h be a homomorphism from a group G

into a group G’. Let K be the kernel of h. Then
a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} = h -1[{h(a)}]
and also
K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} = h -1[{h(a)}]
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Proof
h -1[{h(a)}] = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} directly from the
definition of inverse image.
Now we show that: a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} :
x in a K ⇔ x = a k, for some k in K
⇔ h(x) = h(a k) = h(a) h(k) = h(a) , for some k in K
⇔ h(x) = h(a)
Thus, a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}.
Likewise, K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}.
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Suppose: h: X  Y is any map of sets. Then h

defines an equivalence relation ~h on X by:
x ~h y ⇔ h(x) = h(y)
The previous theorem says that when h is a homomorphism
of groups then the cosets (left or right) of the kernel of h are
the equivalence classes of this equivalence relation.
Group Theory

Properties of
Homomorphisms
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Definition
If ϕ: G → G' is a group morphism, the kernel of ϕ ,
denoted by Ker ϕ, is defined to be the set of
elements of G that are mapped by f to the identity of
G'. That is, Ker f ={g ∈ G|f (g) = e' }.

6
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Corollary
Let ϕ: G → G' be a group morphism. Then, ϕ is
injective if and only if Ker ϕ = {e}.

7
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Proof
If Ker(ϕ) = {e}, then for every a ∊ G, the elements
mapped into ϕ(a) are precisely the elements of the
left coset a { e} = {a}, which shows that ϕ is one to
one.
Conversely, suppose ϕ is one to one. Now, we know
that ϕ(e)=e', the identity element of G'. Since ϕ is
one to one, we see that e is the only element
mapped into e' by ϕ, so Ker(ϕ)= {e}.

8
Properties of Homomorphisms

Definition
To Show ϕ: G → G' is
an Isomorphism
Step 1 Show ϕ is a
homomorphism.
Step 2 Show Ker(ϕ)=
{e}.
Step 3 Show ϕ maps G
onto G'.

9
Group Theory

Normal Subgroups
 Normal Subgroups

Normal Subgrops
Let G be a group with subgroup H. The right cosets of
H in G are equivalence classes under the relation a ≡
b mod H, defined by ab−1 ∈ H. We can also define the
relation L on G so that a L b if and only if b−1a ∈ H.
This relation, L, is an equivalence relation, and the
equivalence class containing a is the left coset aH =
{ah|h ∈ H}. As the following example shows, the left
coset of an element does not necessarily equal the
right coset.

11
Normal Subgroups

Example
Find the left and right
cosets of H = A3 and K =
{(1), (12)} in S3.

12
 Normal Subgroups

Solution
We calculated the right cosets of H = A3.
Right Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132)}; H(12) = {(12), (13), (23)}
Left Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132}; (12)H = {(12), (23), (13)}
In this case, the left and right cosets of H are the
same.

13
 Normal Subgroups

However, the left and right cosets of K are not all the
same.
Right Cosets
K = {(1), (12)} ; K(13) = {(13), (132)} ; K(23) = {(23),
(123)}
Left Cosets
K = {(1), (12)};(23)K = {(23), (132)}; (13)K = {(13),
(123)}

14
Group Theory

Normal Subgroups
Normal Subgroups

Definition
A subgroup H of a
group G is called a
normal subgroup of G if
g−1hg ∈ H for all g ∈ G
and h ∈ H.

16
Normal Subgroups

Proposition
Hg = gH, for all g ∈ G, if
and only if H is a normal
subgroup of G.

17
Normal Subgroups

Proof
Suppose that Hg = gH.
Then, for any element h ∈
H, hg ∈ Hg = gH.
Hence hg = gh1 for some
h1 ∈ H and
g−1hg = g−1gh1 = h1 ∈ H.
Therefore, H is a normal
subgroup.
18
 Normal Subgroups

Conversely, if H is normal, let hg ∈ Hg and

g−1hg = h1 ∈ H.
Then hg = gh1 ∈ gH and Hg ⊆ gH.
Also, ghg−1 = (g−1)−1hg−1 = h2 ∈ H, since H is
normal, so gh = h2g ∈ Hg. Hence, gH ⊆ Hg,
and so Hg = gH.

19
Group Theory

Theorem on Normal
Subgroup
Theorem on Normal Subgroup

If N is a normal
subgroup of a group G,
the left cosets of N in G
are the same as the
right cosets of N in G, so
there will be no
ambiguity in just talking
about the cosets of N in
G.
21
Theorem on Normal Subgroup

Theorem
If N is a normal subgroup
of (G, ·), the set of cosets
G/N = {Ng|g ∈ G} forms
a
group (G/N, ·), where the
operation is defined by
(Ng1) · (Ng2) = N(g1 · g2).
This group is called the
quotient group or factor
group of G by N. 22
 Theorem on Normal Subgroup

Proof. The operation of multiplying two cosets, Ng1

and Ng2, is defined in terms of particular elements,
g1 and g2, of the cosets. For this operation to make
sense, we have to verify that, if we choose different
elements, h1 and h2, in the same cosets, the
product coset N(h1 · h2) is the same as
N(g1 · g2). In other words, we have to show that
multiplication of cosets is well defined.

23
 Theorem on Normal Subgroup

Since h1 is in the same coset as g1, we have

h1 ≡ g1 mod N. Similarly, h2 ≡ g2 mod N.
We show that Nh1h2 = Ng1g2.
We have h1g 1−1 = n1 ∈ N and h2g 2−1 = n2 ∈ N, so
h1h2(g1g2)−1 = h1h2g 2−1g 1−1 = n1g1n2g2g2 −1 g 1−1 =
n1g1n2g 1−1.
Now N is a normal subgroup, so g1n2g 1−1 ∈ N and
n1g1n2g 1−1 ∈ N. Hence h1h2 ≡ g1g2 mod N and
Nh1h2 = Ng1g2.
Therefore, the operation is well defined.
 Theorem on Normal Subgroup

• The operation is associative because (Ng1 · Ng2) ·

Ng3 = N(g1g2) · Ng3 = N(g1g2)g3 and also Ng1 · (Ng2 ·
Ng3) = Ng1 · N(g2g3) = Ng1(g2g3) = N(g1g2)g3.
• Since Ng · Ne = Nge = Ng and Ne · Ng = Ng, the
identity is Ne = N.
• The inverse of Ng is Ng−1 because Ng · Ng−1 = N(g ·
g−1) = Ne = N and also Ng−1 · Ng = N.
• Hence (G/N, ·) is a group.

25
Group Theory

Example on Normal
Subgroup
Example on Normal Subgroup

Example
(Zn, +) is the quotient
group of (Z,+) by the
subgroup
nZ = {nz|z ∈ Z}.

27
 Example on Normal Subgroup

Solution
Since (Z,+) is abelian, every subgroup is normal. The
set nZ can be verified to be a subgroup, and the
relationship a ≡ b mod nZ is equivalent to a − b ∈ nZ
and to n|a − b. Hence a ≡ b mod nZ is the same
relation as a ≡ b mod n. Therefore, Zn is the quotient
group Z/nZ, where the operation on congruence
classes is defined by [a] + [b] = [a + b].

28
Example on Normal Subgroup

(Zn,+) is a cyclic group

with 1 as a generator.
When there is no
confusion, we write the
elements of Zn as 0, 1,
2, 3, . . . , n − 1 instead
of [0], [1], [2], [3], . . . ,
[n − 1].

29
Group Theory

Morphism Theorem for

Groups
Morphism Theorem for Groups

Theorem
Let K be the kernel of the
group morphism
f :G → H. Then G/K is
isomorphic to the image
of f, and the isomorphism
ψ: G/K → Im f
is defined by
ψ(Kg) = f(g).

31
 Morphism Theorem for Groups

This result is also known as the first isomorphism

theorem.
Proof. The function ψ is defined on a coset by using
one particular element in the coset, so we have to
check that ψ is well defined;
that is, it does not matter which element we use.

32
Morphism Theorem for Groups

ψ: G/K → Im f, ψ(Kg)=f(g).
If Kg’=Kg, then g’≡g mod K
so g’g−1 = k ∈ K = Ker f.
Hence g’=kg and so
f(g’) = f(kg)
= f(k)f(g)
= eHf(g) = f(g).
Thus ψ is well defined on
cosets.
33
Morphism Theorem for Groups

The function ψ is a
morphism because
ψ(Kg1Kg2)
= ψ(Kg1g2)
= f (g1g2)
= f (g1)f (g2)
= ψ(Kg1)ψ(Kg2).

34
Morphism Theorem for Groups

If ψ(Kg) = eH, then

f (g) = eH and g ∈ K.
Hence the only element
in the kernel of ψ is the
identity coset K, and
ψ is injective.

35
Morphism Theorem for Groups

Finally, Im ψ = Im f, that is,

ψ-1(f(g))=Kg , by the
definition of ψ.
Therefore, ψ is the
required isomorphism
between G/K and Im f.

36
Group Theory

Application of
Morphism Theorem
Application of Morphism Theorem

Example
Show that the quotient
group R/Z is
isomorphic to the circle
group
W = {eiθ ∊ C | θ ∊ R }.

38
 Application of Morphism Theorem

Solution
The set W= {eiθ ∊ C | θ ∊ R } consists of points on
the circle of complex numbers of unit modulus, and
forms a group under multiplication.
Define the function f : R → W by f (x) = e2πix.
This is a morphism from (R,+) to (W, ·) because
f (x + y) = e2πi(x+y)
= e2πix · e2πiy
= f (x) · f (y).
39
Application of Morphism Theorem

The morphism f : R → W
is clearly surjective,
and its kernel is

{x ∈ R|e2πix = 1} = Z.
Therefore, the morphism
theorem implies that
R/Z  W.

40
Group Theory

Normality of Kernel of
a Homomorphism
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

Right Cosets
Let (G, ·) be a group
with subgroup H. For a,
b ∈ G, we say that a is
congruent to b modulo
H, and write a ≡ b mod
H if and only if ab−1 ∈ H.

2
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

Proposition
The relation a ≡ b mod H
is an equivalence
relation on G.
The equivalence class
containing a can be
written in the form Ha =
{ha|h ∈ H}, and it is
called a right coset of H
in G. The element a is
called a representative
of the coset Ha. 3
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

Theorem
Let  be a
homomorphism
function from group
(G, *) to group (G‘,.).
Then, (Ker,*) is a
normal subgroup of
(G,*).
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

Proof
i) Ker is a subgroup of G
a,bKer, (a)=eG‘,
(b)=eG‘.
Then, (a*b)=(a)
(b)=eG‘.
Therefore, a*bKer.
Inverse element:
aKer, (a)=eG‘.
Then,
(a-1)=(a)-1 =eG‘
Therefore, a-1Ker.
Normality of Kernel of a Homomorphism

ii) gG,aKer,
(a)=eG‘. Then,
(g-1*a*g)
= (g-1) (a)  (g)
=  (g)-1 eG‘  (g)
= eG‘
Therefore,
g-1*a*gKer.
Group Theory

Example of Normal
Group
Example of Normal Group

Definition
A subgroup H of a group
is a normal subgroup if
gH=Hg for gG.
 Example of Normal Group

Example
 Any subgroups of Abelian group are normal
subgroups
 S3={(1),(1,2,3), (1,3,2), (2,3), (1,3), (1,2)}.
 H1={(1), (2,3)}; H2={(1), (1,3)}; H3={(1), (1,2)};
 (1,3)H1={(1,3),(1,2)} H1(1,3)={(1,3),(1,2)}
 (1,2,3)H1={(1,2,3),(1,2)} H1(1,2,3)={(1,2,3),(1,3)}
Example of Normal Group

 H4={(1), (1,2,3), (1,3,2)}

are subgroups of S3.
 H4 is a normal subgroup.
Example of Normal Group

(1)Hg=gH, it does not

imply hg=gh.
(2) If Hg=gH, then there
exists h'H such that
hg=gh' for hH.
 Example of Normal Group

 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. When is

(a H) (b H) = a b H?
 This is true for abelian groups, but not always when G is
nonabelian.
 Consider S3: Let H = {ρ0, μ1}. The left cosets are
{ρ0, μ1}, {ρ1, μ3}, {ρ2, μ2}.
If we multiply the first two together, then
{ρ0, μ1}, {ρ1, μ3} = {ρ0 ρ1, ρ0 μ3, μ 1 ρ1, μ 1 μ3}
= {ρ1, μ3, μ2, ρ 2}
This has four distinct elements, not two!
Group Theory

Factor Group
Factor Group

Definition
Let (H,*) be a normal
subgroup of the group
(G,*). (G/H,) is called
quotient group, where the
operation  is defined on
G/H by
Hg1Hg2= H(g1*g2).
If G is a finite group, then
G/H is also a finite group,
and |G/H|=|G|/|H|.
 Factor Group

• The product of two sets is define as follow

SS’ = {xx’xS and x’S}
• {aHaG, H is normal} is a group, denote by G/H
and called it factor groups of G.
• A mapping f: GG/H is a homomorphism, and call
it canonical homomorphism.
 Factor Group
f
aH aH

H
H

G G/H
 Factor Group

Consider S3: Let H = {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}. The left cosets are

{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}, {μ1, μ2 , μ3}
If we multiply the first two together, then
{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} {μ1, μ2, μ3} = {ρ0 μ1, ρ0 μ2, ρ0 μ3, ρ1 μ1, ρ1 μ2, ρ1 μ3, ρ2 μ1, ρ2
μ2, ρ2 μ3} = {μ1, μ2, μ3, μ3, μ1, μ2, μ2, μ3, μ1} = {μ1, μ2, μ3}
This is one of the cosets. Likewise,
{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} = {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}
{μ1, μ2 , μ3}{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} = {μ1, μ2 , μ3}
{μ1, μ2 , μ3 }{μ1, μ2 , μ3} = {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}
Note that the cosets of {ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2} with this binary operation
form a group isomorphic to ℤ2.
Factor Group

Note that there is a

natural map from S3 to
{{ρ0, ρ1 , ρ2}, {μ1, μ2 , μ3}}
that takes any element to
the coset that contains it.
This gives a
homomorphism called
the cannonical
homomorphism.
Group Theory

Coset Multiplication
and Normality
Coset Multiplication and Normality

Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of a
group G.
Then H is normal if and
only if
(a H )( b H) = (a b) H,
for all a, b in G
Coset Multiplication and Normality

Proof
Suppose
(a H )( b H) = (a b) H,
for all a, b in G.
We show that aH = H a,
for all a in H.
We do this by showing:
a H  H a and Ha aH,
for all a in G.
 Coset Multiplication and Normality

a H  H a: First observe that aHa-1 (aH)(a-1H)

=(aa-1)H = H.
Let x be in a H. Then x = a h, for some h in H. Then
x a-1 = a h a-1, which is in = a H a-1 ,
thus in H. Thus x a-1 is in H. Thus x is in H a.
H a  a H: H a  H a H = (e H )( a H) = (e a) H = a H.
This establishes normality.
 Coset Multiplication and Normality

For the converse, assume H is normal.

(a H )( b H)  (a b) H: For a, b in G, x in (a H )( b H)
implies that x = a h1 b h2, for some h1 and h2 in H.
But h1 b is in H b, thus in b H. Thus h1 b = b h3 for
some h3 in H. Thus x = a b h3 h2 is in a b H.
(a b) H  (a H )( b H): x in (a b) H ⇒ x = a e b h, for
some h in H.
Thus x is in (a H) (b H).
Group Theory

Examples on Kernel of
a Homomorphism
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Let h: G→G' be a
homomorphism and let
e' be the identity
element of G'. Now {e'}
is a subgroup of G', so
h-1[{e'}] is a subgroup K
of G. This subgroup is
critical to the study of
homomorphisms.
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Definition
Let h: G→G' be a
homomorphism of
groups. The subgroup
h-1[{e'}]={x∊G| h(x)=e'}
is the kernel of h,
denoted by Ker(h).
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism
Example
Let ℝn be the additive
group of column vectors
with n real-number
components. (This group is
of course isomorphic to
the direct product of ℝ
under addition with itself
for n factors.) Let A be an
m x n matrix of real
numbers. Let ϕ: ℝn→ℝm
be defined by ϕ(v)=Av
for each column
vector v∊ℝn. 4
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism
Example
Then ϕ is a
homomorphism, since
v, w∊ℝn, matrix
algebra shows that
ϕ(v+w)=A(v+w)
=Av+Aw=ϕ(v)+ϕ(w)
In linear algebra, such a
map computed by
multiplying a column
vector on the left by a
matrix A is known as a
linear transformation. 5
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Ker(h) is called the null

space of A. It consists of
all v ∊ ℝn such that
Av = 0, the zero vector.
Group Theory

Examples on Kernel of
a Homomorphism
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Example
Let GL(n, ℝ) be the
multiplicative group of
all invertible n x n
matrices. Recall that a
matrix A is invertible if
and only if its
determinant, det(A), is
nonzero.

8
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Recall also that for matrices A,

B ∊GL(n, ℝ) we have
det(AB)=det(A)det(B). This
means that det is a
homomorphism mapping GL(n,
ℝ) into the multiplicative group
ℝ* of nonzero real numbers.
Ker(det)
= {A∊ GL(n, ℝ)|det(A)=1}.

9
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Homomorphisms of a
group G into itself are
often useful for studying
the structure of G. Our
next example gives a
nontrivial
homomorphism of a
group into itself.

10
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism
Example
Let r∊ℤ and let ϕr:
ℤ→ℤ be defined by
ϕr(n)=rn for all n∊ℤ. For
all m, n∊ℤ, we have
ϕr(m+n)=r(m + n)
=rm+rn=ϕr (m)+ϕr(n) so
ϕr is a homomorphism.

11
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Note that ϕ0 is the trivial

homomorphism, ϕ1 is
the identity map, and ϕ-1
maps ℤ onto ℤ. For all
other r in ℤ, the map ϕr
is not onto ℤ.
Ker(ϕ0)= ℤ
Ker(ϕr)= {0} for r≠0

12
Group Theory

Examples on Kernel of
a Homomorphism
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Example (Reduction
Modulo n)
Let y be the natural map
of ℤ into ℤn given by
y(m) = r, where r is the
remainder given by the
division algorithm when
m is divided by n. Show
that y is a
homomorphism. Find
Ker(y).
14
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Solution
We need to show that y(s+t)=y(s)+y(t) for s, t ∊ ℤ.
Using the division algorithm, we let
s=q1n+r1 (1) and
t=q2n+r2 (2) where 0≤ri<n for i=1, 2.
If r1+r2=q3n+r3 (3) for 0≤r3<n then adding Eqs. (1)
and (2) we see that s + t = (q1 + q2 + q3)n + r3, so that
y(s+t)=r3. From Eqs. (1) and (2) we see that
y(s) =r1 and y(t)=r2. Equation (3) shows that
the sum r1+r2 in ℤn is equal to r3 also. 15
Examples on Kernel of a Homomorphism

Consequently y(s+t)=y(s)
+y(t),
so we do indeed have a
homomorphism.
Ker(y)=nℤ

16
Group Theory

Kernel of a
Homomorphism
Kernel of a Homomorphism
Theorem
Let h be a
homomorphism from a
group G into a group G’.
Let K be the kernel of h.
Then
a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}] and also
K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}]
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

Let K=Ker(h) for a homomorphism h:G→G'. We

think of h as "collapsing" K down onto e‘. Above
Theorem shows that for g ∊ G, the cosets gK and Kg
are the same, and are collapsed onto the single
element h(g) by h. That is h-1[{h(g)}]=gK=Kg. We
have attempted to symbolize this collapsing in Fig.
below,
where the shaded rectangle represents G, the solid
vertical line segments represent the cosets of
K= Ker(h), and the horizontal line at the bottom
represents G'.
19
Kernel of a Homomorphism
h-1[{a'}] bK K xK h-1[{y'}]

G'
a' h(b) e' h(x) y'

Cosets of K collapsed by h

20
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

We view h as projecting the elements of G, which

are in the shaded rectangle, straight down onto
elements of G', which are on the horizontal line
segment at the bottom. Notice the downward
arrow labeled h at the left, starting at G and ending
at G'. Elements of K=Ker(h) thus lie on the solid
vertical line segment in the shaded box lying over e',
as labeled at the top of the figure.

21
Group Theory

Kernel of a
Homomorphism
Kernel of a Homomorphism
Example
We have |z1z2|=|z1||z2|
for complex numbers z1
and z2. This means that
the absolute value
function | | is a
homomorphism of the
group ℂ* of nonzero
complex numbers under
multiplication onto the
group ℝ+ of positive real
numbers under
multiplication. 23
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

Since {1} is a subgroup of ℝ+, the complex numbers

of magnitude 1 form a subgroup U of ℂ*. Recall
that the complex numbers can be viewed as filling
the coordinate plane, and that the magnitude of a
complex number is its distance from the origin.
Consequently, the cosets of U are circles with
center at the origin. Each circle is collapsed by this
homomorphism onto its point of intersection with
the positive real axis.
Group Theory

Kernel of a
Homomorphism
Kernel of a Homomorphism
Theorem
Let h be a
homomorphism from a
group G into a group G’.
Let K be the kernel of h.
Then
a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}] and also
K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}
= h -1[{h(a)}]
 Kernel of a Homomorphism
Above theorem shows that the kernel of a group
homomorphism h:G→G' is a subgroup K of G whose
left and right cosets coincide, so that gK=Kg for all g
∊ G. When left and right cosets coincide, we can
form a coset group G/K. Furthermore, we have
seen that K then appears as the kernel of a
homomorphism of G onto this coset group in a very
natural way. Such subgroups K whose left and right
cosets coincide are very useful in studying normal
group.
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

Example
Let D be the additive group of all differentiable
functions mapping ℝ into ℝ, and let F be the
additive group of all functions mapping ℝ into ℝ
Then differentiation gives us a map ϕ: D→F, where
ϕ(f)=f' for f∊F. We easily see that ϕ is a
homomorphism, for ϕ(f+g)=(f+g)'=f'+g'=ϕ(f)+ϕ(g);
the derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives.

28
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

Now Ker(ϕ) consists of all functions f such that f'=0.

Thus Ker(ϕ) consists of all constant functions, which
form a subgroup C of F. Let us find all functions in G
mapped into x2 by ϕ, that is, all functions whose
derivative is x2. Now we know that x3/3 is one such
function. By previous theorem, all such functions
form the coset x3/3+C.

29
Group Theory

Examples of Group
Homomorphisms
Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Example (Evaluation Homomorphism)

Let F be the additive group of all functions mapping
ℝ into ℝ, let ℝ be the additive group of real
numbers, and let c be any real number. Let
ϕ: F→ℝ be the evaluation homomorphism
defined by ϕc(f)= f(c) for f∊F. Recall that, by
definition, the sum of two functions f and g is the
function f + g whose value at x is f (x) + g(x). Thus
we have
ϕc(f+g)=(f+g)(c)=f(c)+g(c)=ϕc(f)+ϕc(g), so we have a
homomorphism. 31
Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Composition of group homomorphisms is again a

group homomorphism. That is, if
ϕ: G→G' and y: G'→G" are both group
homomorphisms then their composition
(y∘ϕ): G→G", where (y∘ϕ)(g) = y(ϕ(g)) for g ∊ G, is
also a homomorphism.

32
Group Theory

Examples of Group
Homomorphisms
 Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Example
Let G=G1 x ··· x Gi x ··· x Gn be a direct product of
groups. The projection map πi: G→Gi where
πi(g1, ···, gi, ··· , gn) = gi is a homomorphism for each
i=1, ··· , n.
This follows immediately from the fact that the
binary operation of G coincides in the ith
component with the binary operation in Gi.

34
 Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Example
Let F be the additive group of continuous functions
with domain [0, 1] and let ℝ be the additive group of
real numbers. The map σ:F→ℝ defined by
σ(f)=∫01f(x)dx for f ∊ F is a homomorphism,
for
σ(f+g)=∫01(f+g)(x)dx=∫01[f(x)+g(x)]dx=
∫01f(x)dx+∫01g(x)dx=σ(f)+σ(g) for all f, g ∊ F.

35
Examples of Group Homomorphisms

Each of the homomorphisms in the preceding two

examples is a many-to-one map. That is, different
points of the domain of the map may be carried
into the same point. Consider, for illustration, the
homomorphism π1: ℤ2 x ℤ4→ℤ2 We have
π1(0, 0)=π1(0, 1)= π1(0, 2)= π1(0, 3)=0, so four
elements in ℤ2 x ℤ4 are mapped into 0 in ℤ2 by
π1.

36
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Homomorphisms
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Let G be a group and let S be a set having the same

cardinality as G. Then there is a one-to-one
correspondence ↔ between S and G. We can use ↔
to define a binary operation on S, making S into a
group isomorphic to G. Naively, we simply use the
correspondence to rename each element of G by
the name of its corresponding (under ↔) element
in S. We can describe explicitly the computation of
xy for x, y ∊ S as follows:
if x ↔ g1 and y ↔ g2 and z↔ g1g2, then xy=z (1)

38
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

The direction → of the one-to-one correspondence

s↔g between s∊S and g∊G gives us a one-to-one
function µ mapping S onto G. The direction ← of ↔
gives us the inverse function µ-1. Expressed in terms
→

of µ, the computation (1) of xy for x, y ∊ S becomes

if µ(x)=g1 and µ(y)=g2 and µ(z)=g1g2, then xy=z (2)
The map µ: S→G now becomes an isomorphism
mapping the group S onto the group G. Notice that
from (2), we obtain µ(xy)=µ(z)=g1g2=µ(x)µ(y), the
required homomorphism property.
39
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Homomorphisms
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Let G and G' be groups,

let h: G→G' be a
homomorphism, and let
K=Ker(h). The previous
→
theorem shows that for
a∊G, we have
h-1[{h(a)}]=aK =Ka. We
have a one-to-one
correspondence aK
↔h(a) between cosets of
K in G and elements of
the subgroup h[G] of G'.
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Remember that if x∊aK, so that x=ak for some k∊K,

then h(x)=h(ak)=h(a)h(k)=h(a)e'
=h(a), so the computation of the element of h[G]
corresponding to the coset aK=xK is the same
→

whether we compute it as h(a) or as h(x ). Let us

denote the set of all cosets of K by G/K. (We read
G/K as "G over K" or as "G modulo K" or as "G mod
K," but never as "G divided by K.")
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

We started with a homomorphism h: G→G' having

kernel K, and we finished with the set G/K of cosets
in one-to-one correspondence with the elements of
the group h[G]. In our work above that, we had a set
→

S with elements in one-to-one correspondence

with a those of a group G, and we made S into a
group isomorphic to G with an isomorphism µ.

43
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Replacing S by G / H and replacing G by h[G] in

that construction, we can consider G/K to be a group
isomorphic to h[G] with that isomorphism µ. In
terms of G/K and h[G], the computation (2) of the
→

product (xK)(yK) for xK, yK ∊ G/K becomes if

µ(xK)=h(x) and µ(yK)=h(y) and µ(zK)=h(x)h(y), then
(xK)(yK)=zK. (3)
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

But because h is a homomorphism, we can easily

find z∊G such that µ(zK)=h(x )h(y ); namely, we take
z=xy in G, and find that µ(zK)=µ(xyK)=h(xy)=h(x)h(y).
This shows that the product (xK)(yK) of two cosets is
the coset (xy)K that contains the product xy of x and
→

y in G. While this computation of (xK)(yK) may seem

to depend on our choices x from xK and y from yK,
our work above shows it does not. We demonstrate
it again here because it is such an important point. If
k1, k2 ∊ K so that xk1 is an element of xK and yk2 is an
element of yK, then there exists h3 ∊ K such that
k1y= yk3 because Ky= yK by previous Theorem.
45
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Thus we have
(xk1)(yk2)=x(k1y)k2=x(yk3)k2=(xy)(k3k2) ∊ (xy)K,
so we obtain the same coset. Computation of the
product of two cosets is accomplished by choosing
→

an element from each coset and taking, as product

of the cosets, the coset that contains the product in
G of the choices. Any time we define something
(like a product) in terms of choices, it is important to
show that it is well defined, which means that it is
independent of the choices made.

46
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Homomorphisms
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Theorem
Let h: G→G' be a group
homomorphism with kernel K.
Then the cosets of K form a
factor group, G/K. where (aK)
→

(bK)=(ab)K. Also, the map µ:

G/H→h[G]
defined by µ(aK)=h(a) is an
isomorphism. Both coset
multiplication and µ are well
defined, independent of the
choices a and b from the cosets.
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Example
Consider the map y: ℤ→ℤn, where y(m) is the
remainder when m is divided by n in accordance
with the division algorithm. We know that y is a
→

homomorphism. Of course, Ker(y) = nℤ. By above

Theorem, we see that the factor group ℤ/nℤ is
isomorphic to ℤn. The cosets of nℤ are the residue
classes modulo n.

49
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

For example, taking n = 5, we see the cosets of 5ℤ

are
5ℤ={…, -10, -5, 0, 5, 10,…},
1 +5ℤ = {…, -9, -4, 1, 6, 11,…},
→

2 + 5ℤ = {…, -8, -3, 2, 7, 12,…},

3 +5ℤ = {…, -7, -2, 3, 8, 13,…}
4+5ℤ = {…, -6, -1, 4, 9, 14,…}.
Note that the isomorphism µ: ℤ/5ℤ→ ℤ5 of
previous Theorem assigns to each coset of 5ℤ its
smallest nonnegative element. That is, µ(5ℤ)=0, µ(1+
5Z) = 1, etc.
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Homomorphisms
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

It is very important that we

learn how to compute in a
factor group. We can multiply
(add) two cosets by choosing
→

any two representative

elements, multiplying (adding)
them and finding the coset in
which the resulting product
(sum) lies.

52
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

Example
Consider the factor group ℤ/5ℤ with the cosets
shown in precious example. We can add (2+5ℤ)
+(4+5ℤ) by choosing 2 and 4, finding 2+4=6, and
→

noticing that 6 is in the coset 1+5ℤ. We could

equally well add these two cosets by choosing 27 in
2+5ℤ and -16 in 4+5ℤ; the sum 27+(-16)=11 is also
in the coset 1+5ℤ.

53
Factor Groups from Homomorphisms

The factor groups ℤ/nℤ in the preceding example

are classics. Recall that we refer to the cosets of nℤ
as residue classes modulo n. Two integers in the
same coset are congruent modulo n. This
→

terminology is carried over to other factor groups. A

factor group G/H is often called the factor group of G
modulo H. Elements in the same coset of H are often
said to be congruent modulo H. By abuse of
notation, we may sometimes write ℤ/nℤ=ℤn and
think of ℤn as the additive group of residue classes
of ℤ modulo n.
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Normal Subgroups
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

So far, we have obtained

factor groups only from
homomorphisms. Let G
be a group and let H be a
→
subgroup of G. Now H
has both left cosets and
right cosets, and in
general, a left coset aH
need not be the same set
as the right coset Ha.

56
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Suppose we try to define a binary operation on left

cosets by defining (aH)(bH)=(ab)H as in the
statement of previous theorem. The above equation
attempts to define left coset multiplication by
→

choosing representatives a and b from the cosets.

The above equation is meaningless unless it gives a
well-defined operation, independent of the
representative elements a and b chosen from the
cosets. In the following theorem, we have proved
that the above equation gives a well-defined binary
operation if and only if H is a normal subgroup of G.
57
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of a
group G.
→

Then H is normal if and

only if
(a H )( b H) = (a b) H,
for all a, b in G

58
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Above theorem shows

that if left and right
cosets of H coincide,
→
then the equation
(aH)(bH)=(ab)H, for all a,
b in G
gives a well-defined
binary operation on
cosets.

59
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Theorem
If N is a normal subgroup
of (G, ·), the set of cosets
→ G/N = {Ng|g ∈ G} forms
a
group (G/N, ·), where the
operation is defined by
(Ng1)·(Ng2)=N(g1·g2).

60
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Example
Since ℤ is an abelian
group, nℤ is a normal
subgroup. Above
→
theorem allows us to
construct the factor
group ℤ/nℤ with no
reference to a
homomorphism. As we
already observed, ℤ/nℤ
is isomorphic to ℤn.
61
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Normal Subgroups
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Example
Consider the abelian
group ℝ under addition,
→ and let c ∊ ℝ+. The cyclic
subgroup <c> of ℝ
contains as elements
··· -3c, -2c, -c, 0, c, 2c,
3c,···.

63
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Every coset of <c> contains just one element of x

such that 0 ≤ x < c. lf we choose these elements as
representatives of the cosets when computing in
ℝ/ <c>, we find that we are computing their sum
→

modulo c in ℝc. For example, if c = 5.37, then the

sum of the cosets 4.65+<5.37> and 3.42+<5.37>
is the coset 8.07+<5.37>, which contains 8.07-5.37 =
2.7, which is 4.65+5.373.42.

64
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Working with these coset elements x where 0 ≤ x <

c, we thus see that the group ℝc is isomorphic to
ℝ / <c> under an isomorphism µ where µ(x) =x+<c>
for all x ∊ ℝc. Of course, ℝ / <c> is then also
→

isomorphic to the circle group U of complex

numbers of magnitude 1 under multiplication.

65
Group Theory

Kernel of an Injective
Homomorphism
Kernel of an Injective Homomorphism

Theorem
A homomorphism
h: G→G' is
injective
if and only if
Ker h={e}.

2
Kernel of an Injective Homomorphism

Proof
Suppose h is injective,
and let x ∊ Ker h.
Then h(x)=e'=h(e).
Hence x=e.

3
Kernel of an Injective Homomorphism

Conversely, suppose
Ker h={e}.
Then h(x)=h(y)
⇒h(xy-1)=h(x)h(y -1)
=h(x)h(y)-1=e'
⇒xy-1∊ Ker h
⇒ xy-1=e
⇒x=y.
Hence, h is injective.

4
Group Theory

Factor Groups from

Normal Subgroups
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Theorem
Let K be a normal
subgroup of G.
Then y: G→G/K given by
y(g)=gK is a
homomorphism with
kernel K.

6
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

Proof
Let g1, g2 ∊ G. Then
y(g1g2)=(g1g2)K
=(g1K)(g2K)=y(g1)y(g2),
so y is a homomorphism.
Since g1K= K if and only if
g1∊ K, we see that the
kernel of y is indeed K.

7
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

We have proved that if

h:G→G' is a
homomorphism with
kernel K, then
µ:G/K→h[G] where µ(gK)
= h(g) is an isomorphism.
Above theorem shows
that y:G→G/K defined by
y(g)= gK is a
homomorphism.

8
Factor Groups from Normal Subgroups

We show these groups

and maps in the figure.
h We see that the
G h[G] homomorphism h can be
factored, h = µy,
y 𝜇
where y is a
G/K homomorphism and µ is
an isomorphism of G/K
with h[ G].

9
Group Theory

Example on Morphism
Theorem of Groups
Example on Morphism Theorem of Groups

Theorem
Let K be the kernel of the
group morphism
h :G → G'. Then G/K is
isomorphic to the image
of h, h[G], and the
isomorphism
µ: G/K → Im h
is defined by
µ(Kg) = h[g].
11
Example on Morphism Theorem of Groups

Example
Classify the group
(ℤ4xℤ2) /({0}x ℤ2)
according to the
fundamental theorem of
finitely generated abelian
groups.

12
Example on Morphism Theorem of Groups

Solution
The projection map
π1: ℤ4xℤ2→ℤ4 given by
π1(x,y) = x is a
homomorphism of ℤ4xℤ2
onto ℤ4 with kernel
{0}xℤ2. By fundamental
theorem of
homomorphism, we
know that the given
factor group is
isomorphic to ℤ4.
Example on Morphism Theorem of Groups

The projection map

π1: ℤ4xℤ2→ℤ4 given by
π1(x,y) = x.
K=Ker π1={0}xℤ2
={(0,0),(0,1)}.
(1,0)+K={(1,0),(1,1)}
(2,0)+K={(2,0),(2,1)}
(3,0)+K={(3,0),(3,1)}

14
Group Theory

Normal Groups and

Inner Automorphisms
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms

We derive some
alternative
characterizations of
normal subgroups,
which often provide us
with an easier way to
check normality than
finding both the left
and the right coset
decompositions.
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms

Theorem
The following are three
equivalent conditions
for a subgroup H of a
group G to be a normal
subgroup of G.
1. ghg-1∊H for all g∊G
and h∊H.
2. gHg-1=H for all g∊G.
3. gH=Hg for all g∊G.
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms

Condition (2) of above

Theorem is often taken as
the definition of a normal
subgroup H of a group G.

4
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms

Proof
Suppose that gH = Hg for all g ∊ G. Then gh = h1g, so
ghg-1 ∊ H for all g ∊ G and all h ∊ H.
Then gHg-1= {ghg-1 I h ∊ H} ⊆ H for all g ∊ G.
We claim that actually gHg-1 = H. We must show that
H ⊆ gHg-1 for all g ∊ G. Let h ∊ H. Replacing g by g-1
in the relation ghg-1 ∊ H, we obtain
g-1h(g-1)-1 = g-1hg = h1 where h1 ∊ H.
Consequently, gHg-1 = H for all g ∊ G.
5
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms

Conversely, if gHg-1 = H for all

g ∊ G, then ghg-1 = h1 so
gh = h1g ∊ Hg, and gH ⊆ Hg.
But also, g-1Hg = H giving
g-1hg = h2, so that hg = gh2
and Hg ⊆ gH.

6
Group Theory

Normal Groups and

Inner Automorphisms
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms

Example
Every subgroup H of an
abelian group G is
normal.
We need only note that
gh = hg for all h ∊ H
and all g ∊ G, so, of
course, ghg-1 = h ∊ H
for all g ∊ G and all h
∊H.
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms

Example
The map ig: G → G
defined by ig(x) = gxg-1 is
a homomorphism of G
into itself.
ig (xy)=gxyg-1
= (gxg-1)(gyg-1)
=ig(x)ig(y)

9
Normal Groups and Inner Automorphisms

We see that
ig(x)=ig(y)
⇒ gxg-1 = gyg-1
⇒ x = y,
so ig is injective.
Since for any x in G
ig(g-1xg) = g(g-1xg)g-1 = x,
we see that ig is onto G,
so it is an isomorphism
of G with itself. 10
Group Theory

Inner Automorphisms
Inner Automorphisms

Definition
An isomorphism ϕ: G→G
of a group G with itself is
an automorphism of G.
The automorphism
ig: G→G, where ig(x)=gxg-1
for all x ∊ G, is the inner
automorphism of G by g,
denoted by Inn (G).
Performing ig on x is
called conjugation of x
by g.
12
 Inner Automorphisms

Theorem
The following are three equivalent conditions for
a subgroup H of a group G to be a normal
subgroup of G.
1. ghg-1∊H for all g∊G and h∊H.
2. gHg-1=H for all g∊G. 3. gH=Hg for all g∊G.
The equivalence of conditions (2) and (3) shows
that gH=Hg for all g ∊ G if and only if ig[H]=H for all
g ∊ G, that is, if and only if H is invariant under all
inner automorphisms of G.
 Inner Automorphisms

It is important to realize that ig[H] = H is an

equation in sets; we need not have ig(h) = h for all
h ∊ H.
That is ig may perform a nontrivial permutation
of the set H.
We see that the normal subgroups of a group G
are precisely those that are invariant under all
inner automorphisms.
A subgroup K of G is a conjugate subgroup of H if
K = ig[H] for some g ∊ G.
14
Group Theory

Inner Automorphisms
Inner Automorphisms

Lemma
The set of all inner
automorphisms of G
is a subgroup of
Aut(G).

16
 Inner Automorphisms

Proof
(1) Let ia, ib ∊ Inn (G).
Then ia( ib(x)) =a(ib(x))a-1 =abxb-1a-1
=abx(ab)-1=iab ∊ Inn (G).
Hence the conjugation by b composed by
conjugation by a is conjugation by ab.
(2) The inverse of ia is conjugation by a’=a-1.
ia((ia’)(x))=ia(a’x(a’)-1)=aa’xa’-1a-1=aa’x(aa’)-1=x.
Thus Inn (G) is a subgroup.
17
Group Theory

Example on
Automorphism
Inner Automorphisms

Example
Prove that
Aut(ℤn)≅Un.

19
 Inner Automorphisms

Solution
An automorphism ϕ:ℤn→ℤn is determined by
ϕ(1) as for any integer k,
ϕ(k)=ϕ(1+…+1)=ϕ(1)+…+ϕ(1)= kϕ(1).
Since isomorphisms preserve order, ϕ(1) must
be a generator of ℤn .
We have proved that the generators of ℤn are
those integers k ∊ ℤn for which gcd(k, n) = 1.
But these k are precisely the elements of
Un={1, ω,…, ωn-1 | ω=e2πi/n} . 20
 Inner Automorphisms

In this way, each element a of Un gives a

distinct automorphism ϕa which is multiplication
by a, and these are all the automorphisms of ℤn.
Furthermore, 𝜇: Aut(ℤn)→Un given by
𝜇(ϕa)=a is a group isomorphism.
 𝜇(ϕab)=ab=𝜇(ϕa) 𝜇(ϕb)
 𝜇(ϕa)=𝜇(ϕb)⇒a=b
 𝜇(ϕa)=a

21
Group Theory

Theorem on Factor
Group
Theorem on Factor Group

Theorem
A factor group of a
cyclic group is cyclic.

23
 Theorem on Factor Group

Proof
Let G be cyclic with generator a, and let N be a
normal subgroup of G. We claim the coset aN
generates G / N. We must compute all powers
of aN. But this amounts to computing, in G, all
powers of the representative a and all these
powers give all elements in G. Hence the powers
of aN certainly give all cosets of N and G / N is
cyclic.

24
Group Theory

Example on Factor
Group
Example on Factor Group

Example
Let us compute the
factor group
(ℤ4 x ℤ6)/((0, 2)).
Now (0, 2) generates
the subgroup
H={(0,0), (0, 2),(0,4)}
of ℤ4 x ℤ6 of order 3.

26
Example on Factor Group

Here the first factor ℤ4

of ℤ4 x ℤ6 is left alone.
The ℤ6 factor, on the
other hand, is
essentially collapsed by
a subgroup of order 3,
giving a factor group in
the second factor of
order 2 that must be
isomorphic to ℤ2. Thus
(ℤ4 x ℤ6)/((0, 2)) is
isomorphic to ℤ4 x ℤ2.27
Group Theory

Factor Group
Computations
Factor Group Computations

Let N be a normal
subgroup of G. In the
factor group G / N, the
subgroup N acts as
identity element. We may
regard N as being
collapsed to a single
element, either to 0 in
additive notation or to e
in multiplicative notation.

29
Factor Group Computations

This collapsing of N
together with the
algebraic structure of
G require that other
subsets of G, namely,
the cosets of N, also
collapse into a single
element in the factor
group. A visualization of
this collapsing is
provided by Figure.

30
Factor Group Computations

G/N
aN N bN (cb)N (ab)N cN

31
 Factor Group Computations

Recall that y: G→G/N defined by y(a)=aN for

a Є G is a homomorphism of G onto G / N. We
can view the "line" G / N at the bottom of the
figure as obtained by collapsing to a point each
coset of N in another copy of G. Each point of
G / N thus corresponds to a whole vertical line
segment in the shaded portion, representing
a coset of N in G. It is crucial to remember that
multiplication of cosets in G / N can be
computed by multiplying in G, using any
representative elements of the cosets.
32
Group Theory

Factor Group
Computations
Factor Group Computations

Additively, two elements

of G will collapse into the
same element of G/N if
they differ by an element
of N. Multiplicatively, a
and b collapse together if
ab-1 is in N. The degree of
collapsing can vary from
nonexistent to
catastrophic. We illustrate
the two extreme cases by
examples.
Factor Group Computations

Example
The trivial subgroup
N = {0} of is, of
course, a normal
subgroup.
Compute /{0}.
Factor Group Computations

Solution
Since N={0} has only
one element, every
coset of N has only one
element. That is, the
cosets are of the form
{m} for m . There is no
collapsing at all, and
consequently, /{0} .
Each m is simply
renamed {m} in /{0}.
Factor Group Computations

Example
Let n be a positive
integer. The set
n = {nr|r } is a
subgroup of under
addition, and it is
normal since is
abelian.
Compute /n.
Factor Group Computations

Solution
Actually n= , because
each x is of the form
n(x/n) and
x/n. Thus /n has only
one element, the
subgroup n. The factor
group is a trivial group
consisting only of the
identity element.
Group Theory

Factor Group
Computations
Factor Group Computations

As illustrated in above
Examples for any group
G, we have G/{e} G
and G/G{e}, where {e}
is the trivial group
consisting only of the
identity element e.
These two extremes of
factor groups are of
little importance.
Factor Group Computations

We would like
knowledge of a factor
group G/N to give some
information about the
structure of G.
If N={e}, the factor
group has the same
structure as G and we
might as well have tried
to study G directly.
Factor Group Computations

If N = G, the factor
group has no
significant structure to
supply information
about G.
Factor Group Computations

If G is a finite group
and N ≠{e} is a normal
subgroup of G, then
G/N is a smaller group
than G, and
consequently may
have a more simple
structure than G.
Factor Group Computations

The multiplication of
cosets in G/N reflects
the multiplication in G,
since products of cosets
can be computed by
multiplying in G
representative elements
of the cosets.
Factor Group Computations

In next module, we give

example showing that
even when G/N has
order 2, we may be
able to deduce some
useful results.
If G is a finite group and
G/N has just two
elements, then we
must have |G|=2|N|.
Group Theory

Factor Group
Computations
Factor Group Computations

Note that every

subgroup H containing
just half the elements
of a finite group G must
be a normal subgroup,
since for each element
a in G but not in H,
both the left coset aH
and the right coset Ha
must consist of all
elements in G that are
not in H.
Factor Group Computations

Thus the left and right

cosets of H coincide
and H is a normal
subgroup of G.

16
Factor Group Computations

Example
Because |Sn|= 2|An|,
we see that An is a
normal subgroup of Sn,
and Sn/An has order 2.
Let be an odd
permutation in Sn,
so that
Sn/An = {An, An}.

17
 Factor Group Computations

Renaming the element An "even" and the

element An "odd," the multiplication in Sn/An
shown in Table becomes
(even)(even)=even, (even)(odd)=odd, (odd)
(even)=odd, (odd)(odd)=even.
Thus the factor group reflects these
multiplicative properties for all the permutations
in Sn. A
n nA
An An An
An An An
Factor Group Computations

Above example
illustrates that while
knowing the product of
two cosets in G/N does
not tell us what the
product of two
elements of G is, it may
tell us that the product
in G of two types of
elements is itself of a
certain type.
Group Theory

Factor Group
Computations
Factor Group Computations

The theorem of Lagrange

states if H is a subgroup
of a finite group G, then
the order of H divides the
order of G.
We show that it is false
that if d divides the order
of G, then there must
exist a subgroup H of G
having order d.
Factor Group Computations

Example
We show that A4, which
has order 12, contains no
subgroup of order 6.
Suppose that H were a
subgroup of A4 having
order 6.
As observed before in
previous example, it
would follow that H
would be a normal
subgroup of A4.
 Factor Group Computations

Then A4/H would have only two elements, H and H

for some A4 not in H. Since in a group of order 2, the
square of each element is the identity, we would
have HH=H and (H)(H)=H. Now computation in a
factor group can be achieved by computing with
representatives in the original group. Thus,
computing in A4, we find that for each αH we must
have α2H and for each βH we must have β2H. That
is, the square of every element in A4 must be in H.
 Factor Group Computations

But in A4, we have

(1, 2, 3) = (1, 3, 2)2 and (1, 3, 2) = (1, 2, 3)2
so (1, 2, 3) and (1, 3, 2) are in H.
A similar computation shows that (1, 2, 4),
(1, 4, 2), (1, 3, 4), (1, 4, 3), (2, 3, 4), and (2, 4, 3)
are all in H.
This shows that there must be at least 8
elements in H, contradicting the fact that H was
supposed to have order 6.
Group Theory

Factor Group
Computations
 Factor Group Computations

We now turn to several examples that compute

factor groups. If the group we start with is finitely
generated and abelian, then its factor group will be
also. Computing such a factor group means
classifying it according to the fundamental
theorem of finitely generated abelian groups.
 Factor Group Computations

Example
Let us compute the factor group (4x6)/ Here is the
cyclic subgroup H of 4x6 generated by (0, 1). Thus
H = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0. 2), (0, 3), (0, 4), (0, 5)}.
Since 4x6 has 24 elements and H has 6 elements,
all cosets of H must have 6 elements, and (4x
6)/H must have order 4. Since 4x6 is abelian, so is
(4x 6)/H. Remember, we compute in a factor
group by means of representatives from the
original group.
 Factor Group Computations

In additive notation, the cosets are

H=(0, 0)+H, (1,0)+H, (2, 0)+H, (3, 0)+H.
Since we can compute by choosing the
representatives (0, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0), and (3, 0), it is
clear that (4x6)/H is isomorphic to 4. Note that this
is what we would expect, since in a factor group
modulo H, everything in H becomes the identity
element; that is, we are essentially setting
everything in H equal to zero. Thus the whole
second factor 6 of 4x6 is collapsed, leaving just the
first factor 4.
Group Theory

Factor Group
Computations
 Factor Group Computations

The last example is a special case of a general

theorem that we now state and prove. We should
acquire an intuitive feeling for this theorem in
terms of collapsing one of the factors to the
identity element.
 Factor Group Computations

Theorem
Let G = H x K be the direct product of groups H
and K. Then ={(h, e)| h H} is a normal subgroup
of G. Also G/ is isomorphic to K in a natural way.
Similarly, G / H in a natural way.
 Factor Group Computations

Proof
Consider the map 2: H x K K given by
(h, k) = k. The map 2 is homomorphism since
2

(h1h2,k1k2)=k1k2= 2(h1,k1) 2(h2,k2).

2

Because Ker(2) = , we see that is a normal

subgroup of H x K. Because 2 is onto K,
Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism tells us
that (H x K)/ K.
Group Theory

Factor Group
Computations
 Factor Group Computations

Example
Let us compute the factor group (4 x 6)/ Be careful!
There is a great temptation to say that we are
setting the 2 of 4 and the 3 of 6 both equal to zero,
so that 4 is collapsed to a factor group isomorphic
to 2 and 6 to one isomorphic to 3, giving a total
factor group isomorphic to 2 x 3. This is wrong!
Note that H = = {(0, 0), (2, 3)} is of order 2, so (4 x
6)/has order 12, not 6.
 Factor Group Computations

Setting (2, 3) equal to zero does not make (2, 0)

and (0, 3) equal to zero individually, so the
factors do not collapse separately.
The possible abelian groups of order 12 are
4x 3 and 2 x 2 x 3, and we must decide to which
one our factor group is isomorphic. These two
groups are most easily distinguished in that 4 x 3
has an element of order 4, and
2 x 2 x 3 does not.
 Factor Group Computations

We claim that the coset (1, 0) + H is of order 4 in

the factor group (4 x 6)/H.
To find the smallest power of a coset giving the
identity in a factor group modulo H, we must, by
choosing representatives, find the smallest
power of a representative that is in the subgroup
H. Now, 4(1,0)=(1, 0)+(1,0)+(1,0)+(1,0)=(0,0) is
the first time that (1,0) added to itself gives an
element of H. Thus (4 x 6)/ has an element of
order 4 and is isomorphic to 4 x 3 or 12.
Group Theory

Factor Group
Computations
 Factor Group Computations

Example
Let us compute (that is, classify as in Fundamental
Theorem of Abelian Groups the group (x)/ . We
may visualize x as the points in the plane with
both coordinates integers, as indicated by the
dots in Fig. below. The subgroup consists of those
points that lie on the
45° line through the origin, indicated in the figure.
The coset (1, 0) + consists of those dots on the 45°
line through the point (1, 0), also shown in the
figure.
Factor Group Computations

20
 Factor Group Computations

Continuing, we see that each coset consists of

those dots lying on one of the 45° lines in the
figure. We may choose the representatives
···, (-3,0), (-2,0), (-1,0), (0,0), (1,0), (2,0), (3,0),···
of these cosets to compute in the factor group.
Since these representatives correspond precisely
to the points of on the x-axis, we see that the
factor group ( x ) /is isomorphic to .
Simple Groups

One feature of a factor

group is that it gives
crude information about
the structure of the whole
group.
Of course, sometimes
there may be no
nontrivial proper normal
subgroups.
Simple Groups

For example, Lagrange’s

Theorem shows that a
group of prime order can
have no nontrivial proper
subgroups of any sort.
Simple Groups

Definition
A group is simple if it is
nontrivial and has no
proper nontrivial normal
subgroups.
 Simple Groups

Example
The cyclic group G=/5 of congruence classes
modulo 5 is simple.
If H is a subgroup of this group, its order must be
a divisor of the order of G which is 5.
Since 5 is prime, its only divisors are 1 and 5, so
either H is G, or H is the trivial group.
Group Theory

Simple Groups
Simple Groups

Example
The cyclic group G=/p
of congruence classes
modulo p is simple,
where p is a prime
number.
Simple Groups

Example
On the other hand, the
group G =  /12 is not
simple.
The set H={0, 4, 8} of
congruence classes of 0,
4, and 8 modulo 12 is a
subgroup of order 3, and
it is a normal subgroup
since any subgroup of
an abelian group is
normal.
Simple Groups

Example
The additive group of
integers is not simple;
the set of even integers 2
is a non-trivial proper
normal subgroup.
Simple Groups

Theorem
The alternating group An
is simple for n5.
Group Theory

Simple Groups
Simple Groups

Theorem
Let : G G' be a group
homomorphism. If N is a
normal subgroup of G,
then [N] is a normal
subgroup of [G]. Also, if
N' is a normal subgroup
of [G], then -1[N'] is a
normal subgroup of G.
Simple Groups

Proof
Let : G G' be a group
homomorphism. If N is a
normal subgroup of G,
then gng-1 for all gG and
nN. It implies that (gng-1)=
(n)-1 .
Therefore, [N] is a normal
subgroup of [G].
 Simple Groups

Proof
Also, if N' is a normal subgroup of [G], then -1 N' for
every
N’.
By definition, there exist

Hence -1[N'] is a normal subgroup of G.

Group Theory

Simple Groups
Simple Groups

The last Theorem should

be viewed as saying that
a homomorphism
: G G' preserves normal
subgroups between G
and [G].
It is important to note
that [N] may not be
normal in G', even
though N is normal in G.
 Simple Groups

Example
For example, : 2 S3, where
(0) = 0 and (1) = µ1 is a homomorphism, and 2 is
a normal subgroup of itself, but {0, µ1} is not a
normal subgroup of S3.
(1 3)(2 3)=(2 1 3)
(2 3)(1 3)=(1 2 3)
Group Theory

Maximal Normal
Subgroups
Maximal Normal Subgroups

We characterize when
G/N is a simple group.
Definition
A maximal normal
subgroup of a group G is
a normal subgroup M
not equal to G such that
there is no proper
normal subgroup N of G
properly containing M.
Maximal Normal Subgroups

Theorem
M is a maximal normal
subgroup of G if and only
if G / M is simple.
 Maximal Normal Subgroups

Proof
Let M be a maximal normal subgroup of G.
Consider the canonical homomorphism
y: GG/M. Now y-1 of any nontrivial proper normal
subgroup of G/M is a proper normal subgroup
of G properly containing M. But M is maximal,
so this can not happen. Thus G/M is simple.
 Maximal Normal Subgroups

Conversely, if N is a normal subgroup of G

properly containing M, then y[N] is normal in
G/M. If also NG, then y[N]G/M and y[N] {M}. 
Thus, if G/M is simple so that no such y[N] can
exist, no such N can exist, and M is maximal.
Group Theory

The Center Subgroup

The Center Subgroup

Definition
The center Z(G) is
defined by
Z(G)={z G| zg=gz for all g
G}.
The Center Subgroup

Exercise
Show that Z( G) is a
normal and an abelian
subgroup of G.
The Center Subgroup

Solution
For each g G and
zZ(G) we have
gzg-1=zgg-1=ze=z, we see
at once that Z(G) is a
normal subgroup of G. It
implies that gz=zg for g
G and zZ(G).
The Center Subgroup

If G is abelian, then
Z(G) = G;
in this case, the center is
not useful.
Group Theory

Example on Center
Subgroup
Example on Center Subgroup

Example
0

0
 Example on Center Subgroup

(132)

Z(S3)={0}, so the center of S3 is trivial.

Group Theory

Example on Center
Subgroup
Example on Center Subgroup

The center of a group G

always contains the
identity element e.
It may be that Z(G)={e},
in which case we say that
the center of G is trivial.
 Example on Center Subgroup

Example
S3 x ={(,0), (,1), (,2), (,3), (,4),
(,0), (,1), (,2), (,3), (,4),
(,0), (,1), (,2), (,3), (,4),
(,0), (,1), (,2), (,3), (,4),
(,0), (,1), (,2), (,3), (,4),
(,0), (,1), (,2), (,3), (,4)}
Example on Center Subgroup

The center of S3 x must

be {0} x , which is
isomorphic to .
Group Theory

The Commutator
Subgroup
The Commutator Subgroup

Every nonabelian
group G has two
important normal
subgroups,
the center Z(G) of G
and the commutator
subgroup C of G.
The Commutator Subgroup

Turning to the
commutator subgroup,
recall that in forming a
factor group of G modulo
a normal subgroup N, we
are essentially putting
every element in G that is
in N equal to e, for N
forms our new identity in
the factor group.
This indicates another use
for factor groups.
 The Commutator Subgroup

Suppose, for example, that we are studying the

structure of a nonabelian group G.
Since Fundamental Theorem of Abelian Groups
gives complete information about the structure
of all sufficiently small abelian groups, it might
be of interest to try to form an abelian group as
much like G as possible, an abelianized version of
G, by starting with G and then requiring that
ab=ba for all a and b in our new group structure.
 The Commutator Subgroup

To require that ab=ba is to say that aba-1b-1=e in

our new group.
An element aba-1b-1 in a group is a commutator
of the group.
Thus we wish to attempt to form an abelianized
version of G by replacing every commutator of G
by e.
We should then attempt to form the factor group
of G modulo the smallest normal subgroup we
can find that contains all commutators of G.
The Commutator Subgroup

Theorem
Let G be a group.
The set of all
commutators aba-1b-1
for a, b G generates a
subgroup C of G.
The Commutator Subgroup

Proof
Let a, b G. Then,
(aba-1b-1)(aba-1b-1)-1
=aba-1b-1bab-1a-1
=e C
since e = eee-1e-1 is a
commutator.
The Commutator Subgroup

Definition
The set of all
commutators aba-1b-1
for a, b G generates a
subgroup C of G is
called the commutator
subgroup.
Group Theory

Generating Sets
Generating Sets

Let G be a group, and let

a G. We have described
the cyclic subgroup <a>
of G, which is the
smallest subgroup of G
that contains the
element a.
Suppose we want to find
as small a subgroup as
possible that contains
both a and b for another
element b in G.
Generating Sets

We see that any

subgroup containing a
and b must contain an
and bm for all m, n , and
consequently must
contain all finite
products of such powers
of a and b.
 Generating Sets

For example, such an expression might be

a2b4a-3b2a5.
Note that we cannot "simplify" this expression by
writing first all powers of a followed by the powers
of b, since G may not be abelian. However, products
of such expressions are again expressions of the
same type.
Furthermore, e = a0 and the inverse of such an
expression is again of the same type.
 Generating Sets

For example, the inverse of a2b4a-3b2a5 is

a-5b-2a3b-4a-2.
This shows that all such products of integral powers
of a and b form a subgroup of G, which surely must
be the smallest subgroup containing both a and b.
We call a and b generators of this subgroup.
If this subgroup should be all of G, then we say that
{a, b} generates G.
We could have made similar arguments for three,
four, or any number of elements of G, as long as we
take only finite products of their integral powers.
Generating Sets

Example
The Klein 4-group V = {e,
a, b, c} is generated by
{a,b} since ab=c.
It is also generated by
{a,c}, {b,c }, and {a,b,c}.
If a group G is generated
by a subset S, then every
subset of G containing S
generates G.
Group Theory

Generating Sets
Generating Sets

Example
The group 6 is generated
by {1} and {5}.
It is also generated by
{2,3} since 2+3=5, so
that any subgroup
containing 2 and 3 must
contain 5 and must
therefore be 6.
Generating Sets

It is also generated by
{3,4}, {2,3,4}, {1,3}, and
{3,5}.
But it is not generated
by {2, 4} since
<2> = {0, 2, 4}
contains 2 and 4.
Generating Sets

We have given an
intuitive explanation of
the subgroup of a group
G generated by a subset
of G.
What follows is a
detailed exposition of
the same idea
approached in another
way, namely via
intersections of
subgroups.
 Generating Sets

Definition
Let {Si|i I} be a collection of sets.
Here I may be any set of indices.
The intersection of the sets Si is the set of all
elements that are in all the sets Si; that is,
= {x| x Si for all i I}.
If I is finite, I= {1, 2,...,n}, we may denoteby
.
Group Theory

Generating Sets
Generating Sets

Theorem
The intersection of some
subgroups Hi of a group
G for i I is again a
subgroup of G.
 Generating Sets

Proof
Let us show closure. Let a and
b , so that a Hi for all i I and
b Hi for all i I. Then ab Hi for all i I, since Hi is a
group. Thus ab .
Since Hi is a subgroup for all i I, we have e Hi
for all i I, and hence e .
Finally, for a , we have a Hi for all i I, so a-1 Hi for
all i I, which implies that
a-1 .
 Generating Sets

Let G be a group and let ai G for i I.

There is at least one subgroup of G containing all
the elements ai for i I, namely G is itself.
The above theorem assures us that if we take the
intersection of all subgroups of G containing all ai
for i I, we will obtain a subgroup H of G.
This subgroup H is the smallest subgroup of G
containing all the ai for i I.
Group Theory

Generating Sets
Generating Sets

Definition
Let G be a group and
let ai G for i I.
The smallest subgroup
of G containing {ai| i I}
is the subgroup
generated by {ai|i I}.
If this subgroup is all of
G, then {ai|i I}
generates G and the ai
are generators of G.
Generating Sets

Definition
If there is a finite set
{ ai|i I}
that generates G, then
G is finitely generated.
 Generating Sets

Note that this definition is consistent with our

previous definition of a generator for a cyclic
group.
Note also that the statement a is a generator of G
may mean either that G = <a> or that a is a
member of a subset of G that generates G.
Our next theorem gives the structural insight
into the subgroup of G generated by {ai |i I} that
we discussed for two generators in the beginning
of these modules.
Generating Sets

Theorem
If G is a group and ai G
for i I, then the subgroup
H of G generated by { ai| i
I} has as elements
precisely those elements
of G that are finite
products of integral
powers of the ai, where
powers of a fixed ai may
occur several times in the
product.
 Generating Sets

Proof
Let K denote the set of all finite products of
integral powers of the ai. Then KH.
We need only observe that K is a subgroup and
then, since H is the smallest subgroup containing
ai for i I, we will be done.
Observe that a product of elements in K is again
in K. Since (ai)0=e, we have e K.
Generating Sets

For every element k in

K, if we form from the
product giving k a new
product with the order
of the a, reversed and
the opposite sign on
all exponents, we have
k-1 which is thus in K.
Group Theory

The Commutator
Subgroup
The Commutator Subgroup

Theorem
Let G be a group.
Then, the commutator
subgroup C of G is a
normal subgroup of G.
The Commutator Subgroup
Proof
We must show that C is
normal in G.
The last theorem then
shows that C consists
precisely of all finite
products of commutators.
For x C, we must show
that g-1xg C for all g G, or
that if x is a product of
commutators, so is
g-1xg for all g G.
 The Commutator Subgroup

By inserting e = gg-1 between each product of

commutators occurring in x, we see that it is
sufficient to show for each commutator cdc-1d-1
that g-1 (cdc-1d-1)g is in C.
But g-1 (cdc-1d-1)g = (g-1cdc-1)(e)(d-1g)
= (g-1cdc-1)(gd-1dg-1)(d-1g)
= [(g-1c)d(g-1c)-1d-1][dg-1d-1g], which is in C.
Thus C is normal in G.
Group Theory

The Commutator
Subgroup
The Commutator Subgroup

Theorem
If N is a normal
subgroup of G, then
G/N is abelian if and
only if CN.
The Commutator Subgroup

Proof
If N is a normal subgroup
of G and G/N is abelian,
then
(a-1N)(b-1N)=(b-1N)(a-1N);
that is, aba-1b-1N=N,
so aba-1b-1 N, and
C N.
The Commutator Subgroup

Finally, if C N, then
(aN)(bN)=abN
=ab(b-1a-1ba)N
= (abb-1a-1)baN
= baN
= (bN)(aN).
Group Theory

The Commutator
Subgroup
 The Commutator Subgroup

Example
For the group S3, we find that one commutator is 11
1 1 = 11 21= = 2.
-1 -1

(12)(13)=(132)
We similarly find that
= 21 11= = 1.
-1 -1
21 2 1

(13)(12)=(123)
The Commutator Subgroup

Thus the commutator

subgroup C of S3
contains A3. Since A3
is a normal subgroup
of S3 and
S3/A3 is abelian, above
theorem shows that
C=A3.
Group Theory

Automorphisms
Automorphisms

Recall that an
automorphism of a group
G is an isomorphism of G
onto G.
The set of all
automorphisms of G is
denoted by Aut(G).
Automorphisms

We have seen that every

g G determines an
automorphism ig of G
(called an inner
automorphism)given by
ig(x)=gxg-1. The set of all
inner automorphisms of
G is denoted by Inn(G).
Automorphisms

Theorem
The set Aut(G) of all
automorphisms of a
group G is a group under
composition of
mappings, and
lnn(G) Aut(G). Moreover,
G/Z(G)Inn(G).
 Automorphisms

Proof
Clearly, Aut(G) is nonempty. Let Aut(G). Then for
all x, y G, (xy)=(((x) (y)) = ((x))((y)).
Hence, Aut(G). Again,
(x)y))=
(y)=xy.
Hence x)y)= (xy). Therefore,
Aut(G). This proves that Aut( G) is
a subgroup of the symmetric group
SG and, hence, is itself a group.
Group Theory

Automorphisms
Automorphisms

Theorem
The set Aut(G) of all
automorphisms of a
group G is a group under
composition of
mappings, and
lnn(G) Aut(G). Moreover,
G/Z(G)Inn(G).
 Automorphisms

Consider the mapping

(a)=ia=axa-1 for all x G.
For any a, b G, iab(x)=
abx(ab)-1= a(bxb-1)a-1 = iaib(x)
for all x G.
Hence, is a
homomorphism, and,
therefore, lnn(G)=Im is a
subgroup of Aut(G).

8
 Automorphisms

Further, ia is the identity automorphism if and only if

axa-1= x for all x G. Hence, Ker = Z(G), and by the
fundamental theorem of homomorphisms
G/Z(G)lnn(G).
Finally, for any Aut(G),
a
-1
)(x) = (a(x)a -1
)
= (a)x (a) -1
= i(a) (x); hence a-1=i(a) Inn(G).
Therefore, lnn(G) Aut(G).
9
 Automorphisms

It follows from above theorem that if the center of a

group G is trivial, then G lnn(G). A group G is said
to be complete if Z(G) = {e} and every
automorphism of G is an inner automorphism; that
is, G lnn(G)=Aut(G).
When considering the possible automorphisms of
a group G, it is useful to remember that, for any x
G, x and (x) must be of the same order.

10
Group Theory

Examples on
Automorphisms
Examples on Automorphisms

Example
The symmetric group S3
has a trivial center {e}.
Hence, Inn(S3) S3. We
have seen that
S3= {e,a,a2,b,ab,a2b} with
the defining relations
a3= e= b2, ba = a2b. The
elements a and a2 are of
order 3, and b, ab, and
a2b are all of order 2.
Examples on Automorphisms

Hence, for any Aut(S3),

(a)= a or a2, (b)= b, ab, or
a2b. Moreover, when (a)
and (b) are fixed, (x) is
known for every x S3.
Hence, is completely
determined.
Examples on Automorphisms

Thus, there cannot be

more than six
automorphisms of S3.
Hence
Aut (S3)=Inn(S3) .
Therefore, S3 is a
complete group.
Group Theory

Examples on
Automorphisms
Examples on Automorphisms

Example
Let G be a finite abelian
group of order n, and let
m be a positive integer
relative prime to n. Then
the mapping : x xm is an
automorphism of G.
Examples on Automorphisms

Solution
(m,n) = 1 there exist
integers u and v such
that mu + nv = 1 x G,
xmu+nv=xmuxnv=xum since
o(G)=n. Now for all x G,
x=(xu )m implies that
xm=e x = e, showing that
is 1-1.
Examples on Automorphisms

That is a homomorphism
follows from the fact that
G is abelian. Hence, is
an automorphism of G.
Group Theory

Examples on
Automorphisms
Examples on Automorphisms

Example
A finite group G having
more than two
elements and with the
condition that x2 e for
some x G must have a
nontrivial automorphism.
Examples on Automorphisms

When G is abelian,
then : x x-1 is an
automorphism, and,
clearly, is not an identity
automorphism. When G
is not abelian, there
exists a nontrivial inner
automorphism.
Examples on Automorphisms

Example
Let G = <a|an=e> be a
finite cyclic group of
order n. Then the
mapping : a am is an
automorphism of G iff
(m,n) = 1.
Examples on Automorphisms

Solution
If (m,n) = 1, then it has
been shown in Example
of last module that is an
automorphism. So let us
assume now that is an
automorphism. Then
the order of (a) = am is
the same as that of a,
which is n.
Examples on Automorphisms

Further, if (m,n)=d, then

(am)n/d=(an)m/d = e. Thus,
the order of am divides
n/d; that is, n|n/d.
Hence, d = 1, and the
solution is complete.
Group Theory

Group Action on a Set

Group Action on a Set

We define a binary
operation * on a set S to
be a function mapping SxS
into S. The function *
gives us a rule for
"multiplying" an element
s1 in S and an element s2
in S to yield an element s1
* s2 in S.
Group Action on a Set

More generally, for any

sets A, B, and C, we can
view a map *: A x BC as
defining a
"multiplication," where
any element a of A times
any element b of B has as
value some element c of
C. Of course, we write a*
b = c, or simply ab= c.
Group Action on a Set

In these modules, we will

be concerned with the
case where X is a set, G is
a group, and we have
a map *: G x X X. We shall
write *(g, x) as g * x or gx.

4
Group Action on a Set

Definition
Let X be a set and G a
group. An action of G on
X is a map *: G x X X such
that
1. ex = x for all x X,
2. (g1g2)(x) = g1(g2x) for all
x X and all g1, g2 G. Under
these conditions,
X is a G-set.
5
Group Action on a Set

Example
Let X be any set, and let
H be a subgroup of the
group Sx of all
permutations of X.
Then X is an H -set,
where the action of H
on X is its action as an
element of Sx, so that x =
(x) for all x X.
Group Theory

Group Action on a Set

Group Action on a Set

Condition 2 is a
consequence of the
definition of permutation
multiplication as function
composition, and
Condition 1 is immediate
from the definition of the
identity permutation as
the identity function. Note
that, in particular,
{1, 2, 3, ···, n} is an Sn set.
Group Action on a Set

Our next theorem will

show that for every G-set
X and each g G, the
map : XX defined by = gx
is a permutation of X, and
that there is a
homomorphism : GSx
such that the action of G
on X is essentially the
above Example action of
the image subgroup H =
[G] of Sx on X.
Group Action on a Set

So actions of subgroups
of Sx on X describe all
possible group actions on
X. When studying the set
X, actions using
subgroups of Sx suffice.
However, sometimes a
set X is used to study G
via a group action of G on
X. Thus we need the
more general concept
given by above Definition.
Group Action on a Set

Theorem
Let X be a G-set. For each
g G, the function : XX
defined by (x) = gx for xX
is a permutation of X.
Also, the map : G Sx
defined by (g) = is a
homomorphism with the
property that (g)(x) = gx.
 Group Action on a Set

Proof
To show that is a permutation of X, we must show
that it is a one-to-one map of X onto itself. Suppose
that (x1) = (x2) for x1, x2 X. Then gx1= gx2
Consequently, g-1 (gx1) = g-1(gx2). Using Condition 2
in Definition, we see that (g-1 g)x1= (g-1 g)x2, so ex1 =
ex2. Condition 1 of the definition then yields x1 = x2,
so is one to one. The two conditions of the
definition show that for x X, we have (g-1x) = g(g-1)x
= (gg-1)x =ex= x, so maps X onto X. Thus is indeed a
permutation.
Group Theory

Group Action on a Set

Group Action on a Set

Theorem
Let X be a G-set. For each
g G, the function : XX
defined by (x) = gx for xX
is a permutation of X.
Also, the map : G Sx
defined by (g) = is a
homomorphism with the
property that (g)(x) = gx.
 Group Action on a Set

To show that : GSx defined by (g) = is a

homomorphism, we must show that (g1g2) = (g1) (g2)
for all g1, g2 G. We show the equality of these two
permutations in Sx by showing they both carry an x X
into the same element. Using the two conditions in
above Definition and the rule for function
composition, we obtain
(g1g2)(x) = (x) = (g1g2)x = g1(g2x) = g1 (x) = ((x))= ()(x)
=()(x)=
( (g1) (g2) )(x).
Group Action on a Set

Thus is a
homomorphism.
The stated property of
follows at once since by
our definitions, we have
(g)(x) = (x) = gx.
Group Theory

Group Action on a Set

Group Action on a Set

Definition
Let X be a set and G a
group. An action of G on
X is a map *: G x X X such
that
1. ex = x for all x X,
2. g1(g2x)=(g1g2)(x) for all
x X and all g1, g2 G. Under
these conditions,
X is a G-set.
Group Action on a Set

Example
Let G be the additive
group , and X be the set
of complex numbers z
such that |z| = 1. Then X
is a G-set under the
action *c = , where and c
X. Here the action of is
the rotation through an
angle = radians,
anticlockwise.
 Group Action on a Set

Example
Let G=S5 , and
x5 X={x1, x2, x3, x4, x5} be a
x4 x1 set of beads forming a
circular ring. Then X is a
G-set under the action
x3 x2
G*xi=, gS5.
Group Action on a Set

Example
Let G=D4 and X be the
vertices 1, 2, 3, 4 of a
square. X is a G-set under
the action
g * i = g(i), g D 4,
i {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Group Action on a Set

Example
Let G be a group. Define
a*x =ax, a G, x G.
Then, clearly, the set G is a
G-set.
This action of the group G
on itself is called
translation.
Group Theory

Group Action on a Set

Group Action on a Set

Example
Let G be a group.
Define
a*x =axa-1, aG, xG.
We show that G is a G-set.
Let a, b G. Then
(ab)*x=(ab)x(ab)-1
= a(bxb-1)a-1=a(b*x)a-1
=a*(b*x).
Also, e*x=x.
Group Action on a Set

This proves G is a G-set.

This action of the group
G on itself is called
conjugation.
Group Action on a Set

Example
Let G be a group and H<G.
Then the set G/H of left
cosets can be made into a
G-set defining
a*xH=axH, aG, xHG/H.
Group Action on a Set

Example
Let G be a group and HG.
Then the set G/H of left
cosets is a G-set if we
define a*xH=axa-1H, aG,
xHG/H.
Group Action on a Set

To see this, let a, bG and

xHG/H. Then
(ab)*xH=abxb-1a-1H
=a*bxb-1H =a*(b*xH).
Also, e*xH=xH.
Hence, G/H is a G-set.
Group Theory

Group Action on a Set

Group Action on a Set

Theorem
Let G be a group and let X
be a set.
(i) If X is a G-set, then the
action of G on X induces a
homomorphism
:GSX.
(ii) Any
homomorphism :GSX
induces an action of G
onto X.
 Group Action on a Set

Proof
(i) We define :GSX by ((a))(x)=ax, aG, xX. Clearly (a)SX,
aG. Let a, bG. Then
((ab))(x)=(ab)x=a(bx)=a(((b))(x)) = ((a))(((b))(x))=((a)
(b))x for all xX.
Hence, (ab)= (a) (b).
(ii) Define a*x=((a))(x); that is, ax=((a))(x). Then
(ab)x = ((ab))(x)=((a)(b))(x)= (a)((b)(x))= (a)(bx)=a(bx).
Also, ex=((e))(x)=x.
Hence, X is a G-set.
Group Theory

Stabilizer
Stabilizer

Definition
Let G be a group acting on
a set X, and let x X. Then
the set
Gx= {g G | gx = x},
which can be shown to be
a subgroup, is called the
stabilizer (or isotropy)
group of x in G.
 Stabilizer

Example
Let G be a group. Define a*x =axa-1, aG, xG.
This action of the group G on itself is called
conjugation.
Then, for x G, Gx = {aG|axa-1=x}=N(x), the normalizer
of x in G.
Thus, in this case the stabilizer of any element x in G
is the normalizer of x in G.
 Stabilizer

Example
Let G be a group and H<G. We define action of G on
the set G/H of left cosets by
a*xH=axH, aG, xHG/H.
Here the stabilizer of a left coset xH is the subgroup
{gG | gxH=xH} = {gG | x-1gxH}
= {gG | gxHx-1} = xHx-1
Group Theory

Stabilizer
Stabilizer

Theorem
Let X be a G-set.
Then Gx is a subgroup
of G for each x X.
 Stabilizer

Proof
Let x X and let g1, g2Gx. Then g1x=x and g2x=x.
Consequently, (g1g2)x=g1(g2x)=g1x=x, so g1g2Gx, and
Gx is closed under the induced operation of G.
Of course ex=x, so eGx.
If gGx, then gx = x, so x=ex=(g-1g)x= g-1(gx)=g-1x, and
consequently g-1Gx.
Thus Gx is a subgroup of G.
Group Theory

Orbits
Orbits

Theorem
Let X be a G-set. For x1,
x2X, let x1x2 if and only if
there exists gG such
that gx1=x2. Then is an
equivalence relation on
X.
 Orbits

Proof
For each xX, we have ex=x, so xx and is reflexive.
Suppose x1 x2, so gx1=x2 for some gG. Then
g-1x2=g-1(gx1) =(g-1g)x1=ex1=x1, so x2x1, and is
symmetric.
Finally, if x1x2 and x2x3, then g1x1=x2 and g2x2=x3 for
some g1, g2G. Then (g2g1)x1= g2(g1x1)= g2x2=x3, so x1x3
and is transitive.
Orbits

Definition
Let G be a group acting
on a set X, and let x X.
Then the set
Gx = {ax | a G}
is called the orbit
of x in G.
Orbits

Example
Let G be a group. Define
a*x =ax, a G, x G.
The orbit of xG is
Gx={ax|a G}=G.
Orbits

Example
Let G be a group.
Define
a*x =axa-1, aG, xG.
The orbit of xG is
Gx ={axa-1|aG}, called
the conjugate class of x
and denoted by C(x).
Group Theory

Conjugacy and G-Sets

 Conjugacy and G-Sets

Theorem
Let X be a G-set and let xX. Then |Gx|=(G:Gx).
If |G| is finite, then |Gx| is a divisor of |G|.
If X is a finite set, |X|=,
where C is a subset of X containing exactly one
element from each orbit.
 Conjugacy and G-Sets

Proof
We define a one-to-one map from Gx onto the
collection of left cosets of Gx in G.
Let x1Gx. Then there exists g1G such that g1x=x1. We
define (x1) to be the left coset g1Gx of Gx.
We must show that this map is well defined,
independent of the choice of g1G such that g1x=x1.
Suppose also that g1'x=x1. Then, g1x=g1'x, so
g1-1(g1x)= g1-1(g1’x), from which we deduce
x=(g1-1g1')x. Therefore g1-1g1'Gx, so g1'g1Gx, and
g G =g 'G . Thus the map is well defined.
Group Theory

Conjugacy and G-Sets

 Conjugacy and G-Sets

Theorem
Let X be a G-set and let xX. Then |Gx|=(G:Gx).
If |G| is finite, then |Gx| is a divisor of |G|.
If X is a finite set, |X|=,
where C is a subset of X containing exactly one
element from each orbit.
 Conjugacy and G-Sets

To show the map is one to one, suppose x1, x2Gx,

and (x1)=(x2). Then there exist g1, g2G such that
x1=g1x, x2=g2x, and g2g1Gx. Then g2=g1g for some
g Gx, so x2=g2x=g1(gx)=g1x=x1. Thus is one to one.
Finally, we show that each left coset of Gx in G is of
the form (x1) for some x1Gx. Let g1Gx be a left coset.
Then if g1x=x1, we have g1Gx= (x1).
Thus maps Gx one to one onto the collection of left
cosets so |Gx|=(G:Gx).
Conjugacy and G-Sets

If |G| is finite, then the

equation
|G|=|Gx|(G:Gx) shows
that |Gx|=(G:Gx) is a
divisor of |G|.
Since X is the disjoint
union of orbits Gx, it
follows that if X is finite,
then |X|=.
Group Theory

Isomorphism
Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

There are several

theorems concerning
isomorphic factor groups
that are known as the
isomorphism theorems of
group theory.

2
Isomorphism Theorems

Theorem
Let : GG' be a
homomorphism with
kernel K, and let
yK: G G/K be the canonical
homomorphism. There is a
unique isomorphism
: G/K[G] such that (x) =
µ(yK(x)) for each xG.

3
Isomorphism Theorems

The first isomorphism

theorem is diagrammed
in Figure below.

G
𝛟 [G]

yK 𝜇
G/K

4
Isomorphism Theorems

Lemma
Let N be a normal
subgroup of a group G and
let y: G G/N be the
canonical homomorphism.
Then the map from the
set of normal subgroups of
G containing N to the set
of normal subgroups of
G/N given by (L)=y[L] is
one to one and onto.
5
 Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
If L is a normal subgroup of G containing N, then
(L)=y[L] is a normal subgroup of G/N.
Because NL, for each xL the entire coset xN in G
is contained in L. Thus, y-1[(L)]=L. Consequently, if
L and M are normal subgroups of G, both
containing N, and if (L)= (M) = H, then L=y-
1
[H]=M. Therefore is one to one.

6
Isomorphism Theorems

If H is a normal subgroup
of G/N, then y-1[H] is a
normal subgroup of G.
Because NH and
y-1[{N}]=N, we see that Ny-
1
[H]. Then
(y-1[H])=y[y-1[H]]=H.
This shows that is onto
the set of normal
subgroups of G/N.
7
Group Theory

Isomorphism
Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

If H and N are subgroups

of a group G, then we let
HN={hn| h H, n N}.
We define the join H V N
of H and N as the
intersection of all
subgroups of G that
contain HN; thus H V N
is the smallest subgroup
of G containing HN.

9
Isomorphism Theorems

Of course H V N is also
the smallest subgroup of
G containing both H and
N, since any such
subgroup must contain
HN. In general, HN need
not be a subgroup of G.
Isomorphism Theorems

Lemma
If N is a normal subgroup
of G, and if H is any
subgroup of G, then
H V N=HN=NH.
Furthermore, if H is also
normal in G, then HN is
normal in G.

11
 Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
We show that HN is a subgroup of G, from which
H V N=HN follows at once. Let h1, h2H and n1, n2N.
Since N is a normal subgroup, we have n1h2=h2n3 for
some n3N. Then (h1n1)(h2n2)=h1(n1h2)n2=h1(h2n3)n2=
(h1h2)(n3n2)HN, so HN is closed under the induced
operation in G. Clearly e=ee is in HN. For hH and nN,
we have (hn)-1=n-1h-1= h-1n4 for some n4N, since N is a
normal subgroup. Thus (hn)-1HN, so
HN G.
Isomorphism Theorems

A similar argument shows

that NH is a subgroup, so
NH=H V N=HN.
Now suppose that H is
also normal in G, and let
h H, n N, and g G. Then
ghng-1=(ghg-1)(gng1)HN,
so HN is indeed normal in
G.
Group Theory

Second Isomorphism
Theorem
Second Isomorphism Theorem

Theorem
Let H be a subgroup of G
and let N be a normal
subgroup of G. Then
(HN)/NH/(H N).
 Second Isomorphism Theorem

Proof
Let y: GG/N be the canonical homomorphism and let
HG. Then y[H] is a subgroup of G/N. Now the action of
y on just the elements of H (called y restricted to H)
provides us with a homomorphism mapping H onto
y[H], and the kernel of this restriction is clearly the set
of elements of N that are also in H,
that is, the intersection HN. By first isomorphism
theorem, there is an isomorphism
: H/(HN)y[H].
 Second Isomorphism Theorem

On the other hand, y restricted to HN also provides a

homomorphism mapping HN onto y[H], because y(n)
is the identity N of G/N for all nN. The kernel of y
restricted to HN is N. The first isomorphism theorem
then provides us with an isomorphism
: (HN)/Ny[H].
Because (HN)/N and H/(HN) are both isomorphic to
y[H], they are isomorphic to each other. Indeed,
: (HN)/NH/(HN) where =µ1-1µ2 will be an
isomorphism. More explicitly,
((hn)N)=µ1-1(µ2((hn)N))= µ1-1(hN)=h(HN).
Group Theory

Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Example
Let G be a group such that
for some fixed integer
n >1, (ab)n =anbn for all a,
bG. Let Gn={aG|an=e} and
Gn=(an |aG}.
Then GnG, GnG, and
G/GnGn.
 Isomorphism Theorems

Solution
Let a, bGn and xG. Then (ab-1)n=an(bn)-1=e, so ab-1
Gn. Also, (xax-1)n=(xax -1)…(xax -1)=xanx-1 =e implies
xax -1Gn. Hence, GnG.
Let a, b, xG. Then an(bn)-1=(ab-1)nGn.
Also, xanx-1 =(xax -1)…(xax -1)= (xax-1)nGn. Therefore, GnG.
Group Theory

Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Example
Let G be a group such that
for some fixed integer
n >1, (ab)n =anbn for all a,
bG. Let Gn={aG|an=e} and
Gn={an |aG}.
Then GnG, GnG, and
G/GnGn.
Isomorphism Theorems

Define a mapping f: GGn by

f(a) = an.
Then, for all a, b G,
f(ab)=(ab)n=anbn=f(a)f(b).
Thus, f is a homomorphism.
Now Ker f={a|an = e}=Gn.
Therefore, by the first
isomorphism theorem
G/GnGn.
Isomorphism Theorems

Example
Let G=x x, H=xx{0}, and
N={0}xx. Then clearly
HN=xxand HN={0}xx{0}.
We have (HN)/N and we
also have H/(HN).
Group Theory

Third Isomorphism
Theorem
Third Isomorphism Theorem

If H and K are two normal

subgroups of G and KH,
then H/K is a normal
subgroup of G/K.
The third isomorphism
theorem concerns these
groups.
Third Isomorphism Theorem

Theorem
Let H and K be normal
subgroups of a group G
with KH.
Then G/H(G/K)/(H/K).
 Third Isomorphism Theorem

Proof
Let :G(G/K)/(H/K) be given by (a)= (aK)(H/K) for a
G.
Clearly is onto (G/ K)/(H/ K), and for a, bG,
(ab)=[(ab)K](H/K)
=[(aK)(bK)](H/K)
= [(aK)(H / K)][(bK)(H / K)]=(a) (b),
so is a homomorphism.
Third Isomorphism Theorem

The kernel consists of

those x G such that
(x)=H/K.
These x are just the
elements of H.
Then first isomorphism
theorem shows that
G/H(G/K)/(H/K).
Group Theory

Third Isomorphism
Theorem
Third Isomorphism Theorem

A nice way of viewing

third isomorphism
theorem is to regard the
canonical map yH:GG/H as
being factored via a
normal subgroup K of G,
KHG, to give
yH=yH/K yK, up to a natural
isomorphism, as
illustrated in Figure.
 Third Isomorphism Theorem

yH
G G/H

yK Natural Isomorphism

G/K yH/K (G/K)/(H/K)

Third Isomorphism Theorem

Another way of visualizing

this theorem is to use the
subgroup diagram in
Figure, where each group
is a normal subgroup of G
and is contained in the
one above it. G

K
 Third Isomorphism Theorem

The larger the normal subgroup, the smaller the factor

group.
Thus we can think of G collapsed by H, that is, G/H, as
being smaller than G collapsed by K.
Third isomorphism theorem states that we can collapse
G all the way down to G/H in two steps.
First, collapse to G/K, and then, using H/K, collapse this
to (G/ K)/(H/K). The overall result is the same (up to
isomorphism) as collapsing G by H.
Group Theory

Third Isomorphism
Theorem
Third Isomorphism Theorem

Theorem
Let H and K be normal
subgroups of a group G
with KH.
Then G/H(G/K)/(H/K).
Third Isomorphism Theorem

Example
Consider
K = 6<H=2<G=.
Then G/H=/22. Now
G/K=/6 has elements 6,
1+6, 2+6, 3+6, 4+6, and
5+6.
Of these six cosets, 6, 2+6,
and 4+6 lie in 2/6.
Third Isomorphism Theorem

Thus (/6)/(2/6) has two

elements and is
isomorphic to 2 also.
Alternatively, we see that
/66, and 2/6 corresponds
under this isomorphism
to the cyclic subgroup <2>
of 6.
Thus (/6)/(2/6)
6/<2>2/2.
Group Theory

Sylow Theorems
Sylow Theorems

The fundamental theorem

for finitely generated
abelian groups gives us
complete information
about all finite abelian
groups. The study of finite
nonabelian groups is
much more complicated.
The Sylow theorems give
us some important
information about them. 
 Sylow Theorems

We know the order of a subgroup of a finite group

G must divide |G|. If G is abelian, then there exist
subgroups of every order dividing |G|.
We showed that A4, which has order 12, has no
subgroup of order 6.
Thus a nonabelian group G may have no subgroup
of some order d dividing |G|; the "converse of the
theorem of Lagrange" does not hold. 
 Sylow Theorems

The Sylow theorems give a weak converse. Namely,

they show that if d is a power of a prime and d divides
|G|, then G does contain a subgroup of order d.
Note that 6 is not a power of a prime. The Sylow
theorems also give some information concerning the
number of such subgroups and their relationship to
each other.
We will see that these theorems are very useful in
studying finite nonabelian groups.
Sylow Theorems

Proofs of the Sylow

theorems give us another
application of action of a
group on a set. This time,
the set itself is formed
from the group; in some
instances the set is the
group itself, sometimes it
is a collection of cosets of
a subgroup, and
sometimes it is a
collection of subgroups. 
Group Theory

Sylow Theorems
Sylow Theorems

Let X be a finite G-set.

Recall that for xX, the
orbit of x in X under G is
Gx={gx| gG}. Suppose that
there are r orbits in X
under G, and let {x1, x2,···,
xr} contain one element
from each orbit in X. Now
every element of X is in
precisely one orbit, so
|X|=·
 Sylow Theorems

There may be one-element orbits in X.

Let XG={xX|gx=x for all gG}.
Thus XG is precisely the union of the one-element
orbits in X.
Let us suppose there are s one-element orbits,
where 0sr. Then |XG|=s, and reordering the xi if
necessary, we may rewrite above equation as
|X|=|XG|+ .
Most of the results of these modules will flow from
above equation.
Sylow Theorems

Theorem
Let G be a group of order
pn and let X be a finite G-
set. Then
|X| |XG| (mod p).
 Sylow Theorems

Proof
Recall |X|=|XG|+ .
In the notation of above Equation, we know that
|Gxi| divides |G|.
Consequently p divides |Gxi| for s + 1≤i≤ r. Above
equation then shows that |X|-|XG| is divisible by p,
so |X||XG| (modp).
Sylow Theorems

Definition
Let p be a prime. A group
G is a p-group if every
element in G has order a
power of the prime p.
A subgroup of a group G is
a p-subgroup of G if the
subgroup is itself a p-
group.
Group Theory

Cauchy’s Theorem
Cauchy’s Theorem

Our goal in these modules

is to show that a finite
group G has a subgroup of
every prime-power order
dividing |G|.
As a first step, we prove
Cauchy's theorem, which
says that if p divides |G|,
then G has a subgroup of
order p.
Cauchy’s Theorem

Cauchy’s Theorem
Let p be a prime. Let G be
a finite group and let p
divide |G|.
Then G has an element of
order p and, consequently,
a subgroup of order p.
Cauchy’s Theorem

Proof
We form the set X of all p-
tuples (g1, g2, ···, gp) of
elements of G having the
property that the product
of the coordinates in G is
e. That is,
X={(g1, g2, ···, gp) |gi G and
g1g2 ···gp=e}.
Cauchy’s Theorem

We claim p divides |X|. In

forming a p-tuple in X, we
may let g1, g2,···, gp-1 be any
elements of G, and gp is
then uniquely determined
as
(g1 g2… gp-1)-1.
Thus |X| = |G|p-1 and
since p divides |G|, we see
that p divides |X|. Let be
the cycle (1, 2, 3,…, p) in Sp.
 Cauchy’s Theorem

We let act on X by (g1 , g2,…, gp)

=(g(1), g(2), …, g(p)) =(g2 , g3,…, gp, g1 ).
Note that (g2 , g3,…, gp, g1 )X, for g1(g2 g3…gp)=e
implies that g1= (g2 g3…gp)-1, so (g2 g3…gp)g1=e also.
Thus acts on X, and we consider the subgroup < >
of Sp to act on X by iteration in the natural way.
 Cauchy’s Theorem

Now |<>|= p, so we may apply above Theorem, and we

know that |X||X<>| (mod p). Since p divides |X|, it must
be that p divides |X<>| also. Let us examine X<>·
Now (g1 , g2,…, gp) is left fixed by , and hence by <>, if and
only if g1=g2=…= gp. We know at least one element in X<>,
namely (e, e, …, e). Since p divides |X<>|, there must be
at least p elements in X<>. Hence there exists some
element aG, ae, such that (a, a, ... ,a)X<> and hence ap =
e, so a has order p. Of course, <a> is a subgroup of G of
order p.
Group Theory

Sylow Theorems
Sylow Theorems

Corollary
Let G be a finite group.
Then G is a p-group if
and only if |G| is a
power of p.
Sylow Theorems

Let G be a group, and let

be the collection of all
subgroups of G.
We make into a G-set by
letting G act on by
conjugation.
That is, if H so HG and g
G, then g acting on H
yields the conjugate
subgroup gHg-1.
Sylow Theorems

Now GH={gG|gHg-1=H} is
easily seen to be a
subgroup of G, and H is a
normal subgroup of GH.
Since GH consists of all
elements of G that leave
H invariant under
conjugation, GH is the
largest subgroup of G
having H as a normal
subgroup.
Sylow Theorems

Definition
The subgroup
GH ={g G | gHg-1=H}
is the normalizer of H in
G and is denoted by
N[H].
Sylow Theorems

Lemma
Let H be a p-subgroup of
a finite group G. Then
(N[H]:H)(G:H) (mod p).
 Sylow Theorems

Proof
Let be the set of left cosets of H in G, and let H
act on by left translation, so that h(xH) = (hx)H.
Then becomes an H-set. Note that ||=(G:H).
Let us determine H, that is, those left cosets that
are fixed under action by all elements of H.
Now xH= h(xH) if and only if H=x-1hxH, or if and
only if x-1hx H.
 Sylow Theorems

Thus xH=h(xH) for all hH if and only if x-1hx

=x-1h(x-1)-1H for all hH, or if and only if x-1N[H], or if
and only if xN[H]. Thus the left cosets in H are those
contained in N[H]. The number of such cosets is
(N[H]:H), so |H|= (N[H]:H).
Since H is a p-group, it has order a power of p. Then
H| (mod p), that is,

(G:H) (N[H]:H) (mod p).

Group Theory

First Sylow Theorem

First Sylow Theorem
Theorem
Let G be a finite group and
let |G|= pnm where n1
and where p does not
divide m. Then
1. G contains a subgroup
of order pi for each i
where 1in,
2. Every subgroup H of G
of order pi is a normal
subgroup of a subgroup of
order pi+1 for 1 i n.
First Sylow Theorem

Proof
We know G contains a
subgroup of order p by
Cauchy's theorem.
We use an induction
argument and show that
the existence of a
subgroup of order pi for
i<n implies the existence
of a subgroup of order pi+1.
 First Sylow Theorem

Let H be a subgroup of order pi. Since i < n, we see p

divides (G:H). We then know p divides (N[H]:H).
Since H is a normal subgroup of N[H], we can form
N[H]/H, and we see that p divides |N[H]/H|.
By Cauchy's theorem, the factor group N[H]/H has a
subgroup K which is of order p.
If y:N[H]N[H]/H is the canonical homomorphism,
then y-1[K]={xN[H]|y(x)K} is a subgroup of N[H] and
hence of G. This subgroup contains H and is of order
pi+1.
First Sylow Theorem

2. We repeat the
construction in part 1 and
note that H < y-1[K]N[H]
where |y-1[K]|= pi+1.
Since H is normal in N[H],
it is of course normal in
the possibly smaller group
y-1[K].
First Sylow Theorem

Definition
A Sylow p-subgroup P of a
group G is a maximal
p-subgroup of G,
that is,
a p-subgroup contained in
no larger p-subgroup.
Group Theory

Second Sylow Theorem

Second Sylow Theorem

Let G be a finite group,

where |G|=pnm as in first
Sylow theorem.
The theorem shows that
the Sylow p-subgroups of
G are precisely those
subgroups of order pn.
If P is a Sylow p-
subgroup, every
conjugate gPg-1 of P is
also a Sylow p-subgroup.
Second Sylow Theorem

The second Sylow

theorem states that
every Sylow p-subgroup
can be obtained from P
in this fashion; that is,
any two Sylow p-
subgroups are conjugate.
Second Sylow Theorem

Theorem
Let P1 and P2 be Sylow p-
subgroups of a finite
group G.
Then P1 and P2 are
conjugate subgroups of G.
 Second Sylow Theorem

Proof
Here we will let one of the subgroups act on left cosets
of the other. Let be the collection of left cosets of P1,
and let P2 act on by z(xP1)=(zx)P1 for zP2. Then is a P2-
set. We have | (mod p), and ||= (G: P1) is not divisible
by p, so ||0. Let xP1
Then zxP1=xP1 for all zP2, so x-1zxP1=P1 for all zP2. Thus x-
1
zxP1 for all zP2, so x-1P2xP1.
Since |P1|=|P2|, we must have P1=x-1P2x, so P1 and P2
are indeed conjugate subgroups.
Group Theory

Third Sylow Theorem

Third Sylow Theorem

The final Sylow theorem

gives information on the
number of Sylow p-
subgroups.
Theorem
If G is a finite group and p
divides |G|, then the
number of Sylow p-
subgroups is congruent to
1 modulo p and divides |
G|.
 Third Sylow Theorem
Proof
Let P be one Sylow p-subgroup of G. Let be the set
of all Sylow p-subgroups and let P act on by
conjugation, so that xP carries T into xTx-1.
We have ||||(mod p). Let us find .
If T, then xTx-1=T for all x P. Thus PN[T].
Of course TN[T] also.
Since P and T are both Sylow p-subgroups of G, they
are also Sylow p-subgroups of N[T].
But then they are conjugate in N[T] by second Sylow
theorem.
 Third Sylow Theorem

Since T is a normal subgroup of N[T], it is its only

conjugate in N[T]. Thus T=P.
Then = {P}. Since ||||=1 (mod p), we see the
number of Sylow p-subgroups is congruent to 1
modulo p.
Now let G act on by conjugation. Since all Sylow p-
subgroups are conjugate, there is only one orbit in
under G.
If P then ||=|orbit of P|= (G:GP). GP is, in fact, the
normalizer of P. But (G:GP) is a divisor of |G|, so the
number of Sylow p-subgroups divides |G|.
Group Theory

Sylow Theorems
Sylow Theorems

Example
The Sylow 2-subgroups of
S3 have order 2.
The subgroups of order 2
in S3 are
{}, {}, {}.
Note that there are three
subgroups and that
3 1 (mod 2).
Sylow Theorems

Also, 3 divides 6, the order

of S3.
We can readily check that
={} and ={}
where (x)=jxj-1, illustrating
that they are all conjugate.
For instance, ()=-1==
(1,3,2)(2,3)(1,2,3)=(1,2)= .
 Sylow Theorems

Example
Let us use the Sylow theorems to show that no group of
order 15 is simple. Let G have order 15.
We claim that G has a normal subgroup of order 5.
By first Sylow theorem G has at least one subgroup of
order 5, and by third Sylow theorem the number of
such subgroups is congruent to 1 modulo 5 and divides
15. Since 1, 6, and 11 are the only positive numbers less
than 15 that are congruent to 1 modulo 5, and since
among these only the number 1 divides 15, we see that
G has exactly one subgroup P of order 5.
Sylow Theorems

But for each gG, the inner

automorphism ig of G with
ig(x)=gxg-1 maps P onto a
subgroup gPg-1, again of
order 5.
Hence we must have
gPg-1=P for all g G, so P is
a normal subgroup of G.
Therefore, G is not simple.
Group Theory

Application of Sylow
Theory
Application of Sylow Theory

Let X be a finite G-set

where G is a finite group.
Let XG={xX|gx=x for all
gG}. Then
|X|=|XG|+ , where xi is an
element in the ith orbit in
X.
 Application of Sylow Theory

Consider now the special case of above equation,

where X=G and the action of G on G is by
conjugation, so g G carries x X = G into gxg-1. Then
XG={x G| gxg-1=x for all g G}
= {x G| xg=gx for all g G}=Z(G), the center of G.
If we let c=|Z(G)| and ni=|Gxi| in above equation,
then we obtain |G|=c+nc+1+…+nr , where ni is the
number of elements in the ith orbit of G under
conjugation by itself.
Note that ni divides |G| for c+1 i r since we know |
Gxi|=(G: ), which is a divisor of |G|.
Application of Sylow Theory

Definition
The equation |G|=c+nc+1+
…+nr , where
c=|Z(G)| and ni is the
number of elements in
the ith orbit of G under
conjugation by itself, is
the class equation of G.
Each orbit in G under
conjugation by G is a
conjugate class in G.
 Application of Sylow Theory

Example
()=-1= ()=-1=
()=-1=
()=-1=(1,2,3)(2,3)(1,3,2)(1,3)=
()=-1= ()=-1=
Therefore, the conjugate classes of S3 are
{}, { }, {}.
The class equation of S3 is 6 = 1+2+3.
Application of Sylow Theory

Theorem
The center of a finite
nontrivial p-group G is
nontrivial.
 Application of Sylow Theory

Proof
We have |G|=c+nc+1+…+nr , where ni is the number of
elements in the ith orbit of G under conjugation by
itself.
For G, each ni divides |G| for c+1ir, so p divides each
ni, and p divides |G|. Therefore p divides c. Now
eZ(G), so c1. Therefore cp, and there exists some
aZ(G) where ae.
Group Theory

Application of Sylow
Theory
Application of Sylow Theory

Lemma
Let G be a group
containing normal
subgroups H and K such
that HK = {e} and
H V K = G. Then G is
isomorphic to H X K.
 Application of Sylow Theory

Proof
We start by showing that hk=kh for kK and hH.
Consider the commutator
hkh-1k-1=(hkh-1)k-1=h(kh-1k-1).
Since H and K are normal subgroups of G, the two
groupings with parentheses show that hkh-1k-1 is in
both K and H.
Since KH={e}, we see that hkh-1k-1=e, so hk=kh.
 Application of Sylow Theory

Let : H x KG be defined by (h,k) = hk.

Then ((h, k)(h', k'))=(hh', kk')=hh'kk'= hkh'k'
=(h, k) (h', k’), so is a homomorphism.
If (h, k)=e, then hk=e, so h = k-1, and both h and k are
in H K. Thus h=k=e, so Ker()={(e, e)} and is one to
one.
We know that HK=H V K, and H V K = G by
hypothesis.
Thus is onto G, and H x KG.
Group Theory

Application of Sylow
Theory
Application of Sylow Theory

Theorem
For a prime number p,
every group G of order p2
is abelian.
 Application of Sylow Theory

Proof
If G is not cyclic, then every element except e must
be of order p.
Let a be such an element. Then the cyclic subgroup
<a> of order p does not exhaust G.
Also let bG with b<a>. Then <a><b>={e}, since an
element c in <a><b> with ce would generate both
<a> and <b>, giving <a>=<b>, contrary to
construction.
 Application of Sylow Theory

From first Sylow theorem, <a> is normal in some

subgroup of order p2 of G, that is, normal in all of G.
Likewise <b> is normal in G.
Now <a> V <b> is a subgroup of G properly
containing <a> and of order dividing p2.
Hence <a> V <b> must be all of G.
Thus the hypotheses of last lemma are satisfied, and
G is isomorphic to <a> x <b> and therefore abelian.