Math 132

Recall:

 A rational function is a ratio of two polynomials. In
this section, we will give a general method for
integrating rational functions that is based on the
idea of decomposing a rational function into a sum
of simple rational functions that can be integrated by
the methods studied earlier in previous lessons.
Recall:

 In Algebra, one learns to combine two or more
fractions into a single fraction by finding a common
denominator. For example,

2
+
3
=
( ) ( )
2 x +1 + 3 x - 4 5x -10
= 2
x - 4 x +1 ( )( )
x - 4 x +1 x - 3x - 4
 However, for purposes of integration, the left side is
preferable to the right side since each of the terms is
easy to integrate.
 
5x -10
ò ò dx + ò
2 3
dx = dx
x - 3x - 4
2
x-4 x +1

Notice the right hand terms.

dx dx
=2ò +3ò
x-4 x +1

= 2ln x - 4 + 3ln x +1 +C 
 Rules in Integration by Partial Fractionns


Denominator Expression Form of Partial Fraction
containing…..

Linear Factor f (x) A B

+
( )(
x+a x+b ) x+a x+b

Repeated Linear Factors

()
f x A
+
B
+
C
( ) (
x+a x+a 2 x+a
)
3

( x + a)
3

Quadratic term
(which cannot be
f x () Ax + B
+
C
factored)
(ax 2
)(
+ bx + c gx + h ) ax 2 + bx + c gx + h
LINEAR FACTOR RULE

 If all the factors of an expression Q(x) are linear, then
the partial fraction decomposition of P(x)/Q(x) can
be determined by the following rule.

 For each factor of the form (ax+b)m, the partial

fraction decomposition contains the following sum
of m partial fractions: A A A
1
+ 2
+...+ m
ax + b
(ax + b) (ax + b)
2 m

 where A1, A2,…Am are constants to be determined. In

the case where m=1, only the first term in the sum
appears.
 x +4
2

ò
Example:
( )(
x x + 2 3x - 2 )

x2 + 4 A B C Following the rule when
= + + all the factors of the
( )(
x x + 2 3x - 2 ) x x + 2 3x - 2 denominator are linear
in form.

x2 + 4=A(x+2)(3x-2)+B(x)(3x-2)+C(x)(x+2) Next step is to multiply

both sides by
x(x+2)(3x-2)
 x2 + 4=A(x+2)(3x-2)+B(x)(3x-2)+C(x)(x+2)


 Let x=0 ➔ 4=A(2)(-2) , 4=- 4A ➔ A = - Let’s pick
values that will
1 make some of
1
Let x=-2 ➔ 8=B(-2)(-8) , 8=16B ➔ B = the terms on the
2 right equal to
zero and
simplify the
equation and
2 ➔ 40 = C æ 2 öæ 8 ö ➔ C=
5 find the
Let x = ç ÷ç ÷ constants A,B
3 9 è 3 øè 3 ø 2 and C.

Note that most of the coefficients here are fractions. That is not unusual so
don’t get excited about it when it happens.
 Now let’s do the integral.


æ 1 5 ö
x +4
2
ç 1 2 + 2 ÷ dx
ò 3x + 4x - 4x
3 2
dx = ò - +
çç x x + 2 3x - 2 ÷÷
è ø

1 5
= -ln x + ln x + 2 + ln 3x - 2 + C 
2 6
Again, as seen above, integrals that generate natural logarithms are very
common in these problems so make sure you can do them. Also , you were
able to correctly do the last integral, right?

The coefficient (5/6) is correct. Make sure that you do the proper integration
by substitution required for the term.
 dx
Example: Evaluate ò x +x-2
2


The integrand is a proper rational
function that can be written as:
1 1
=
( )( )
x + x - 2 x -1 x + 2
2

The factors (x-1) and (x+2) are both linear an

appear to the first power, so each contributes
one term to the partial fraction decomposition
by the linear factor rule.
 Thus, the decomposition has the form

1 A

B where A and B are
= +
( )( )
x -1 x + 2 x -1 x + 2 constants to be determined.

1 = A(x+2) + B(x-1) Multiplying both sides by

(x-1) (x+2)

There are two methods for finding A and B: we can

substitute values of x that are chosen to make terms We will
on the right drop out (equal to 0), or we can use the
multiply out on the right and equate corresponding first
coefficients on the sides to obtain a system of approach.
equations that can be solved for A and B.
 1 = A(x+2) + B(x-1)


 Setting x=1 makes the right term drop out and yields

1=A(1+2) +B (1-1)
1 = 3A
1
A= 
3
Setting x= -2 makes the left term drop out and yields
1=A(-2+2) + B(-2-1)
1= -3B
1 
B=-
3
The integration can now be completed as:


dx 1 dx 1 dx
ò = ò - ò
( )( )
x -1 x + 2 3 x -1 3 x + 2

1 1
= ln x -1 - ln x + 2 + C 
3 3
or
1 x -1
= ln +C 
3 x+2
 
 If the factors of a function f(x) are linear and none are
repeated, as in the last example, then the
recommended method for finding the constants in
the partial fraction decomposition is to substitute
appropriate values of to make terms drop out.
However, if some of the linear factors are repeated,
then it will not be possible to find all the constants in
this way. In this case the recommended procedure is
to find as many constants as possible by substitution
and then find the rest by equating coefficients This is
illustrated in the next example.
 2x + 4
Example: Evaluate ò x - 2x
3 2
dx


 The integrand can be written as
2x + 4 2x + 4
= 2
x - 2x
3 2
x x-2( )
Although x2 is a quadratic factor, it is not
irreducible since x2 = xx. Thus by the linear factor
rule, x2 introduces two terms (since m=2) of the
form A B and the factor x – 2 introduces one
+ 2 term of the form C .
x x
x-2
 So the partial fraction decomposition is

2x + 4 A B C

= + +
(
x2 x - 2 ) x x2 x - 2 (1)

2x + 4 = Ax(x-2) + B(x-2) + Cx2 Multiply both sides by x2(x-2)

(2)
2x + 4 = Ax2 – 2Ax + Bx – 2B + Cx2 Multiplying out

2x + 4 = Ax2 + Cx2 - 2Ax + Bx – 2B Collecting like powers of x

2x + 4 = (A + C)x2 +(- 2A+B)x – 2B (3) Factoring out

2x + 4 = Ax(x-2) + B(x-2) + Cx2 (2)

2x + 4 = (A + C)x2 +(- 2A+B)x – 2B (3)


 Setting x=0 in (2) drops the 1st and 3rd term and leaves us with
4 = - 2B from which B= -2

Setting x=2 in (2) drops the 1st and 2nd term and leaves us with
8 = 4C from which C= 2
 However, there is no substitution in (2) that produces A directly,
so we look to Equation (3) to find this value. This can be done by
equating the coefficients of x2 on the two sides to obtain

0x2 = (A + C)x2 From which A + C = 0 -> A = -C = -2

Substituting the values A= -2, B= -2 and C=2 in (1) yields the
partial fraction decomposition

2x - 4 -2

-2 2
= + 2+
(
x x-2
2
)
x x x-2
Thus 2x - 4 dx dx dx
ò dx = -2 ò -2ò 2 +2ò
(
x x-2
2
) x x x-2

2
= -2ln x + + 2ln x - 2 + C 
x
x-2 2
or
= 2ln + +C 
x x
 5x - 2
Integrate ò dx
( x + 3)
2


Here, there are not two different linear factors in the denominator.

This CANNOT be expressed in the form

5x - 2 5x - 2 A B A+ B
= ¹ + =
( ) ( )(
x+3 x+3 x+3 x+3 x+3 )
2
x+3

However, it can be expressed in the form:

5x - 2 A B
= +
( ) x+3 x+3
( )
2 2
x +3
5x - 2 A B
= + Multiply both sides by (x+3)2
( ) x+3 x+3
( )
2 2
x +3

5x – 2 = A(x + 3) + B
 Let x = - 3

5(-3) – 2 = A(-3 + 3) + B æ ö
5x - 2 ç 5 ÷
ò ò çç x + 3
17
dx = - 2÷
dx
-17 = A(0) + B
( ) ( ) ÷
2
x+3 è x+3 ø
-17 = B
dx dx
5x – 2 = A(x + 3) - 17 5ò -17 ò
x +3
( )
2
x+3
5x – 2 = Ax + 3A - 17

5x = Ax 17
5ln x + 3 + +C 
5 =A x+3
 -2x + 4
ò dx
( x +1) ( x -1)
2


 The process follows as before. The most common
mistake here is to not choose the right numerator for
the term with the x2 + 1 on the denominator. The
term of the numerator should have degree 1 less
than the denominator – so this term should have an
Ax + B on the numerator.

-2x + 4 Ax + B C
= 2 +
( )( )
x +1 x -1
2
x +1 x -1
 -2x + 4 Ax + B C Combine the 2 fractions
= 2 +
( )( )
by the LCD method.
x +1 x -1
2
x +1 x -1


=
( )( ) (
Ax + B x -1 + C x 2 +1 ) Let’s work on the
numerators.
( x +1) ( x -1)
2

-2x + 4 = (Ax + B)(x -1) + C(x2 +1) Let x =1

-2(1) + 4 = 0 + C(1 +1)

2 = 2C

C=1
 -2x + 4 = (Ax + B)(x -1) + C(x2 +1) C =1
-2x + 4 = (Ax + B)(x -1) + (x2 +1) Transpose x2 + 1

-x 2 -1 -2x + 4 = (Ax + B)(x -1)

 Simplify
-x 2 -2x + 3 = (Ax + B)(x -1) Factor left side
-(x -1) (x + 3) = (Ax + B)(x -1) Cancel
- (x + 3)= (Ax + B) Simplify
- x - 3 = Ax + B
-1 =A
-3 =B
 -2x + 4Ax + B C A= -1 B= -3 C = 1
= 2 +
( )( )
x +1 x -1
2
x +1 x -1

-2x + 4 -x - 3 1

= 2 +
( )( )
x +1 x -1 x +1 x -1
2

x
= - ò 2 dx - 3 ò 2 dx + ò
1 1
dx
x +1 x +1 x -1

1
( ) ()
= - ln x 2 +1 - 3arctan x + ln x -1 +C
2 
 
End of presentation ….