10 LED Knight Rider Circuit

Components:

1. Printed Circuit Board

2. Electronic parts

3. Basic Circuit Diagram

Introduction:
The Project underneath shows a fascinating circuit of a LED knight rider. In this project
tutorial, we will fabricate an amazing knight rider circuit by utilizing very few components.
A CD4017 Johnson decade counter, three transistors, and other discrete parts. The circuit
creates a lovely forward running LED impact which is the same as utilized in the vehicle of the
knight rider television series.

The circuit could have many interesting uses other than in vehicles’ interior and exterior
decoration. For instance, it gives an electronic “pendulum” impact to a digital clock, or it very
well may utilize as a warning indicator.

This electronic learning kit is designed for youngsters and hobbyists to learn fundamental
concepts and practice skills such as component identification, soldering, and testing. Before
diving into programmable electronics such as Arduinos, this book is highly recommended for
anybody interested in electronics.
You'll need a soldering iron, a stand for the iron, lead, and a batteries for power supply. The
presence of an adult is required at all times.
Introduction to components:

What is an IC 4017 Decade Counter?

The CD4017 IC is a CMOS Decade counter and it is used in the applications of low-range
counting. This IC will count from 0 to 10 and the circuit with an IC 4017 will save board space
as well as the time necessary to design the circuit. This decade counter is similar to Johnson
10 stage decade counter. This CMOS IC is frequently used in designing the 10 LEDs-based
circuits to run the light for beginners. So it is one of the most flexible counters because it
counts up to 10 & also it includes 10 separate outputs. This IC includes the counter as well as
the decoder.
4017 IC
Pin Configuration of IC 4017

A CMOS decade counter like 4017 IC includes a five-stage Johnson counter & 10 decoded
outputs for counting up to 10 decimals. This IC can be used in different counter circuits such
as an LED chaser light & also a non-contact circuit with an AC detector. This IC includes 16-
pins where 10 & 16 pins are output pins. This IC counts for every positive otherwise increasing
edge input provided at the CLK input.

Here, the output begins from ‘0’ and moves to output ‘9. Once it reaches then the output will
count at ‘9’ and again it repeats from 0 & continues this revolution similar to a ring counter.
On each count among 0 to 9, the particular output pin can include a high state & the remaining
output maintains low; simply one o/p will be high at a time.

For instance, if the count is presently three then the output at pin-7 is will be in a high state
whereas the remaining pins are in a less state. If two cycles of the square wave are applied
toward the clock input, then the output will shift to output 4 on the positive edge of the
primary cycle which alters output-4 to high state & output-3 to low state.
Now the condition remains until another positive edge of the next cycle arrives, after that the
o/p moves to pin1 or output 5 and maintains this condition. The ic 4017 internal structure is
shown below.

IC 4017 Pin Diagram

It has 16 pins and the functionality of each pin is explained as follows:

• Pin-1: It is the output 5. It goes high when the counter reads 5 counts.
• Pin-2: It is the output 1. It goes high when the counter reads 0 counts.
• Pin-3: It is the output 0. It goes high when the counter reads 0 counts.
• Pin-4: It is the output 2. It goes high when the counter reads 2 counts.
• Pin-5: It is the output 6. It goes high when the counter reads 6 counts.
• Pin-6: It is the output 7. It goes high when the counter reads 7 counts.
• Pin-7: It is the output 3. It goes high when the counter reads 3 counts.
• Pin-8: It is the Ground pin that should be connected to a LOW voltage (0V).
• Pin-9: It is the output 8. It goes high when the counter reads 8 counts.
• Pin-10: It is the output 4. It goes high when the counter reads 4 counts.
• Pin-11: It is the output 9. It goes high when the counter reads 9 counts.
• Pin-12: This is divided by 10 output which is used to cascade the IC with another
counter to enable counting greater than the range supported by a single IC 4017.
By cascading with another 4017 IC, we can count up to 20 numbers. We can
increase and increase the range of counting by cascading it with more and more IC
4017s. Each additional cascaded IC will increase the counting range by 10.
However, it is not advisable to cascade more than 3 ICs as it may reduce the
reliability of the count due to the occurrence of glitches. If you need a counting
range of more than twenty or thirty, I advise you to go with the conventional
procedure of using a binary counter followed by a corresponding decoder.
• Pin-13: This pin is the disabled pin. In the normal mode of operation, this is
connected to ground or logic LOW voltage. If this pin is connected to logic HIGH
voltage, then the circuit will stop receiving pulses and so it will not advance the
count irrespective of several pulses received from the clock.
 • Pin-14: This pin is the clock input. This is the pin from where we need to give the
input clock pulses to the IC to advance the count. The count advances on the rising
edge of the clock.
• Pin-15: This is the reset pin that should be kept LOW for normal operation. If you
need to reset the IC, then you can connect this pin to HIGH voltage.
• Pin-16: This is the power supply (Vcc) pin. This should be given a HIGH voltage of
3V to 15V for the IC to function.
This IC is very useful and also user-friendly. To use the IC, just connect it according to the
specifications described above in the pin configuration and give the pulses you need to count
to the pin-14 of the IC. Then you can collect the outputs at the output pins. When the count
is zero, Pin-3 is HIGH. When the count is 1, Pin-2 is HIGH, and so on as described above.

Features & Specifications of IC 4017

The main features and specifications of IC 407 include the following.

• The supply voltage of IC 4017 ranges from 3V to 15V, usually +5V

• This IC is well-matched with Transistor-Transistor Logic or TTL.
• The operational speed/CLK speed of this IC is 5 MHz.
• It provides support to10 outputs that are decoded.
• It is available in different packages like 16-pin GDIP, PDIP & PDSO
• Input high time 30 ns
• Output current is 10 mA
• Noise immunity is high typically 0.45 VDD
• Operation is completely static
• Low power like 10 µW
• Speed operation is medium like 5.0 MHz with 10V VDD
• Input Voltage or Vin ranges from −0.5 VDC to VDD +0.5 VDC
• TS or Storage Temperature ranges from −65°C to +150°C
• VDD or DC Supply Voltage ranges from −0.5 VDC to +18 VDC
• PD or Power Dissipation is Dual-In-Line is 700 mW
• TL or Lead Temperature is 260°C
In various electronic circuit applications, this IC 4017 decade counter is one of the most
versatile and useful chips. Practically, it is also known as “Johnson 10 stage decade counter
divider. Here the 10 number is connected through the number of o/ps this counter has that
will turn into high in series in reply to each high CLK pulse that is given at its input CLK pinout.
This means, all its outputs will use a single cycle of high o/p sequencing from beginning to end
in reply to 10 CLKs and it is received at its input. As the name suggests, so it is counting in a
way & also separating the input CLK through 10.

Counting Operation of IC through Waveforms

The timing diagram of IC 4017 is shown below. This diagram will show the comparison and
also explains the series of counting for the outputs which shift from one pin to its next. If we
monitor that, before providing the CLK, the RST pin is fixed to High; consequently the input of
the reset pin will set all the output toward their early state. After that, the o/p of the primary
output of pin-3 will be high. After that this o/p can be moved to another output pin. This
series will continue to till the next CLK cycle.

Where to Use IC CD4017?

The applications of IC CD4017 include the following.

• The most popular IC like CD4017 is extensively used in different applications which
includes Decoder, Binary counter, Frequency division, Decade counter, etc.
Additionally, this IC is also used to make different electronics projects like Remote
controlled Switch, Light Chaser, Touch ON-OFF switch, Alarm, Matrix Die, Clap
switch, etc.
• This decade counter IC can also be used in different industries like automotive,
alarms, electronic manufacturing of medical instruments & instrumentation
devices.
• This IC is used in counting applications which can switch ON 10 outputs in sequence
within a fixed time & reset the count otherwise hold it once necessary. It also
indicates the counting status through the Carry pin that is used in LED chasers as
well as other logical output projects. So this IC is the best choice if you are searching
for a sequential decoded counting IC to count up to 10
How to Use?

The IC CD4017can work from 3V-15V, however usually powered through +5V toward the Vdd
or Vcc pin & the GND or Vss pin can be connected to the ground. Here, 10 output pins range
from Q0 to Q9, which are connected to any load however we are using LEDs in the circuit.

What is Logic High & Logic Low?

• The pins which are marked like output pins turn into logic “high” continuously in a
series in reply to CLK signals at pin14 of the chip.
• Logic high is nothing but getting a positive voltage supply value, whereas logic low
nothing but achieving ‘0’ voltage value.
• Thus with the primary clock signal at pin14, the primary output pin within the order
which is the pin3 goes maximum first, after that it block outs. At the same time,
the next pin2 turns into maximum, after that this pin goes low & concurrently the
previous pin4 will become high until the final pin11 turns into high.
• Now we shall analyze what happens at IC 4017. IC 4017 is a digital counter plus
decoder circuit. The clock pulses generated at the C828 transistor multivibrator circuit
is given as an input to IC 4017 through PIN-14.
• Whenever a clock pulse is received at the clock input of the IC 4017 counter, the
counter increments the count and activates the corresponding output PIN. When the
count is zero, PIN-3 is HIGH, which means LED-1 will be ON and all the other LEDs are
OFF. After the next clock pulse, PIN-2 of IC 4017 is HIGH, which means that LED-2 will
glow and all the other LEDs can be turned OFF. This repeats and the LEDs turn ON and
OFF successively on each clock pulse thereby producing a circling effect which I have
demonstrated in the animation above
NPN Transistor C828:

C828 Transistor Explained / Description:

C828 is a BJT transistor that can be used for any general-purpose requirements. The transistor
can be as a switch and also as an amplifier. When using as a switch it can handle load of up to
100mA. 100mA is quite fair amount of current when driving other components in an
electronic circuit. On the other hand, if used as an amplifier it can deliver 400mW and the
maximum DC current gain value is 520. It is available in different DC gain values which can be
identified by looking at the last alphabet after the transistor number. If the last alphabet is
“Q” the transistor gain will be 130 to 260, if “R” the gain will be 180 to 360 and if “S” then the
gain will be 260 to 520, therefore you can choose it according to your requirements.
Where We Can Use It & How to Use
As mentioned above C828 is a general-purpose transistor due to which you can use it in any
application which falls under the transistor’s maximum ratings. For example, it can be used
to drive LEDs, ICs, relays, high power transistors, microcontrollers etc. It can also be used at
the output of low current devices such as ICs who’s output current is low. Moreover, it can
also be used in the circuits of audio preamplifiers and amplifiers.

Applications

Switching loads under 100mA, Audio Preamplification, Darlington Pairs, Low current ICs
output, Audio Amplification, Various type of signal amplification etc.

Usage in Knight Rider Circuit :

We use the two C828 NPN transistor’s switching function (as a switch) in our
Knight Rider Circuit. The multivibrator section of the circuit generates the clock
pulses to the 4017 IC. These pulses generating by the multivibrator section as
a result of transistor switching. Use our LED multivibrator circuit to get proper
idea about multivibrator circuit function.

A transistor can be used as a solid state switch. If the transistor is operated in

the saturation region, then it acts as closed switch and when it is operated in the cut
off region then it behaves as an open switch.
The transistor operates as a Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) solid state switch.
When a zero input signal applied to the base of the transistor, it acts as an open
switch. If a positive signal applied at the input terminal, then it acts like a closed
switch.
When the transistor operating as switch, in the cut off region the current through the
transistor is zero and voltage across it is maximum, and in the saturation region the
transistor current is maximum and voltage across is zero. Therefore, both the on –
state and off – state power loss is zero in the transistor switch.

Circuit Diagram of Transistor as a Switch

Cut Off State (Open Switch)

When transistor operates in the cut off region shows the following characteristics −
• The input is grounded i.e. at zero potential.
• The VBE is less that cut – in voltage 0.7 V.
• Both emitter – base junction and collector – base junction are reverse
biased.
• The transistor is fully – off acting as open switch.
• The collector current IC = 0 A and output voltage Vout = VCC.
Saturation State (Closed Switch)
The transistor operating in the saturation region exhibits following characteristics −
• The input is connected to VCC.
• Base – Emitter voltage is greater than cut – in voltage (0.7 V).
• Both the base – emitter junction and base – collector junction are
forward biased.
• The transistor is fully – ON and operates as closed switch.
• The collector current is maximum
IC=VCCRLIC=VCCRL
and Vout = 0 V.
Basic Electronics | Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT) Basics

BJT Structure
• The BJT is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions (emitter, base,
and collector) separated by two pn junctions.
• One type consists of two n regions separated by a p region (npn), and the other type
consists of two p regions separated by an n region (pnp).
• The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and electrons as current carriers in the
transistor structure.

Figure 1: Basic BJT structure

• The pn junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the base-emitter
junction.
• The pn junction joining the base region and the collector region is called the base-
collector junction.
• A wire lead connects to each of the three regions.
• The leads are labeled E, B, and C for emitter, base, and collector, respectively.
• The base region is lightly doped and very thin compared to the heavily doped emitter and
the moderately doped collector regions.
• Figure 2 shows the schematic symbols for the npn and pnp bipolar junction transistors.
Figure 2: Standard BJT symbols
BASIC BJT OPERATION

Biasing
• Figure 3 shows a bias arrangement for both npn and pnp BJTs for operation as an
amplifier. In order for a BJT to operate properly, the two pn junctions must be correctly
biased with external DC voltages.

Figure 3: Forward-reverse bias of a BJT

• In both cases the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward-biased and the base-collector
(BC) junction is reverse-biased. This condition is called forward-reverse bias.
Operation: Inside the npn structure
• The heavily doped n-type emitter region has a very high density of conduction-band
(free) electrons.
• These free electrons easily diffuse through the forward-based BE junction into the lightly
doped and very thin p-type base region.
• The base has a low density of holes, which are the majority carriers.
• A small percentage of the total number of free electrons injected into the base region
recombine with holes and move as valence electrons through the base region and into
the emitter region as hole current.

Figure 4: BJT operation showing electron flow

• When the electrons that have recombined with holes leave the crystalline structure of the
base, they become free electrons in the metallic base lead and produce the external
base current.
 • As the free electrons move toward the reverse-biased BC junction, they are swept across
into the collector region by the attraction of the positive collector supply voltage.
• The free electrons move through the collector region, into the external circuit, then return
into the emitter region along with the base current.

• The emitter current is slightly greater than the collector current because of the small base
current that splits off from the total current injected into the base region from the emitter.

• The operation of the pnp is the same as for the npn except that the roles of the electrons
and holes, the bias voltage polarities, and the current directions are all reversed.

Transistor Currents
• The directions of the currents in both npn and pnp transistors and the schematic symbols
are as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Transistor currents

• The arrow on the emitter inside the transistor symbols points in the direction of the
conventional current.
• These diagrams show that the emitter current (IE) is the sum of the collector current (IC)
and the base current (IB), expressed as:

DC Beta (βDC) and DC Alpha (αDC)

• The DC current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the DC IC to DC IB and is designated DC

beta (βDC).
 • βDC is usually designated as an equivalent hybrid (h) parameter, hFE, on transistor
datasheets: βDC= hFE.
• The ratio of the DC IC to the DC IE is the dc alpha (αDC). The alpha is a less-used
parameter than beta in transistor circuits.

Transistor DC Model
• Fig. 6 shows the unsaturated BJT as a device with a current input and a dependent
current source in the output circuit for an npn.

Figure 6: Ideal dc model of an npn transistor

• The input circuit is a forward-biased diode through which there is base current.
• The output circuit is a dependent current source (diamond-shaped element) with a value
that is dependent on IB.
BJT Circuit Analysis
Consider the basic transistor bias circuit in Fig. 7.

Figure 7: Transistor currents and voltages

VBE: DC voltage at base with respect to emitter

VCB: DC voltage at collector with respect to base

VCE: DC voltage at collector with respect to emitter

• VBB forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and VCC reverse-biases the base-collector

junction. When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased,

• Although VBE can be as high as 0.9 V in an actual transistor and is dependent on current,
0.7 V is used to simplify the analysis of the basic concepts.
• The characteristic of the base-emitter junction is the same as a normal diode curve.

• Since the emitter is at ground (0 V), by Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the voltage across RB.By

Ohm’s law, VRB=IBRB. Substituting for VRB and solving for IB,

• Since the drop across RC is VRC=ICRC, .

Collector Characteristic Curves
• Using a circuit like that shown in Fig. 8, a set of collector characteristic curves can be
generated that show how IC varies with VCE, for specified values of IB.

Figure 8: BJT
• Both VBB and VCC are variable sources of voltage. VBB is assumed to be set to produce a
certain value of IB and VCC is zero. Thus, both the base-emitter junction and the base-
collector junction are forward-biased because the base is at approximately 0.7 V while
the emitter and the collector are at 0 V.
• IB is through the base-emitter junction because of the low impedance path to ground and,
therefore, IC is zero
Figure 9: Collector characteristic curves
• When both junctions are forward-biased, the transistor is in the saturation region of
operation. Saturation is the state of a BJT in which IC has reached a maximum and is
independent of IB.
o As VCC is increased, VCE increases as IC increases. This is the portion between
points A and B in Fig. 9. IC increases as VCC is increased because VCE remains
less than 0.7 V due to the forward-biased base-collector junction.

• When VCE exceeds 0.7 V, the base-collector junction becomes reverse-biased and the
transistor goes into the active, or linear, region of operation.
o IC increases very slightly for a given IB as VCE increases due to widening of the
base-collector depletion region. This causes a slight increase in βDC.
o This is the portion between points B and C in Fig. 9. IC in this portion is
determined only by IC =βDCIB.

• When VCE reaches a sufficiently high voltage, the base-collector junction goes
into breakdown; and IC increases rapidly, shown by the portion to the right of point C. A
transistor should never be operated in this region.
• A family of curves is produced when IC versus VCE is plotted for values of IB. When IB =0,
the transistor is in the cutoff region. Cutoff is the nonconducting state of a transistor.

Cutoff
• When IB=0, the transistor is in the cutoff region of its operation. This is shown in Fig. 10
with the base lead open, thus IB=0.
• There is a very small amount of collector leakage current, ICEO, due mainly to thermally
produced carriers.
• ICEO will usually be neglected in circuit analysis so that VCE=VCC.
• Base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse-biased. The
subscript CEO represents collector-to-emitter with the base open.

Figure 10:
Saturation
• When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-biased and IB is increased, IC also
increases and VCE decreases as a result of more drop across RC.
• When VCE reaches its saturation value, VCE(sat), the base-collector junction becomes
forward-biased and IC can increase no further. At the point of saturation, IC=βDCIB is no
longer valid.
• VCE(sat) for a transistor occurs somewhere below the knee of the collector curves, and it is
usually only a few tenths of a volt.
• Base-emitter and base-collector junctions are forward-biased.

Figure 11:

DC Load Line
• Cutoff and saturation can be illustrated in relation to the collector characteristic curves by
the use of a load line.

Figure 12: DC load line on a family of collector characteristic curves

 • The bottom of the load line is at ideal cutoff where IC=0 and VCE=VCC. The top of the load
line is at saturation where IC=IC(sat) and VCE=VCE(sat).
• In between cutoff and saturation along the load line is the active region of the transistor’s
operation.

Maximum Transistor Ratings

• The product of VCE and IC must not exceed the maximum power dissipation PD(max). Both
VCE and IC cannot be maximum at the same time.

The BJT as a Switch

Figure 15: Switching action of an ideal transistor

• In Fig. 15(a), the transistor is in the cutoff region because the base-emitter junction is not
forward-biased. There is, ideally, an open between collector and emitter.

• In Fig. 15(b), the transistor is in the saturation region because the base-emitter junction
and the base-collector junction are forward-biased. IB is made large enough to cause IC to
reach its saturation value.
o There is, ideally, a short between collector and emitter. A small voltage drop
across the transistor of up to a few tenths of a volt normally occurs, which is the
saturation voltage, VCE(sat).

Conditions in Cutoff

• The base-emitter junction is not forward-biased. Neglecting leakage current, all of the
currents are zero, and VCE=VCC

Conditions in Saturation

The base-emitter junction is forward-biased and there is enough IB to produce a maximum IC.

• Since VCE(sat) is very small compared to VCC, it can usually be neglected.

 • Normally, IB should be significantly greater than IB(min) to ensure that the transistor is
saturated.

The BJT as an Amplifier

• A transistor amplifies current because IC is equal to IB multiplied by the current gain, β.

• IB is very small compared to IC and IE. Because of this,

• An AC voltage, Vs, is superimposed on the DC bias voltage VBB as shown in Fig. 14. The
DC bias voltage VCC is connected to the collector through RC.

Figure 14: Basic transistor amplifier circuit

• Ib, Ic and Ie are the AC transistor currents. Vb, Vc and Ve are AC voltages from the
transistor terminals to the ground.
• The AC Vin produces an AC IB, which results in a much larger AC IC.
• The AC IC produces an ac voltage across RC, producing an amplified, but inverted,
reproduction of the ac input voltage in the active region of operation.

• The forward-biased base-emitter junction presents a very low resistance to the ac signal.
This internal AC emitter resistance (r'e) appears in series with RB.
• The AC collector voltage, Vc, equals the AC voltage drop across RC:
•
Configuration of Transistor
Any transistor circuit can be designed using three types of configuration. Three configurations of
the transistor are based on the connection of the transistor terminal. The three types of
transistor circuit configurations are:

• Common Emitter Transistor

• Common Base Transistor
• Common Collector Transistor(emitter follower).
Each of these three circuit configurations has its own characteristics curve. Based on the
requirement the type will be chosen for the circuit.
You may also want to check out these topics given below!

• Applications of transistors
• Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Transistor Working
• Difference between NPN and PNP Transistors
• FET Transistor
• Types of Transistors

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of Transistor

The configuration in which the emitter is connected between the collector and base is known as
a common emitter configuration.
 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of Transistor
The transistor characteristic under Common Emitter configuration is as follows:

Transistor Definition Formula/Expression Characteristic Curve

Characteristics

Input The variation of

Characteristics emitter
current(IB) with
Base-Emitter
voltage(VBE),
keeping
Collector
Emitter
voltage(VCE)
constant.

Output The variation of

Characteristics collector
current(IC) with
Collector-
Emitter
voltage(VCE),
keeping the
base current(IB)
constant.

Current The variation of

Transfer collector
Characteristics current(IC) with
the base
current(IB),
keeping
Collector-
Emitter
voltage(VCE)
constant.
The resulting
current gain has
a value greater
than 1.
 Common Base (CB) Configuration of Transistor
In CB Configuration, the base terminal of the transistor will be connected common between the
output and the input terminals.

The transistor characteristic under Common Base configuration is as follows:

Transistor Definition Formula/Expression Characteristic Curve

Characteristics

Input The variation of

Characteristics emitter
current(IE) with
Base-Emitter
voltage(VBE),
keeping
Collector Base
voltage(VCB)
constant.

Output The variation of

Characteristics collector
current(IC) with
Collector-Base
voltage(VCB),
keeping the
emitter
 current(IE)
constant.

Current The variation of

Transfer collector
Characteristics current(IC) with
the emitter
current(IE),
keeping
Collector Base
voltage(VCB)
constant.
The resulting
current gain has
a value less than
1.

Common Collector (CC) Configuration of Transistor

In CE Configuration, the Collector terminal of the transistor will be connected common between
the output and the input terminals.
 The transistor characteristic under Common Collector configuration is as follows:

Transistor Definition Characteristic Curve

Characteristics

Input Characteristics The variation of emitter current(IB)

with Collector-Base voltage(VCB),
keeping Collector Base voltage(VCB)
constant.

Output The variation of emitter current(IE)

Characteristics with Collector-Emitter voltage(VCE),
keeping the base current(IB)
constant.

Current Transfer The variation of Emitter current(IE)

Characteristics with the base current(IB), keeping
Collector-Emitter voltage(VCE)
constant.

.
Electrolytic Capacitor:
We are using three electrolytic capacitors in our circuit. Two number of 2.2 uf capacitors use
in multivibrator circuit section. Due to Charging and discharging characteristic of these two
capacitors, it will supply input voltage to base of transistor. If you use 47 uf capacitors instead
of 2.2 uf capacitors you can see the difference of running speed of LEDs. We have provided
two 47uf capacitors in our extra components pack for your experiment. 100 uf capacitor get
mor time to charge than 47 uf capacitors due to its higher capacity. 220 uf capacitors also can
be used to slow down the changing status of LEDs as per your requirement.

220 uf capacitor use to smooth the input voltage supply to the circuit. It is help to supply most
smooth power supply without fluctuation. This is highly useful when you use AC to DC
converter (Ex: 230V to 6V reducing transformer power supply or SMPS Supply) for power
supply. We will be going to study about electrolytic capacitor and it’s function.

An electrolytic capacitor is a polarized capacitor whose anode or positive plate is made of a

metal that forms an insulating oxide layer through anodization. This oxide layer acts as
the dielectric of the capacitor. A solid, liquid, or gel electrolyte covers the surface of this oxide
layer, serving as the cathode or negative plate of the capacitor. Due to their very thin
dielectric oxide layer and enlarged anode surface, electrolytic capacitors have a much
higher capacitance-voltage (CV) product per unit volume than ceramic capacitors or film
capacitors, and so can have large capacitance values. There are three families of electrolytic
capacitor: aluminium electrolytic capacitors, tantalum electrolytic capacitors, and niobium
electrolytic . The capacitance of capacitor is measured by micro farad and the unit symbol is
“uf ” You can see the value of capacitor in its body as 2.2 uf, 220 uf, 100 uf etc.

The electrolytic capacitor is built asymmetrically, it contains polarized components. This

structure owes to its higher voltage functioning, in which one side gets more power than the
other. It features a metal or aluminium anode with an oxidized cover layer that acts as a
dielectric and serves as the capacitor’s positive electrode. This side gets the majority of the
input voltage.
The cathode, which includes aluminium foil and a liquid electrolyte, serves as the negative
electrode. This liquid is typically made up of water and sodium borate or boric acid. A few
sugars are also added to avoid evaporation. Aluminium oxide is responsible for the polarity
of electrolytic capacitors. It is held in place by the electric field. When direct current (DC)
voltage is applied to an electrolytic capacitor, the correct polarity must be present. This
necessitates connecting the positive lead and positive terminal, as well as the negative
lead and negative terminal. If this is not done correctly, the capacitor will be ruined.

Capacitor Function in Knight Rider circuit:

Here I will explain the operation of multivibrator section of Knight Rider circuit for your
convenience. As I mentioned above, this multivibrator circuit section providing clock
signals to 4017 IC. Study the following section to get an idea of capacitor function in
multivibrator circuit. We are using charging and discharging characteristics of
capacitor in multivibrator circuit section. We are using two 2.2 uf electrolytic capacitors
in our circuit.
Operation
The circuit has two astable (unstable) states that change alternatively with maximum
transition rate because of the "accelerating" positive feedback. It is implemented by
the coupling capacitors that instantly transfer voltage changes because the voltage
across a capacitor cannot suddenly change. In each state, one transistor is switched
on and the other is switched off. Accordingly, one fully charged capacitor discharges
(reverse charges) slowly thus converting the time into an exponentially changing
voltage. At the same time, the other empty capacitor quickly charges thus restoring its
charge (the first capacitor acts as a time-setting capacitor and the second prepares to
play this role in the next state). The circuit operation is based on the fact that the
forward-biased base-emitter junction of the switched-on bipolar transistor can provide
a path for the capacitor restoration.
State 1 (Q1 is switched on, Q2 is switched off)
In the beginning, the capacitor C1 is fully charged (in the previous State 2) to the power
supply voltage V with the polarity shown in Figure 1. Q1 is on and connects the left-
hand positive plate of C1 to ground. As its right-hand negative plate is connected to
Q2 base, a maximum negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q2 base that keeps Q2
firmly off. C1 begins discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor
R2, so that the voltage of its right-hand plate (and at the base of Q2) is rising from
below ground (-V) toward +V. As Q2 base-emitter junction is reverse-biased, it does
not conduct, so all the current from R2 goes into C1. Simultaneously, C2 that is fully
discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the previous State 2) quickly charges
via the low-value collector resistor R4 and Q1 forward-biased base-emitter junction
(because R4 is less than R2, C2 charges faster than C1). Thus C2 restores its charge
and prepares for the next State C2 when it will act as a time-setting capacitor. Q1 is
firmly saturated in the beginning by the "forcing" C2 charging current added to R3
current. In the end, only R3 provides the needed input base current. The resistance
R3 is chosen small enough to keep Q1 (not deeply) saturated after C2 is fully charged.
When the voltage of C1 right-hand plate (Q2 base voltage) becomes positive and
reaches 0.6 V, Q2 base-emitter junction begins diverting a part of R2 charging current.
Q2 begins conducting and this starts the avalanche-like positive feedback process as
follows. Q2 collector voltage begins falling; this change transfers through the fully
charged C2 to Q1 base and Q1 begins cutting off. Its collector voltage begins rising;
this change transfers back through the almost empty C1 to Q2 base and makes Q2
conduct more thus sustaining the initial input impact on Q2 base. Thus the initial input
change circulates along the feedback loop and grows in an avalanche-like manner
until finally Q1 switches off and Q2 switches on. The forward-biased Q2 base-emitter
junction fixes the voltage of C1 right-hand plate at 0.6 V and does not allow it to
continue rising toward +V.
State 2 (Q1 is switched off, Q2 is switched on)
Now, the capacitor C2 is fully charged (in the previous State 1) to the power supply
voltage V with the polarity shown in Figure 1. Q2 is on and connects the right-hand
positive plate of C2 to ground. As its left-hand negative plate is connected to Q1 base,
a maximum negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q1 base that keeps Q1 firmly off. C2
begins discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R3, so that the
voltage of its left-hand plate (and at the base of Q1) is rising from below ground (-V)
toward +V. Simultaneously, C1 that is fully discharged and even slightly charged to
0.6 V (in the previous State 1) quickly charges via the low-value collector resistor R1
and Q2 forward-biased base-emitter junction (because R1 is less than R3, C1 charges
faster than C2). Thus C1 restores its charge and prepares for the next State 1 when it
will act again as a time-setting capacitor...and so on... (the next explanations are a
mirror copy of the second part of State 1).

Resistor

Resistor does not have polarity specification likewise above two components. You will
be able to solder it by and direction. However, you may know the resistance value
calculation by it’s color-codes. Refer the following link to get an idea for value
calculation or use the online resistor value calculators.
Resister value calculation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKbDIZSso_g
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/resistor/res_2.html
https://www.calculator.net/resistor-calculator.html

Data sheet download link: https://www.seielect.com/Catalog/SEI-CF_CFM.pdf

Resistors come under passive electronic components and are extensively used in
electronic circuits. So important are these components that it may be virtually
impossible to build an electronic circuit without involving resistors. Basically the
function of a resistor is always to oppose the flow of current through it and the strength
of this opposition is termed as its resistance. German physicist, Sir G.S. Ohms was
able to discover a definite relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
According to him a potential difference or a voltage (V) across a resistor (R) is
proportional to the instantaneous current (I) flowing through it and is given as:

V = R.I

Here R is the constant of proportionality and is known as the resistance of the resistor.
Function of Resistors in Electronics

In electronic circuits, resistors play an important role to limit the current and provide
only the required biasing to the vital active parts like the transistors and the ICs. We
will try to find out what is the function of a resistor in electronics through the following
illustrations:

Transistor Biasing:

Through one of my previous articles you must have acquired a good knowledge
regarding transistors. A transistor basically needs a small base voltage (>0.6) to
make a large voltage flow through its collector/ emitter terminals. But the base of a
transistor is quite vulnerable to high currents, so a resistor is incorporated here to limit
the current and provide a safe biasing voltage.

The value of the base resistor of a transistor may be calculated through the below
given formula

R = (V – 0.6).Hfe / I,

Here V = source voltage to the base resistor, I = the collector load current, Hfe =
forward gain of a transistor (150 nominal) and 0.6 = minimum transistor biasing
voltage.
LED Current Limit:

Just like transistors, LEDs too are very sensitive to high currents. A resistor when
placed in series with the LEDs regulates a proper flow of current through them. To
calculate the value of a series LED resistor, the following formula may be used:

R = V –( N.VLED) / I

Here R = Series LED resistor, V = supply voltage, N = number of LEDs in series,

V(LED) = forward voltage of the LED used, and I = current through the LEDs

In Timing Circuits: The timing components used in timer and oscillator circuits
always incorporate a resistor and a capacitor. Here the time taken to charge or
discharge a capacitor constitutes the basic time pulse or trigger for the circuit. A
resistor is effectively used to control this charging and discharging process and its
value is varied to obtain different time intervals.
Surge Protection: The initial switch ON of a power supply may at times inflict a
dangerous voltage surge into an electronic circuit, damaging its critical components.
A resistor when introduced in series with the supply terminals of the circuit helps in
checking the sudden rise in voltage and averting a possible harm. These resistors
are generally of low values so that the overall performance of the circuit is not
affected.

The above basic examples must have provided you sufficient knowledge regarding
the use of resistors in electronic circuits and helped you to understand what is the
function of a resistor.

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

LED has polarity and you have to solder correct way. Refer the following image to
identify the it’s pin polarity.

What are LEDs?

LEDs are a type of semiconductor called "Light Emitting Diode". White LEDs, which
have achieved practical realization through the use of high-brightness blue LEDs
developed in 1993 based on Gallium Nitride, are attracting increased attention as a
4th type of light source.

How do LEDs Emit Light?

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are semiconductor light sources that combine a P-type
semiconductor (larger hole concentration) with an N-type semiconductor (larger
electron concentration). Applying a sufficient forward voltage will cause the electrons
and holes to recombine at the P-N junction, releasing energy in the form of light.
Compared with conventional light sources that first convert electrical energy into heat,
and then into light, LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) convert electrical energy directly into
light, delivering efficient light generation with little-wasted electricity.

Types of LEDs

Two types of LEDs are available, a lamp type (leaded) and a chip type (surface mount). Users
can select the ideal type based on set requirements.

Wavelength and Colour

The LED colour (emission wavelength) will change depending on materials used.
This makes it possible to customize the colour to meet certain wavelength
specifications required for applications that use traditional bulbs as light sources (for
which standards exist), such as traffic lights and automotive lamps.
Two specifications for wavelength are used to indicate colour: λP (Peak Wavelength)
and λD (Dominant Wavelength), with λD corresponding to the colour actually seen
by the human eye.
How is White Light Created?

There are several methods of generating white light using LEDs. Below is 2 typical emission
methods.

Blue LED＋Yellow Phosphor

Combining a blue LED with yellow phosphor, which is a complementary colour, will yield
white light. This method is easier than other solutions and provides high efficiency, making
it the most popular choice on the market.

Red LED＋Green LED＋Blue LED

Combining the 3 primary colors will result in white light. Generally this method isn't
used for lighting, but for full-color LED devices.
1N4001 Diode

Function In Knight Rider Circuit:

In this knight rider circuit, 1N4001 diode protect your circuit in the wrong polarity
power supply. If you apply the battery power supply by changing terminal polarity,
the diode does not allow to flow the current to circuit. It will prevent the damages of
other electronic components in circuit.
The 1N4001 diode belongs to the family of the 1N400x diode series, which are most
commonly used in household electronic appliances. It allows the flow of current only
in one direction, that is from anode terminal to cathode terminal just like a normal
diode. It is referred to as a general-purpose rectifier diode used for rectification
purposes.
The current carrying capacity is of maximum 1 Ampere and can tolerate up to a peak
value of 30 Amps. This type of silicon diode is mainly used in designing circuits with
less than 1 Ampere. The negligible reverse current is 5 microAmps. The reverse peak
voltage, where the diode can withstand is up to a maximum of 50 Volts.

Circuit Diagram/How to Use

The 1N4001 diode is the most commonly used power diode used for rectification
purposes and it belongs to the family of 1N400x series diodes. It is used in rectifier
circuits like half-wave rectifiers, full-wave rectifiers, and diode clipper circuits to
convert the applied AC voltage source to a certain DC voltage level.
Now let’s understand the circuit diagram/how to use the 1N4001 diode in a simple half-
wave rectifier circuit. Here 1N4001 silicon diode is considered. So, it requires 0.7 Volts
voltage drop across it to operate.
The above circuit diagram and the output characteristics of the half-wave rectifier are
illustrated below. The 1N4001 diode is connected in series with the load resistor R.
The converted DC output voltage is taken across the load resistor.
The components required to design a half-wave rectifier circuit are

• One 1N4001 Diode

• 1 KOhm Load Resistor
• AC Voltage Source
• DC Voltage Source
Consider the AC sinusoidal input signal with two phases is applied. In the positive half
cycle of the applied AC signal, the diode goes to forward biased condition and the
current starts flowing through the diode at the constant voltage drop 0.7 Volts across
it.

Here the anode terminal of the diode is positive with respect to the cathode terminal.
Therefore the current flowing through the DC load resistor is directly proportional to
the voltage and it is similar to the applied AC voltage. That means the output voltage
Vout is equal to the supply voltage Vs. (Vout= Vs)

During the negative phase of the input signal (negative half cycle), the diode goes to
reverse biased condition and it is open-circuited. The anode terminal of the diode is
negative with respect to the cathode terminal and no current flows through the circuit
or diode. As there is no current flow, the output voltage across the load resistor is zero.

As the current flows through the circuit only in the forward bias condition of the diode,
this circuit is referred to as unidirectional. From the above output characteristics, the
maximum AC voltage or peak to peak voltage is taken on X-axis and the output DC
voltage is taken on Y-axis. It shows that the output across the load resistor is a positive
half cycle, and the negative half cycle of the signal is zero. To calculate the DC voltage
level at the output (across the resistor), use the following formula.

V (DC) = Vmax/π = 0.318 Vmax = 0.45 Vrms

Where Vmax is the maximum applied AC voltage

V (DC) is the output DC voltage level

Vrms is the root mean square value of the applied voltage

In this way, the rectification of the signal is done using the 1N4001 diode. The output
DC voltage and current are obtained during only the positive half cycle of the input
signal. As it allows the only positive cycle of the signal, the output DC voltage across
the load will be average. During the rectification of the AC signal, the steady stage DC
voltage can be obtained continuously with ripple-free by connecting a capacitor
parallel to the resistor called the smoothing capacitor.
Where to Use/Applications

The following are the applications of 1N4001 Diode,

• These are used in the prevention of reverse polarity issue
• Used in full-wave and half-wave rectifiers
• Used in current flow regulators
• Can be used as a protection device.
• Used for rectification in battery chargers, power supply circuits, and other
electronics appliances
• Used to block the current, block the voltage spikes, and boost the voltage,
blocking unwanted incoming voltage, etc.
• Used in Voltage doublers
• Used in adapter circuits.

Trimmer Potentiometer:

Variable resistors are widely used in electric circuits to adjust the value of current or
voltage, since the resistance of variable resistors can be set to a certain value. Variable
resistors allow you to adjust the value of voltage by changing the resistance and keeping
current constant.

Adjust the above trimmer potentiometer using small flat screw driver to
clockwise and anti-clockwise directions, You can see the difference of LED
running speed after making variations.

This component change it’s resister value in each positions and it is changing
the charging current to capacitors of multivibrators circuit accordingly.
Operation Principles of Variable Resistors

• Variable resistors are widely used in electric circuits to adjust the value of
current or voltage, since the resistance of variable resistors can be set to a
certain value. Variable resistors allow you to adjust the value of voltage by
changing the resistance and keeping current constant . To adjust the input
voltage, a voltage source is connected to the terminals 1 and 3 as shown in
Figure 5. The output voltage between terminals 1 and 2 can be calculated by
the voltage division formula shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5: Usage of Variable Resistor as Voltage Divider

Figure 6: Voltage Division Formula

Construction of a Variable Resistor

• Although there are different types of variable resistors, their working principle
is the same. When the inside of a variable resistor is examined such as Figure
7, there is a fixed resistance called the resistive track which is between
terminals 1 and 3. Terminal 2 is connected to the knob and the slider (wiper)
has a direct contact with the knob. The resistance between terminals 1 and 2
or 2 and 3 can be changed by adjusting the knob in the middle as represented
by red circle in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Variable Resistor

Working Explanation of Knight Rider Circuit:

The core of the circuit is a CD 4017 decade counter IC. The IC has 10 yield
outputs which are Q0 to Q10. The IC will initiate every one of its outputs in a
succession way when each time a positive pulse gets on its clock input pin 14.
In the circuit, the yield outputs of the ICs are associated in a way so it will show
turn around forward running the LEDs. The pulse frequency or the speed of the
running LED expands or diminishes with the 100K variable resistor. The circuit
can work from 5V to 12V DC.

Utilize a lower value current limiting resistor in the spot of 390 ohms while
working the circuit on low voltage. For instance, in the event that you are
working the circuit with less than 9V, at that point utilize a 290 ohms resistor.

Doing some little changes in the circuit it can drive higher load or AC lamps in
a similar way as LEDs.
Applications and Uses
• Automobile lovers use this circuit to decorate their cars, bicycles,
motorcycles, buses, trucks, and so forth.
• These are also used as indicators.
• It can also be used outside shop windows, for home decorations,
parties, and other special occasions.

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