BRAKE EFFICIENCY

The braking efficiency is the ability of the brake to reduce the vehicle speed
up to a possible stop, to maintain a certain speed of the descending vehicle on a
slope, or to keep the vehicle on a slope.

The brake efficiency, which is expressed as a percentage, calculates how

effective your brakes are when you lightly and heavily tap on them, according to
the "M.O.T Inspection Manual." The brakes' efficiency is dependent on the weight
of your vehicle and the force of brakes.

A good brake fluid should:

 be incompressible to give a solid pedal during braking

 have a high boiling point
 maintain performance during absorption of moisture
 have a viscosity that remains within closely defined parameters
 have the correct level of lubricity
 prevent corrosion
 have a controlled rubber swell to prevent shrinkage.

Brake Lines

When you press down on your car's brake pedal, you force brake fluid through
the brake lines to a braking unit on each wheel. The fluid causes brake pads to
press against the brake rotor, causing it to slow. The front and back wheels have
rubber brake lines, because flexibility is required; otherwise, they are made from
steel.
Causes of Damage to Rubber Brake Lines

Rubber brake lines deteriorate naturally over time, due to moisture and heat. They
can also be corroded by the salt that is spread on icy roads in the winter . If the
roads where you live are covered in salt in the winter, it is a good idea to wash
your car's underbody regularly, to rinse off the salt and prevent damage to your
brake lines.

Causes of Damage to Steel Brake Lines

The steel brake lines in a vehicle will eventually rust and break. Road salt can
accelerate this process. As well, the force of impact from a car crash can cause
steel brake lines to bend or collapse, which weakens them and renders them
susceptible to breakage. If a steel brake line breaks, it is best to replace the
complete line rather than trying to patch it.

Absorption

A brake system absorbs the kinetic energy of the vehicle mechanically or

electrically in order to decrease its speed. In mechanical brakes, friction converts
the kinetic energy into heat. In electric brakes, an electric current forces a magnet
to apply the brakes.

Brake Booster

Vehicles have power brake boosters in order to boost or enhance the pressure
applied in the brake pedal. They minimize the pressure needed from the driver to
decelerate or stop the vehicle.

Kinetic energy is the force that keeps the vehicle moving. This energy is provided
by the engine in order to accelerate the vehicle from a standstill to desired speed.
Kinetic energy is dissipated as heat by the brakes during application of breaks (Fig.
28.1). The kinetic energy of a vehicle during braking is given by

Thus, the
kinetic energy doubles as the weight doubles, but it increases four times as speed
doubles.

Fig.1. Illustration of braking.

Coefficient of Friction.
Frictional force opposes the motion of the vehicle. Consequently it consumes
power and produces heat. Frictional force occurs between the sliding tire and the
road surface when wheel rotation is locked by brakes. The ability of a vehicle to
stop depends on the coefficient of friction between the contacting surfaces.
Maximum useable coefficient of friction occurs between the tyre and road surface.
Passenger car brakes have coefficient of friction 0.3 to 0.5.
The amount of energy that can be absorbed by the brakes depends upon the
coefficient of friction of the brake materials, brake diameter, brake surface area,
shoe geometry, and the pressure used to actuate the brake. Stopping a car suddenly
means very high friction, resulting in high brake temperature.
Brake Balance
The braking of a vehicle occurs at ground level, so affective braking force acts on
the ground. Vehicle weight and kinetic energy of the vehicle act through center of
gravity, which are above ground level. This causes the vehicle to pitch forward as
the brakes are applied. As a result of this action some of the vehicle weight is
effectively transferred from the rear wheels to the front wheels. Consequently, the
front brakes must absorb more kinetic energy than the rear brakes. The maximum
transfer of weight amounts to

This weight is added to the static weight on the front wheels and subtracted from
the static weight on the rear wheels. The front wheel static weight is normally 55%
of the vehicle weight. Front brakes are designed to absorb this extra brake effort by
selecting shoe-drum or shoe-disc
combination type, brake size, lining coefficient of friction, wheel cylinder size and
differential hydraulic actuating pressures. With full braking it is desirable to have
the front brakes lock up slightly ahead of the rear brakes. This causes the car to go
straight ahead and to not spin out.
Example 28.1. A vehicle has its wheel base equal to 3 times the height of its CG
above the ground. If the vehicle is braked on all four wheels over a road whose
adhesion factor is 0.6, determine the weight transferred from the rear to front
wheels.

Stopping Distance
Stopping distance is extremely important for emergency braking. The stopping
distance is 1 based on the deceleration rate. Also, it is affected by the tyre
deflection, air resistance, braking efforts and the inertia of the driveline. Distance
travelled by the vehicle during application of brake can be obtained from the
following equations of motion assuming the brake efficiency as 100%.

If the vehicle comes to stand still due to application of brake, the final velocity, V
= 0 in the above equations, then stopping distance, S is given by the relations, S =
U /2f.
The stopping distance remains same with the same tyre and road conditions, when
the wheels are locked and skidding, regardless of the weight, number of wheels or
vehicle load. Maximum braking force occurs when the wheels are braked just
before the locking point or point of impending skid. Non-skid brake systems are
designed to operate at or below this point. Any changes in load on a wheel changes
the point of impending skid.
Example 28.2. Calculate the minimum stopping distances for a vehicle travelling at
60 kmlhr with a deceleration equal to the acceleration due to gravity.

Brake Fade
Since brake lining material is a poor conductor of heat, most of the heat goes into
the brake drum or disc during braking. Under severe use, brake drums may reach
590 K temperatures. The coefficient of friction between the drum and lining is
much lower at these high temperatures so that additional pedal pressure is required.
After a number of severe stops or after holding the brakes on a long down hill
grade, a point is eventually reached when the coefficient of friction drops so low
that little braking effect is available. This condition is called brake fade.
In drum brakes, the lining covers a large portion of the internal drum surface so
that a little cooling space is available. Therefore, drum brakes are more susceptible
to fade than disc brakes. As the vehicle moves, cooling air is directed around the
drum and disc to remove brake heat. The maximum brake torque that can be
absorbed by the lining or pad depends on the size and type of brake, gross vehicle
weight, axle loading, the front to rear braking ratio and maximum attainable speed.
The drum and disc expansion due to brake temperature is another factor for brake
fade. The diameter of the drum increases as it gets hot. The shoe no longer matches
the drum and hence lining-to-drum contact surface becomes smaller. The same
stopping force requires higher pedal pressure and this is turn increases the
temperature on the smaller contact surface. Continued braking increases the
problem until the braking becomes ineffective, regardless of the pedal force. On
the other hand, expansion of disc has little effect on braking because the pads apply
braking force on the side of the disc and hence braking surface area remains
constant. Leading shoes are more susceptible to fade than trailing shoes.
Fade-resistant drum brakes must limit brake shoe arc to 110 degrees and power
absorption
to 28370 kW/m* of lining. The power absorbed by the brakes during a stop can be
calculated as,

Brake Torque.
The braking torque is the twisting action caused by the drum or disc on the shoes
or caliper anchors during the application of brakes. The amount of torque is
determined by the effective axle height and stopping force between the tyre and
road surface.
Brake torque on the front wheels is absorbed by the knuckle and suspension
control arm. In rear, it is absorbed by the axle housing and the leaf spring or
control arm. Braking torque during an emergency stop is much higher than
accelerating torque at full throttle. Brake supporting and anchoring members must,
therefore, have sufficient strength to withstand these high braking loads.
Brake Safety.
All automobiles are equipped with an emergency brake that would operate
independently from the service brakes. Safety standard require the emergency
brake to hold the automobile on a 30% slope indefinitely after the brake has been
applied until the operator releases it.
Work Done in Braking
The kinetic energy possessed by a moving vehicle depends on the weight and
speed of the vehicle. This energy must be partially or totally dissipated when the
vehicle is slowed down or brought to a standstill. The brake converts the kinetic
energy possessed by the vehicle at any one time into heat energy by means of
friction.

Example 28.3. A car of mass 800 kg is travelling at 36 kmph. Determine (a) the
kinetic energy it possesses, and
(6) the average braking force to bring it to rest in 20 meters.
Braking Efficiency
The force applied during braking of a vehicle opposes the motion of the wheels, as
a result reduces the vehicle speed or brings it to a standstill. Therefore the braking
force is the force of resistance applied to stop a vehicle or reduce its speed. The
braking efficiency of a vehicle is defined as the braking force produced as a
percentage of the total weight of the vehicle. Thus,

The braking efficiency is generally less than 100% because of insufficient road
adhesion, the vehicle is on a down gradient or ineffective brake system. The brake
efficiency is similar to the coefficient of friction, which is the ratio of the frictional
force to the normal load between the rubbing surfaces.