DVLP N O E E O ME T F AWA E S E MA A E N P A F RA C A TR H D N G ME T L N O MA H L T R U HP I RTS TO U IG G S H O G RO IIA I N SN I

S O A K N A , .. O R J A N N PV

Development of A Watershed Management Plan for Amachal Through Prioritisation Using GIS

Project Report
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Diploma in

GEOINFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS

By

Sooraj Kannan, P.V.

Centre for Environment and Development Thiruvananthapuram 2006

Sooraj Kannan, P.V.

DECLARATION
Me, Sooraj Kannan, P.V., hereby declare that the project entitled Development of a Watershed Management Plan for Amachal Through Prioritisation Using GIS submitted to the Centre for Environment and Development, Thiruvananthapuram, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Advanced Course in GeoInformation Technology and Remote Sensing Applications with specialization in Spatial Planning is a bonafide record of the work done by me under the supervision and guidance of Dr.T. Sabu, Director (R&D), CED, and that no part of this has formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma or other similar titles of any University or Organization.

SOORAJ KANNAN, P.V.

DEVELOPMENT OF A WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR AMACHAL THROUGH PRIORITISATION USING GIS

Sooraj Kannan, P.V.

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled Development of a Watershed Management Plan for Amachal Through Prioritisation Using GIS submitted by Sooraj Kannan,P.V. to the Centre for Environment and Development, Thiruvananthapuram, in partial fulfillment of the Advanced course in Geoinformation Technology and Remote Sensing Applications with specialization in Spatial Planning is an authentic record of work carried out by him under our supervision at the Centre for Environment and Development and that no part of this has formed the basis of any award of any degree, diploma or other similar titles of any University or Organizations. We further certify that he has completed all the assigned works and duties to our complete satisfaction and has impressed me with his dedication and constant strive for excellence in work.

GUIDE

CO-GUIDE

Countersigned by EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, CED

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. T. Sabu and Mrs. Sandhya S.N. for giving me the opportunity to carry out the present study under their guidance. The help given in many ways by Dr. T.Sabu, Director (R&D), CED, Thiruvananthapuram sparing his time in between his high profiled assignments is gratefully acknowledged, although it is insufficient to express my gratitude in a few words or sentences.

I am grateful to Dr.Babu Ambat, Director, Centre for Environment and Development for providing necessary facilities during the study. The help and the encouragement by various faculty members like Mr. Anil Kumar, Mr. Saharsh, B., Mrs. Aparna Simple Sanal, Mr. Ravindran played a key role in achieving the fulfillment of the study and is gratefully acknowledged. I also wish to express my sincere thanks to the staff of Centre for Environment and Development for their help in need.

A special mention is given here to the staff of Department of Soil Conservation under Government of Kerala for their help in collecting data and information of the study area.

SOORAJ KANNAN, P.V.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A clear understanding of the processes with in a watershed is needed for watershed development, utilization and management due to its complex nature of occurrence. The integration of all natural resources on GIS platform will give enough scope for understanding the inter-relationship between the available natural resources with in the watershed. The present study provided a GIS methodology to prioritise the watershed according to the severity and owners attitude for implementation of conservation measures. Thus the major objective of the study is the characterization and quantification of land and water resource components of Amachal watershed at micro level for better watershed development as well as management through prioritizing. And the specific objectives are to study detailed geo-hydrology of Amachal watershed, computerize the natural resources themes through GIS software application, evaluate geo-morphology and terrain, integrate natural resources and land use planning for sustainable watershed development and management and prioritise areas within watersheds for development with available resources.

The

natural

resource

based

data

of

the

Amachal

watershed

situated

in

Thiruvananthapuram District of Kerala had been used for this study. The study area belong s to Amachal ward and the part of Chandramangalam of Kattakkada panchayat of Vellanad Block in Thiruvanathapuram district. The total geographical area of the project area is 104.26 hectares with a cultivable area 92.93 hectares and cultivated area of 92.28 hectares. The major crops in these micro- watersheds are coconut (59%) and rubber (30%). Generally homestead farming is followed by families. Amachal paithala is the important stream in the watershed that debouches to the Neyyar River. The area is characterized by moderate climate.

Runoff can be estimated using SCS curve number method. The curve numbers of each type land cover can be calculated by overlying of soil theme and land use theme based on Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) using Arc GIS environment. The rate of

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erosion from the various parts of the watershed is found out using USLE model. Entire watershed is classified into three regions of severe, moderate and slight erosion. Stake holders attitudes are found out through surveys and given weights for each holding based on that. Through overlay analysis using arcGIS the prioritisation map is generated by assigning weights to each layers of consideration.

Triangulated irregular network of the area is generated from the contour data. Slope map of the area is made and classified into gently sloping (0%-3%), moderate sloping (3%5%), strongly sloping (5-10%), moderate steep (10%-15%) and steep (above 15%).runoff map is formed using Soil Conservation Society Curve Number Method. The runoff varied from 37 mm (loamy sand under tapioca and banana mixed cropping) and 101mm (sandy clay loam under paddy cultivation). Soil erosion severity is analysed using Universal Soil Loss Equation and erosion map is generated. Stake holders attitude is represented as a map. Through overlay analysis prioritization map is generated.

The out come of this attempt is in the form of a custom Arc GIS engine that integrates multiple enterprise land information databases that would emerge as an effective decision support system for integrated natural resource management to facilitate prioritization for sustainable development. In nutshell, GIS can be successfully applied to geographical data for the integration of collection, storage, retrieving, transforming and displaying spatial data for solving complex planning and management problems in a watershed under a time constraint.

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CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CHAPTER - 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background

iv vii viii 1 1 4 4 4 6 6 6 8 8 10 15 16 17 17 22 23 40 40 40 43 43 43 47 49

CHAPTER 2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 2.1 2.2 CHAPTER 3 Major Objectives Specific Objectives

STUDY AREA 3.1 3.2 Location General information

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW OF EARLIER WORK 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Land Use Planning Runoff and Soil Erosion GIS in Watershed Management Prioritisation of Micro-Watersheds

CHAPTER 5 TECHNICAL PROGRAM 5.1 General Aspects of Basic principles of GIS 5.2 5.3 theoretical concepts of soil conservation GIS Procedure for preparation and Analysis of maps

CHAPTER 6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 6.1. Slope Region 6.2. Runoff map 6.3 Erosion Severity Map 6.4 Stakeholders Attitude 6.5 Prioritization CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS REFERENCES

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LIST OF MAPS

FIGURE 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

TITLE

Pg. No. 25 26 27 28 30 31 33 35 37 38 41 42 44 45

Boundary and contour map Cadastral map Land use map Soil texture map Slope classes Curve no map Soil erodibility map Length of slope map Crop factor map Land owners attitude map Digital elevation model Runoff map Erosion severity map Prioritisation map LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 5.1 5.2

TITLE

Pg. No. 29 30

Boundary and contour map Cadastral map

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 3.1 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 TITLE Pg. No. 6 22 24 34 36 39

Landuse classification of Amachal watershed Curve number values Feature classes in the dataset Soil erodibility factor values Crop management factor values Weights for prioritisation

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations cm CN Dept et al Etc Fig GIS g hr ha HSG IS km2 m m2 min ml mm N pp SCS SYI t Trans USLE WEPP Yr < > / Interpretation centimeter Curve number department and others etcetera Figure Geographic information system gram hour hectare Hydrologic soil group Indian Standard Square kilometer metre square metre minute(s) millilitre millimetre normality page Soil Conservation Service Sediment Yield Index tonnes Transaction Universal Soil Loss Equation Water Erosion Prediction project Year less than greater than per

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background The concept of water management is undergoing a major turn by changing from site specific or component specific quantification and utilization of water resources to holistic approach. Finally, it has paved the way to a new school of thought of integrated water recourses management by accurate spatial as well as temporal characterization and quantification of system components in order to tackle the inherent stochasticity. Presently the concept of integrated water management is gaining popularity globally at a macro-level. But, it can also be practiced successfully at macro-level like watershed management within a river basin, as this holistic approach is capable of increasing the overall efficiency of natural resources utilization of a basin. Watershed based developmental programs started to make a prominent appearance on the development agenda in India in 1980s and 1990s. Watershed is considered as a unit for integrated resource management, where management is not merely of land, water and biomass, rather integration for self-reliance and holistic development of rural poor. It is more community based, than just technology oriented, leading to empowerment and self-reliance of primary stakeholders. Managing these resources can provide an entry for external agencies to understand poor peoples perception and for building their capacities to reduce poverty and environmental degradation. Though the Government with its intervention has developed some areas on watershed basis but the area yet to be developed is still to a large extend. It is impossible for any Government to take up area for development on watershed basis, since it involves huge investment and efforts. Prioritization of watersheds plays a key role in identifying watersheds, which need immediate attention, and those can be taken up for the development with available resources. This effort was undertaken to explore possibilities for adapting the GIS-RS capabilities for local level planning and development .Total decentralization of plan formulation in

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Kerala has given opportunity to the stakeholders to directly participate the developmental activities. The Panchayats committees are empowered to formulate projects depending on the local needs. Therefore it is required to equip the Panchayats with databases sufficient to meet their data need for projects formulation. In order to integrate socio-cultural indicators into an ecological model, it is necessary to identify social stratification within land use patterns and determine social differentiation within watershed communities or neighborhoods. Particularly in a situation like the one exists in Kerala, where idiosyncrasies monsoon and diverse physiographic conditions give rise to unequal distribution of water. Unlike other peninsular states of India, Kerala has some unique land form related aspects such as: over 90% of the geographical area is either in midland or highland category, nearly 70%of the surface area is carpeted with more than 1.5m soil profile, 60%of the surface cover literate etc. Similarly, due to effective implementation of land ceiling average small land holding category (<1 hectare) makes up 91.5% whereas, in the rest of India it is 58.1%. Therefore, the land and water conservation measures, which are being practiced successfully elsewhere not necessarily yield same success rate in Kerala. Hence, in order to get the acceptance and cooperation of the stakeholders, it is imperative to adopt site-specific conservation measures, which are more suitable for Keralas socio-econo-cultural environment. Augmented by deforestation, soil erosion/ runoff, and rising demand leading to unsustainable use is one of the major contributing factors to drinking water scarcity and poor agricultural yields in some districts of Kerala. Given the nature of monsoon rainfall in Kerala, the key to meet the districts growing demand for water for domestic and agricultural use is to effectively harness rainwater, the ultimate source of all freshwater resources. Artificial recharge of ground water seems to be the only corrective measure to compensate for the overexploitation of groundwater by augmenting the natural infiltration of rainwater or surface water into under-ground formations through various methods. Artificial recharge may be induced by number of methods depending on the local topographic, geologic and soil conditions. It has been learned that the key social variables, even in subtle nuances, influence the success of watershed based developmental initiatives, their sustainability and subsequently the overall rural development scenario in Kerala. Moreover, they could establish a positive correlation pattern between the sociological motivation of rural and peri-urban stakeholders and the sustainable natural resource development. Whereas,

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the stakeholders, right from assistant development commissioners at district

headquarters up to village extension officers at Panchayats, are insensitive to this synergy .This is mainly due to their inability to integrate appropriately weighed multicriteria datasets while formulating action plans. This situation had warranted the need for a simple but technically sound computer based decision support system. The font end has to be designed using GIS so that the mid-level planners and executives of the Kerala State Planning System such as Block Development Officers, the project officers of District Rural Development Agencies can effortlessly estimate actual area to be occupied by the rain pits or bunds in a plot. It will be not only advantageous for the planners but also to the social engineers to motivate the farmers and built congenial environment for soil and water conservation programme. This was made possible by inclusion of the underlying sets conditions and algorithms into the GIS topological data structures. This module can be called directly into the GIS interface (without extensive reprogramming) to work on spatial data inventory and instantly provide the what if functionality that is so much at the heart of the DSS concept. A clear understanding of related processes within a water divide is needed for watershed development, utilization and management due to its complex nature of occurrence. The integration of all natural resources on GIS plat form will give enough scope for understanding the inter-relationship between the available natural resources within the watershed.

Geographic information system (GIS) is a computerized database management system for capture, storage, retrieval, analysis and display of spatially referenced defined data. GIS is very powerful tool for spatial planning and resource management. The present study is also an attempt to utilize the advance in information technology and internet for participatory developmental planning.

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CHAPTER 2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

2.1 Major Objective Kerala is facing serious problems of soil erosion due to its undulating topography. The implications of soil erosion in the study area extend beyond the removal of valuable topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks. Crop emergence, growth and yield are directly affected through the loss of natural nutrients and applied fertilizers with the soil. Soil quality, structure, stability and texture are affected by the loss of soil. The breakdown of aggregates and the removal of smaller particles or entire layers of soil or organic matter weaken the structure and even change the texture. Textural changes in turn affect the water-holding capacity of the soil, making it more susceptible to extreme condition such a drought. Soil erosion is not always as apparent as the on-site effects. Eroded soils, deposited down slope inhibit or delay the emergence of seeds, bury small seedling and necessitate replanting in the affected areas. Also these problems results in the violation of the socio economic structure of the area there by creating a social imbalance. A detailed study taking into consideration of the various aspects of the problem and with a systems approach has to be carried out, to formulate a viable strategy for management of soil erosion in this area. Thus the major objective of the study is the characterization and quantification of land and water resource components of Amachal watershed at micro level for better watershed development as well as management through prioritizing. 2.2 Specific objectives The specific objectives include: 1. To study detailed geo-hydrology of Amachal water shed 2. To computerize the natural resources themes through GIS software application 3. To evaluate geo-morphology and terrain modelling

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4. To integrate natural resources and land use planning for sustainable watershed development and management 5. To prioritise areas within watersheds for development with available resources.

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CHAPTER 3 STUDY AREA

3.1 Location The identified area of Amachal model Watershed projects is falling within Latitude 8
0

2857to 8 0 2944 North and Long.770 626to 770 716 East. Administratively, the study area belong s to Amachal ward and the part of Chandramangalam of Kattakkada panchayat of Vellanad Block in Thiruvanathapuram district

3.2 General information The total geographical area of the project area is 104.26 hectares with a cultivable area 92.93 hectares and cultivated area of 92.28 hectares 3% of the total land area is accounted as other fallow and current fallow. Table 3.1 gives details of the landuse classification of the Amachal watershed. Table 3.1 Land use Classification of Amachal Watershed Category Building and courtyard Non-agricultural landuse Net sown area Current fallow Other fallow Cultivable waste Other Miscellaneous trees Total geographical area Area(hectare) 7.99 3.34 89.64 2.64 0.41 0.09 0.15 104.26 Percentage to total geographical area 7.66 3.20 85.98 2.54 0.39 0.09 0.14 100.00

The major crops in these micro- watersheds are coconut (59%) and rubber (30%). Generally homestead farming is followed by families. Amachal paithala is the important stream in the watershed that debouches to the Neyyar River. The major ponds in the watersheds are Paithalakulam, Mathrakulam, Shappukulam, Melechirakulam The rain distribution of the area is bimodal with two well defined raining seasons namely, south west monsoon (from June to September)

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followed by the Northeast monsoon (from October to November).The area is characterized by moderate climate with the monthly average maximum and minimum temperature ranges from 28.40 C to 35.50 C and 21.50 C to 25.60 C, respectively. The mean monthly maximum and minimum relative humidity are 88 percent (in July) and 54 percent (in February) respectively. An annual average 6.25hours of sunshine are received with a decrease in sunshine hours from June to August and an increase from December to April.

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CHAPTER 4 REVIEW OF EARLIER WORKS

4.1 Land Use Planning The risk of soil erosion by water varies as a function of many factors, but the degree of protection provided by vegetation is the most important. Agricultural Resource Management has acquired a new dimension with the development of space technology. Several satellites were put in the orbit and continuously monitoring the dynamic and complex agricultural and environmental system and agricultural land use have been some of the major applications in agriculture. Through GIS and ancillary information regarding crop phonology, soil type, field parcelling, agronomic management etc. can be incorporated along with remote sensing data for improved analysis of crop and agricultural land use inventory and monitoring. Csornai et al. (1990) suggested a GIS based image classification procedure for improved crop identification and acreage estimation over a large area in Hungary. The methodology adopted in the creation of digital field boundary data and GIS supported classification methods. Rao et al. (1991) reported that remote sensing application with IRS-1A LISS-1 data helped generation of district wise land use/land cover maps for whole country on 1:250,000scale to serve the requirement of agro climatic zonal planning commission of Government of India. Theocaropoulose et al. (1995) reported how a soil survey land evaluation project benefited from the adoption of GIS technology. They reported that the use of GIS through the capabilities of data storage, processing and presentation could assist with such environment management tasks as land use planning, policy formulation and maintenance of land resources, environmental research and monitoring. It is also

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observed that there was reduction uncertainly in the selection of land use strategies and additional benefits are derived from decision based on more relevant informations. Harris et al. (1997) in their study, land cover maps created as a part of a riparian restoration research project were used to compare the time-costs involved in calculating lands cover areas with GIS and manually with a planimeter and dot-grid. Sample modelling of riparian forest resource potential was also performed to investigate the GIS, value for restoration planning. Wu et al. (1997) evaluated the soil properties of CRP (Conservation Resource Programme) land using remote sensing and GIS in Finney County, Kansas. Suitable images were used to derive a land use/land cover map. The map was incorporated with computerized soil survey information system. Soil property characteristics and readability index for each land use type were analyzed. The study demonstrated the advantage of GIS and remote sensing for evaluating the CRP. Boyle et al. (1998) used Geographic Information System technology to develop automated methods for quantifying the special variability of flood hazard and land use impact assessment in flooding conditions. An interface module developed within GIS incorporated floodwater elevations predicted would provide water resources managers with improved insight into flooding conditions, strengthening the risk assessment process and the administration of human activities in river flood plains. Das (1999) explained the role of soil information System (SIS) in sustainable use of land resources. He stated that the SIS based on database obtained through remote sensing and ground survey in combination with GIS and decision support system (DSS) have immense potential in planning, judicious management, conservation and sustainable use of soil, land and crop resources. Karnchanasudhan (2002) applied GIS for the analysis of rise suitability area in Thailand by overlying of soil map, rainfall map and irrigation map. The undesirable areas such as conserved forest, urban areas, water body etc. were removed. Rice suitability area was then categorized based on the boundary of 25 micro watersheds, into three levels; high, moderate and marginal suitability areas for rice.

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Pradhan (2002) developed and rested a GIS and remote sensing based methodology for the land cover mapping of Bhutan and Nepal using IRS data from the analysis, broad leaf forest and coniferous forest has been found as the dominant land cover classes. The methodology will work well and is recommended to use at a watershed level using medium or high-resolution satellite data. Sharma et al. (2002) reported that the information obtained through remote sensing and GIS techniques helps in the better understanding of geographic locations, distribution of quality of land in the watershed and prioritization of critical areas for the soil and water conservation treatment. It was also evident that thematic maps with relevant attribute data could help in efficient land use planning for the optimal use of land. To obtain the integrated/ composite information, maps can also be integrated step wise, two at a time through GIS techniques. The spatial database thus generated is very helpful to the land users and land use planners in the demarcating suitable and unsuitable land. Rajalakshmi and Dutta (2004) assessed the changes in runoff due to land use change in hydrological basins. The distributed hydrological modelling is attempted considering the spatial variability using remote sensing, and GIS. The study area consisted of three major river basins of India such as Mahanadi, Godavari and Brahamani-Baitarani. It was found that nearly 60% of the sub-basins were affected, when there was a change of 30% of the rice agriculture area to minor agriculture area. Where as 5%, 10%, 15% change in forest cover to minor agriculture or rice agriculture affected the same number of the subbasins considering the change in the runoff greater than 5% for a sub-basin.

4.2 Runoff and Soil Erosion Reliable run off and soil loss estimation is a valuable design and planning tool. Its most immediate advantage is that a well-defined conservation objective can be formulated, to reduce soil losses to specified acceptable level and there by ensure the maximum safe economic use of each piece of land. For locating vulnerable and priority areas, the catchment of a river has to be studied for different types and intensities of erosion and mapping different erosion units.

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Wischmeier (1959) found that one hundreds of the products of the kinetic energy of storm (KE) and 30 minutes intensity (I30) are the most reliable single estimate of rainfall erosion potential and was termed as El30. Annual total of storm El30 value is referred to as rainfall erosion index. Wischmeier and Mannering (1969) initiated studies to see as to which extent various properties of soil affect its erodobility. The significant variables percent were sand, percent silt clay ratio, organic matter content, aggregation index, antecedent soil moisture, bulk density percent slope, pH of surface and sub soil, soil structure, thickness of soil layer , land use preceding three year period, volume of pore space filled by air, slope shape, presence or absence loessial mantle and clay skins on pod surfaces. A multiple regression equation was developed based on various soil properties and their interaction. The equation is so cumbersome and requires the determination of so many properties so it is not used extensively. Work was again carried out to simplify the procedure for determination of K and a simple nomograph based on five soil parameters have been developed. The USLE is an erosion model design to predict the long time average soil from a specified cropping management system. With appropriate selection of numerical values for various soil erosion variables, the equation will compute the average soil loss for a cropping system, for a particular crop year in a rotation or a particular crop stage period within a crop year. It computes the soil loss for given site as a product of six major factors where most likely values at a particular location can be expressed numerically (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978).

Wischmeier and Smith (1978) simplified the procedure for determining the L and S factors combining the L and S factors together by considering the two as single topographic factors and a nomograph for determine LS factor was developed for convenience. The informations given on C value may be made use of after carefully considering the cropping pattern, crops, cropping stages and crop management variations in the United States and in India And making suitable adjustments for these

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variations. Based on the intensive studies they have recommended P value for a number of situations. Onstad and Otterby (1980) studied the effect of crop residual on runoff. Crop residues on the soil surface decrease runoff from all storm sizes and eliminate runoff from small storms. Runoff reductions and consequent increases in soil water storage are greatest on less permeable soils. Spanner et al. (1983) first demonstrated potential of GIS erosional soil loss assessment using RS and GIS techniques for quantitatively assessing erosional soil loss. Borah (1989) developed a dynamic hydrologic model, which simulates spaces and time distributed rainfall excess runoff in a watershed resulting from single rainfall. Pathak et al. (1989) developed a runoff model for small watersheds in the semiarid tropics. A modified SCS runoff model and a soil moisture accounting procedure were used to simulate runoff for small watersheds and validity was tested in small vertisole watersheds at ICRISAT in India. Fook et al. (1992) made use of remote sensing techniques and GIS for soil erosion mapping. Erosional soil is most frequently assessed by Universal Soil Loss Equation. Fernandez and Garbrecht (1994) studied the effect of trends and long-term fluctuations of rainfall on watershed runoff at Little Washita river basin. It shown that, rainfall patterns and amounts can mask the beneficial impacts of floodwater retarding structures. Binger (1996) simulated runoff from Goodwin Creek watershed SWAT (Soil and water Assessment Tool). SWAT has predicted the relative trends of runoff on a daily and annual basis from multiple sub basins, Except for a completely wooded sub basin. Desmet and Govers (1996) made a computer algorithm to calculate the USLE and RUSLE, L, S factors over a two dimensional landscape. A comparison of manual calculation and a computer algorithm showed that the manual method leads to an under estimation of erosional risk. The computer procedure has the obvious advantage that it

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can be easily linked to GIS software. If data on land use and soils are available specific K, C and P values can be assigned to each land unit so that predicted soil loss can then be calculated using a simple overlay procedure. Montas and Madramootoo (1996) developed and used a model named ANSWERS to predict runoff and soil loss in south western Quebec in to small agricultural watersheds. This model underestimated the sediment yield for all events. Runoff predictions with adjusted parameters were better than those with measured parameters. Formaggi et al. (1998) used Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) for soil erosion modelling. The rest site was watershed in region of highly intensive agriculture in Sao Paulo State (Brazil) and GIS/remote sensing techniques were employed to spatialize the soil erosion losses by water. They have tested different approaches of modelling the USLE topographic parameters L and S. The result showed that for s parameters there was not statistical difference, in the final spatialized results, showing the need of improve the methods of modelling the USLE most impacting parameters. Sarangi et al. (2001) studied the use of GIS in assessing the erosion status of the watershed. Two watersheds viz. Banha watershed at Damodar valley, Jharkand and IARI watershed at Delhi are considered for hypsometric analysis. The hypsometric analysis revealed that the Banha watershed is less susceptible to erosion where as IARI watershed is at stabilized state. This findings point out the need for conservation measures in Banha watershed for controlling further erosion through construction of soil conservation structures. Sikka and Birosy (1997) used the USLE to estimate the soil loss from the 338 on 10km X 10 km grid distributed over entire state of Kerala in India. Parameters of USLE were worked out by synthesizing information on rainfall, soil topography, land use and management practices for each grid. The computed values for soil loss were grouped into six classes. The result showed that major portion of Kerala falls in 0-5-ton/ha yearsoil loss category while less than 5 percent of an area is subjected to serve from of soil erosion. Small areas contribute to soil loss greater than 40 ton/ha/year. About 40 percent of state subjected to soil loss in the categories of 5-10and 10-15 ton/ha/year.

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Joshi et al. (2004) conducted studies at Bhetagad watershed to assess the erosion losses under open pine forest, tea garden, rain fed agriculture land and grazing lands. The result revealed that soil in terraced agriculture land was more stable than that in pine forest, tea gardens and g4razing lands. The maximum water, soil and nutrient losses are recorded from areas covered with open pine forest and minimum for agriculture land. The well maintained agriculture land had higher conservation values of water, soil and nutrients than the other land use system.

4.2.1 Rainfall runoff prediction model Jayasree (1990) conducted regression and correlation studies on Chaliyar basin to find the relationships between rainfall and runoff of the sub-basin and prediction equations have also been found out. Steenhius et al. (1995) revised the SCS runoff equation for variable source runoff, for two watersheds in Australia and three in northeastern United States. By plotting the effective precipitation against observed runoff for the above watersheds they found that the SCS curve number equation in its elementary from fitted the data well. Mimikov and Baltas (1996) conducted a study in central Greece and a rainfall runoff model for flood flow forecasting using mean annual rainfall and annual aerial radar rainfall information was obtained by using the unit hydrograph approach. They observed that the model gave better results when radar processed weather data are given as input. Kothuari and Singh (1999) developed a multiple input and single output time invariant non-linear model based on a black box system approach using daily data and it was used for flow forecasting during monsoon flood events. Saravanan and Sudharsanan (2004) followed a lumped modelling approach for modelling flood events of Valliyar in Tamilnaduu using remote sensing and GIS. Flow is estimated for a minimum, maximum and average rainfall events and the estimated runoff is compared with observed stream flow measurements.

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4.3 GIS in Watershed management Watershed is an area of land that is drained by network of stream or river and separated from other watersheds by ridge top boundaries. Often called as drainage basin or hydrologic unit, watershed can cover large multistage area or relatively small area. A digital representation of the continuous variation of relief cover space is known as Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Green and Cruise (1995) constructed a geographic information system for an urban watershed in Bata Rouge, Louisana and used to direct a hydrologic modelling effort for watershed management. The locational data were also used to determine dimensions of the HRUs as well as all flow lengths. The curve number method was used to determine dimensions of the HRUs as well as flow lengths. The curve number method was used to determine rainfall excess and the discharge was routed using a standard kinetic wave model. System capabilities are demonstrated the lot, polygons, block and multi block scale. Garbrecht et al. (2001) described the GIS and distributed watershed and models, which addresses selected spatial data issue, data structures and projections, data sources, and information on data solution and uncertainties. Spatial data that are covered include digital elevation data, stream and drainage data, soil data, remotely sensed data and radar precipitation data. Pandey et al. (2004) developed the DEM of Banikduh agricultural watershed using ARC/INFO GIS software from contour map. Flow direction and flow accumulation themes were developed using depression less DEM. Topographical parameters and stream properties relating to land surface watershed were extracted. The DEM and associated parameters derived from their study may be successfully used for simulation of runoff and sediment yield from Banikdih watershed for planning of best management practices.

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4.4 Prioritization of Micro watersheds Aravind et al. (2004) attempted to prioritize sub watersheds for a few taluks in Karnataka state considering seven criteria viz. silt yield index, SC/ST population, wasteland, agricultural labourer population, forest area and irrigated area. Specific weightings were assigned to each criterion in terms of marks. Data pertaining to all the parameters were converted into a spatial domain (Map format) as cove rages and were fed as input into the prioritization module developed by using Arc Macro Language (AML).The resultant maps indicating the priority numbers for all the sub watersheds for a given taluk were generated and submitted to the Watershed development department for implementation. The outputs also comprise maps and tables for individual criterion selected for prioritization, which may be used for any other projects, provided the criteria selected should be within these criteria. Thus remote sensing and GIS when clubbed together produce synergetic results and can be successfully adopted to prioritize the watersheds in a more scientific and unbiased manner.

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CHAPTER 5 TECHNICAL PROGRAMME

5.1 General Aspects and Basic Principles of GIS The design and implementation of a specific GIS project include many considerations and processes. However a series of logical steps are required to be followed in the execution of a GIS project. 1. Building and designing a geodatabase 2. Data representation models 3. Spatial data input and data acquisition 4. Edit and topology creation 5. Attribute data input 6. Map projection 7. Management and manipulation of data 8. Presentation of results of analysis i) Building Geodatabase Geographic database in short Geodatabase, represents geographic features and attributes as objects and is hosted inside a relational database management System. A geodatabase is a modern container for GIS data. It is a next generation, Objectrelational Geographic data model. Geo databases are supported in all of the current ARC GIS Desktop Products. Feature datasets Feature datasets exists in the Geodatabase to define a scope for a particular spatial reference. All feature classes that participate in topological relationships with one another must have the

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same spatial reference. Feature datasets are a way to grow feature classes with a same spatial reference so that they can participate in topological relationships with each other. They also have a natural organizational quality, much like a folder on a file system. Feature classes are collections of features of the same type with a common spatial representation and set of attributes. Each feature class stores a set of points, lines, arcs, polygons or annotations (text). They can have topology which determines the relationship between the features. To define the features more than one feature class is often required. ii) Data Representation Models In Geographical Information System, data can be modeled in three basic ways As a collection of discrete features in vector format As a grid of cells with spectral or attribute data (Raster format) As a set of Triangulated points modeling a surface

Vector Data Model Vector data represents features as points, lines, and polygons and is best applied to discrete objects with defined shapes and boundaries. In vector data format features have a precise shape and position, attributes, metadata and useful behavior. The vector data model represents geographic features similar to the way maps do. Points represent geographic features too small to be depicted as lines or areas, lines represent geographic features too narrow to depict as areas, and areas represent homogenous geographic features. An x, y (Cartesian) coordinate system references real world locations. Raster Data Model The raster data model is made up of a regular grid of dots (called cells or pixels) filled with values. It represents imaged or continuous data. Each cell or pixel in a raster is a

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measured quantity. The most common source for a raster data set is a satellite image or aerial photograph. It can also be a photograph of feature such as a building. The raster data sets is useful in storing and working with continuous data such as elevation, water table, pollution concentration , ambient noise level etc

Triangulated Irregular Network data Model (TIN Model) Triangulated Irregular Network data Model is an alternative tot the raster data model for representing continuous surfaces. It allows surface models to be generated efficiently to analyze and display terrain and other types of surfaces. A TIN is a useful and efficient way to capture the surface of a piece of land. TIN supports perspective views. It is possible to drape a photographic image on the top of a TIN for a photorealistic terrain display. TINs are particularly useful for modelling watersheds, visibility, line of site, slope, aspect, ridges and rivers, and volumetric. TIN can model points, lines and polygons. Contour maps can be generated from a TIN using linear interpolation for a smoothing algorithm. The vector, raster and TIN data models are powerful ways to model the Earth. Each of them uses the Cartesian coordinate system for defining the location on the earth surface. Adopting a common map projection and scale and adjusting coordinates so that each model shares a common origin, ensures that the same coordinates represents the same location in each model. This is called Georeferencing and is important because it allows selecting the optimum data model for representing a particular aspect of the earth. It also provides greater flexibility for analyzing and displaying data. iii) Spatial data input Spatial data input is one of the major prerequisite for GIS methodology. Two basic options involved in dbase construction are (i) use the existing data and (ii) create new data. New GIS data can be created from various sources such as satellite images, GPS data or different types of paper maps such as Geographical Top sheets, Survey maps etc. The paper maps can be converted into digital maps through digitizing

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process. A newly digitized map has measurement unit as the source of map and therefore it must be converted into real world coordinates by using a set of control points with known real world coordinates. The following steps are required for spatial data input as part of GIS analysis. Data Acquisition Data acquisition is one of the most critical time consuming part of GIS analysis. Design of data base include location of study area, relevance of co-ordinate system used, data layers required, feature representation of each layer, attributes of each feature type and the way in which information is coded and organized in the attribute file. iv) Defining Topology Topology, as used in GIS expresses explicitly the spatial relationship between different features in a geodatabase. In Geographical Information System technology, topology is the model used to describe how features share geometry; it is also the mechanism for establishing and maintaining topological relationships between features. ArcGIS implements topology through a set of validation rules. These rules define how features may share a geographical space, and a set of editing tools that work with features that share geometry in an integrated fashion. A topology is stored in a geodatabase as one or more relationships that define how the features in one or more feature classes share geometry. Data editing and correcting Data editing and correction is done efficiently using topology classes. In the Arc Map the red polygon and lines marked the places where the topology rules are violated. The dirty areas allow selected parts, rather than the whole extend of the topology to be validated after editing. Dirty areas are created when a feature is created or deleted, a features geometry is modified, a features sub type is changed or versions are reconciled, or when the topology properties are modified. Dirty areas are removed when they are validated

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v) Attribute data Attribute data can be incorporated into the vector features. By selecting the layer -open attribute table- options add field, and the attribute data can be entered as short integer, float, text etc. The data relevant to the spatial data are stored in the attribute table of the feature class which gives valuable information on various features stored in the feature class. vi) Map projection Cartesian coordinate system has properties that make them useful for representing real world coordinates on maps .projection formulas are mathematical expression which convert data from a geographical location on a sphere or spheroid to a representative location on a flat surface. This process inevitably distorts at least one of these properties shape, area, distance, direction and often more. Because measurements of one or more of these (distorted) properties are often used to make decisions ,anyone who uses maps as analytical tools should know which projections distort which properties , and to what extent. vii) Management and Manipulation of Data A GIS integrates spatial and other kinds of information within a well defined database structure and provides software tools that can be used to manipulate and display geographical data-objects. Most GISs are graphically oriented, with display and map output capabilities ranging from cartographic displays, spatial imagery and 3-D overlays, to graphs and histograms of data or statistical investigations. Additionally, the integrated data structure and standardized "tool kit" of GIS functions provides useful capabilities to aid in data exploration, data intercomparison, spatial and temporal overlay studies, and more complex analyses of multiple datasets in space and time. One of the most important current areas for growth in GIS is error analysis - an important factor in the use of multi-thematic data combinations in analysis or modelling. A GIS is a working environment representing an analytical philosophy that is established by the combination of geographical data and information objects (in the database) and

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an organized set of data management, analysis, exploration, and descriptive modeling tools. The introduction of GIS has revolutionized the way the scientific world views and manipulates geographical information. Of particular interest here are the advantages that GIS methods may provide for quality assessment and analysis of data, and for the derivation of useful information from static data modeling (data combinations and derivations). 5.2 Theoretical concept of Soil Conservation

5.2.1 Estimation of runoff SCS curve number method was adopted to estimate the daily runoff. The mathematical equations involved in the method were described below. Let Ia be the initial quantity of interception, depression storage and infiltration that must be satisfied by any annual rainfall before runoff can occur. The actual runoff, actual retention and the storage capacity S are related by Q= (P-0.2s)2 P+0.8 S Q has the same units of P and is usually expressed in mm. The curve number has defined by the United States SCS is defined by CN = 25400 254+S Where, S is the recharge capacity of watershed in mm. Curve numbers for different land the conditions and hydrologic soil groups for Antecedent Rainfall Condition II are given in the table 5.1. Table 5.1 Curve Number Values HSG A B C D A B C D LAND USE coconut C No. 55 61 68 75 59 64 70 74

coconut predominant mixed cropping

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HSG A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D LAND USE rubber C No. 38 53 73 76 66 71 72 78 61 67 75 81 63 71 83 86

Rubber predominant mixed cropping

Tapioca Banana mixed cropping in wet land

Paddy

5.2.2 Estimation of annual soil loss The Universal Soil Equation (USLE) is given by: A=R.K.L.C.P Where A=the average soil loss for the given period R=rainfall erosivity index K=soil erodibility factor C=crop management factor L=length of slop factor S=steepness of slop factor P=conservation practice factor Extensive Experimental evidence is needed to determine these factors.

5.3 GIS procedure for preparation and Analysis of Maps Various types of data products, literature and survey study were used to generate the maps for the Integrated Watershed Management Through prioritization of Amachal watershed. The western Ghat Development Cell under the planning and Economic Affairs Department, coordinating the Amachal model Watershed Programme has generated a number of thematic maps such as landuse, land capability, land irrigability, crop suitability, assets, soil characteristics etc. at survey plot level. A socio-economic

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survey report of the watershed also has been published by the Department of Economic and Statistics, Government of kerala in 2003. The Ancillary/Collateral data collected are Hydrological and climatological data, Cadastral Map (fig. 5.2), Soil (fig. 5.4) and land use data (fig. 5.3), Drainage, Elevation/Contour data (fig. 5.1) and Socio-economic data (Optional) Arc GIS 9.0 was the software was used for the study. ArcGIS 9.0 presents a comprehensive set of analysis tools that work with all the supported data formats, including geodatabase features. It also offers a completely new framework for working with these tools that combine them together in a visual modelling environment and apply scientific principles related to the study. In this study GIS is applied to the geographical data for integration of collection, storing, retrieving, transforming and displaying spatial data for solving the planning and management problems. GIS made the data handling and analysis much easier with meaningful research outcomes. As part of the study a geodatabase Watershed was designed which contained a data set Amachal comprising of different feature classes. The details are given in table 5.2. Projection of the study area was given as UTM_1984_Polyconic. Table 5.2 Feature classes in the dataset SI.No. 1 2 3 4 5 Feature class Boundary Land use soil Contour Streams Type Polygon Polygon Polygon Polyline Polygon Details of the features Boundary of the area Land use classification Soil type classification Contour of the area Stream lines of the area

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Spatial analyst extension of Arc GIS was used for the analysis of the study. Spatial Analysis helps to identify trends on the data, create new relationships from the data, view complex relationships between data sets, Make better decisions. Spatial Analyst provides a rich set of tools to perform cell-based (raster) analysis. Of the three main types of GIS data, (raster, vector, and tin), the project utilized the raster data structure which provided the most comprehensive modelling environment for spatial analysis. 1. Slope map generation: Slope regions were derived from contour base map. By using 3D analyst of arcGIS the triangulated irregular network (TIN) is generated from the contour feature class and slope is generated from TIN in raster form. Slope regions have been reclassified into gently sloping (0%-3%), moderate sloping (3%-5%), strongly sloping (5-10%), moderate steep (10%-15%) and steep above (15%). (Fig 5.6) 2. Runoff Map: Runoff was estimated using SCS curve method. This was done by the union of hydrological soil group map and land use map. Hydrological soil group map is generated from soil texture map. Hydrological soil group gives an idea about the infiltration capacity of the soil which in turn depends on the textural characteristics of the soil. Later assigning Curve Number based on land, use, hydrological soil group and antecedent moisture condition in the union of texture map and land use map, curve number map is generated (fig 5.7). Based on curve number runoff is calculated and represented in map form. The procedure for the preparation of runoff map is detailed in the flow chart. Figure 5.1 Runoff Map Generation

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Rainfall value of 15cm was obtained for the study area when limiting to 50 years frequently and 6 hour duration. The runoff varied from 37 mm (loamy sand under tapioca and banana mixed cropping) and 101mm (sandy clay loam under paddy cultivation). 3. Erosion Severity Map: Soil erosion severity was analysed using the Universal soil loss equation. USLE is formulated for the gently sloping agricultural areas so that it cannot be used for the exact estimation of soil loss in the steep sloppy watersheds of kerala. As our objective is to demarcate the relative severe erosion areas with in the watershed than exact estimation of the soil loss, this simplest model can do the best. Maps for each parameters of USLE are prepared and rasterised. Using raster calculator, the soil loss is estimated by multiplying all the parameter maps. GIS procedure for the preparation of erosion severity map is given in the figure.

Figure 5.2 Erosion severity Map Generation

1. Estimation of Erosivity Factor (R): The rainfall erosivity factor (R) is the number of rainfall erosion index unit for a particular location. R is the rainfall and run off factor by geographic location. The greater the intensity and duration of rain storm, higher the erosion potential. Erosivity factor for the study area can be taken as constant throughout the watershed area, since there is no spatial variation of rainfall characteristics with in this small watershed. 2. Preparation of Erodibility Map (K): The soil erodibility factor (K) in the USLE relates to the rate at which different soil erode. A simple nomograph developed (Wischmeier et al. 1971) based on the five soil parameters viz. percent silt plus

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very fine sand, percent sand greater than 0.10mm, organic matter content, structure and permeability was used to found the Soil Erodibility (K) factor. K is the average soil loss in tones /acre per unit area for a particular soil in cultivated, continuous fallow. K is a measure of susceptibility of soil particles to detachment and transport by rainfall and runoff. The appropriate K value is determined from standard tables based on texture of soil. Based on the k values, the soil map was converted to raster map using spatial analyst (fig. 5.9). Table 5.3 Soil Erodibility Factor Values soil texture gravely clay loam gravely sandy clay gravely sandy clay loam gravely sandy loam loamy sand rocky stony sandy clay loam sandy loam silt loam k factor 0.27 0.23 0.28 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.30 0.13 0.38

3. Preparation of Slope Map: Contour map of Amachal Watershed was prepared by level survey. Contour interval was 5m. The maximum contour value of the area was 95m. Slope of the study area was prepared using the 3D analyst extension of Arc GIS. The slope of the area can be seen clearly in the TIN map. The TIN of the study area is prepared using the 3D analyst one of the powerful extension of Arc GIS. 4. Topographic Factor (LS): Slope length (L) is the distance from the point of origin of over land flow to the point where either the slop gradient decreases enough that deposition begins or the runoff water enters well-defined channels. S is the slope steepness factor. L and S factor together considered as topographic factor. Average length of slope is taken as 100ft and LS factor raster

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is prepared by using the empirical formula suggested by Smith and Wishchmeir (fig. 5.10). LS = L 100 5. Crop Management Factor Map (C): The crop management factor, C is the expected ratio of soil loss from land cropped under specified conditions to soil loss from clan tilled fallow on identical soil and slope and under the same rainfall. The item reflects the combined effect of cover, crop sequence, productivity level, length of growing season, tillage practices, residue management and the expected time distribution of erosive storm with respect to seeding and harvesting date in the locality. Based on the land use type of the study area crop management factor, C values are assigned. Crop management factors for different land use are given table 5.4. Based on these C values Cropping management map was prepared using spatial analyst (fig. 5.11). Table 5.4 Crop Management Factor Values (0.76 + 0.53 S +0.076 S2)

Land use Coconut Coconut predominant mixed cropping Paddy Rubber Rubber predominant mixed cropping Tapioca banana mixed cropping in wetland

Crop Factor 0.1 0.15 0.4 0.1 0.15 0.05

6. Conservation Practice Factor (P): Factor, P in the USLE is the ratio of soil loss with a specific conservation practice to the corresponding loss with up and down cultivation. P value ranges from 0 to 1 where P value of 1 represents an area with no conservation practices and up and down slope and 0 represents an area with proper conservation measures. The value of P in the study area is taken as 1, since there are no properly maintained soil conservation measures.

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Based on the values of R, K, LS, C and P, the soil loss was calculated by using raster calculator in the spatial analyst. The Raster Calculator can be used to weight and combine rasters as part of a suitability model. Equal weight is given for all the parameter rasters. Based on the obtained result, soil erosion was classified as slight/nil, moderate and severe. Erosion was found maximum from uncultivable rocky and stony area. Minimum erosion was in loamy soil under coconut, banana or mixed cropping. 4. Stakeholders attitude: Stakeholders attitude and motivation have great

significance in suggesting suitable conservation measures of the area. In normal adoption process of innovative techniques, beneficiaries are classified into innovators, early majority, late majority, and laggards. Here the attitudes of the stake holders are classified into four, viz, willing to adopt conservation techniques, willing if others are willing, willing if subsidy is provided and finally not willing to adopt at any circumstances. The areas with attitude rating are given as weights from 1 to 4 in the attribute table of the cadastral map. Attitude raster was prepared from cadastral map of Amachal watershed (fig. 5.12). 5. Prioritization: Prioritisation of the entire area of the watershed is done based on the runoff generation capability, erosion severity and stake holders attitude. Prioritisation is done by overlay analysis of runoff, erosion severity and stake holders attitude maps on GIS platform. For that all the rasters are reclassified into four classes and overlied by giving weights shown in the table 5.5. Table 5.5 weights for each layer

Layer name Runoff map Erosion map Stake holders attitude

Weight 35 35 30

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CHAPTER 6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 Slope Regions Slope regions were derived from triangulated irregular network (TIN) which in turn generated from contour feature class. Slope regions have been reclassified into gently sloping (0-3 degrees), moderate sloping (3-5 degrees), strongly sloping (5-10 degrees), moderate steep (10-15 degrees) and steep above (15 degrees). Slope, being the determining character of runoff generation capacity and erosion potential of the watershed is an important parameter in watershed spatial planning. Infiltration opportunity time will be low in areas with high slope and thus results in heavy runoff and there by causes severe erosion. Soil erosion is directly proportional to slope of the area along with the length of slope. South-west part of the watershed have steep slopes compared to other area. Thus more erosion can be expected from that area.

6.2 Runoff Map Runoff was estimated using Soil Conservation Society (SCS) curve number method (fig. 6.2). This was done by union of soil texture map and land use map. Later assigning Curve Number based on land, use, hydrological soil group and antecedent moisture condition. Rainfall value of 15cm was obtained for the study area when limiting to 50 years frequently and 6 hour duration. Runoff is found out in millimetre per unit area. The runoff varied from 37 mm (loamy sand under tapioca and banana mixed cropping) and 101mm (sandy clay loam under paddy cultivation). Effect of soil texture on runoff generation capacity can be clearly seen. Runoff is more from the clayey soil area. This is because the infiltration capacity of the clayey soil is very low since the porosity of these soils is very low and the soil structure is generally blocky. Sandy soils drain quickly and support infiltration and thus cause low runoff. Runoff also depends on the crop cover of the area. Dense cover crops cause retarding effect on the soil surface and increases

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infiltration. Structure for safe diversion of runoff and water harvesting and recharge structure can be planned and proposed for these areas with high runoff.

6.3 Erosion Severity Map Soil erosion severity was analysed using the Universal soil loss equation. Maps for each parameters of USLE are prepared and rasterised (fig. 6.3). Erosion of the watershed area ranges from 0 tonnes to 45 tonnes per hectare per year. Obtained raster is classified into regions of severe erosion (25-45 tonnes/ha/yr), regions of moderate erosion (10-25 tonnes/ha/yr) and regions of slight or no erosion (0-10 tonnes/ha/yr). Most of the area (73.8 ha) in Amachal watershed is fallen under moderate erosion region. Erosion was found maximum from uncultivable rocky and stony area (7.06 ha including river). Minimum erosion was in loamy soil under coconut, banana or mixed cropping (23.4 ha).

6.4 Stakeholders Attitude Map Stakeholders attitude and motivation have great significance in suggesting suitable conservation measures of the area. Attitude raster was prepared from cadastral map of Amachal watershed and displayed as a map. All the four adoption categories can be seen among the stake holders of the watershed. Majority (80.88 %) of the stake holders are reluctant towards the implementation of soil conservation interventions. 20.59 % of the stake holders are not ready to accept any soil conservation projects. So grass root level extension works should be done to change the attitudes of stake holders towards the proposed interventions and to convince them about the worse effects of soil erosion. Subsidies and supports may be provided if needed.

6.5 Prioritization Map In planning soil conservation programs, community or cooperative action is indispensable, small farms, which are characteristics in our country, do not allow for an individual farmer to have an impact on land improvement. By overlay analysis of the three maps viz, runoff, erosion severity and stake holders attitude, a prioritisation map is generated and displayed (fig. 6.4). The map shows the areas that can be given first

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priority and least priority based on the erosion and runoff characteristics with the land owners attitude. This prioritisation map will help to find the areas where the soil conservation programmes can be implemented immediately. Area got most priority will be with severe erosion, heavy runoff generation capacity and positive attitude of land owners.

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CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

Everybody has a stake in water, and a widely shared vision should therefore include the opinions of the people, inside and outside the professional water sector. Hence, an attempt has been made to accommodate the social aspects in the present study, which will be an integral part of future water resources planning and implementation. The fontend has been designed using GIS so that the mid-level planners and executives of the Kerala state Planning System can effortlessly estimate actual area to be occupied by the conservation measures in a plot. It will be not only advantageous for the planners but also to the social engineers to motivate the farmers and built congenial environment for Soil and Water Conservation Programme. The most significant aspect of this interface is its scope to be developed and formatted on the Arc-IMS platform. So that it will be available to the local people on their desk tops. In general, GIS can be successfully applied to geographical data for the integration of collection, storage, retrieving, transforming and displaying spatial data for solving complex planning and management problems in a watershed. From the present study it was clear that a large area could be studied within a short span of time by using spatial data integration using GIS.

Limitations of the study:

The concept of prioritisation has much importance in selection of micro watersheds for the implementation of watershed development projects in a larger river basins or developmental blocks. Here the area considered is a micro-watershed and prioritisation is done with in the holdings. Study is confined to this level because of the constraints in time and data availability. Along with this the following limitations are found in this study. The USLE and the SCS Curve Number method are empirical equations that do not mathematically represent the physical processes of soil erosion and runoff. And also they are not developed for Kerala conditions. So that there may be errors in the estimations. Many of the parameter values used to calculate erosion and runoff are assumed or estimated. The standard values obtained from tables may not be true for the watershed.

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The use of the USLE may not be a good predictive model for erosion in this study area because the extreme slopes throughout the watershed do not correlate well with the USLE model, which was originally developed for mild slopes in agricultural areas. The absolute estimation of soil erosion is not done in order to reduce the complexity of analysis. However, results may still be useful to understand the trend of soil erosion and to identify the areas need immediate attention. For prioritization of micro watersheds or sub watersheds the factors like ground water condition, soil erosion, runoff generation, available natural resources, agricultural production, socio-economic condition of the people living in the watershed etc. must be considered. But, here only runoff generation, soil erosion and attitude of the stake holders are considered.

Suggestions for Future Study

Further improvement can be done in the future studies by incorporating the following modifications. Study may be conducted for a larger river basin for prioritisation of microwatersheds. A full fledged study of the watershed including parameters like groundwater condition, socio-economic condition of people etc. Better models can be used, which is most suitable to the characteristics of watershed for exact estimation of erosion and runoff. Soil loss models for steep slopes may be more suitable for Kerala like highly undulated topography. Based on the prioritisation map, site suited remediation works can be suggested, designed and funds can be allocated based on the works. A fully automated decision support system can be developed for the design of structural interventions.

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