ASSGINMENT NO: 7

SUBMITTED BY: M.HAMZA

AKBAR
SUBMITTED TO:DR.MARIA
ANWAR KHAN
SUBMISSION DATE:20-10 -
2022.

TOPIC:
 Learning
a. Definition of Learning
b. Types of Learning: Classical
and Operant Conditioning
Methods of Learning: Trial and
Error; Learning by Insight;
Observational Learning

a. Definition of Learning:
The process of learning is
continuous which starts right
from the time of birth of an
 individual and continues till
the death. We all are
engaged in the learning
endeavaours in order to
develop our adaptive
capabilities as per the
requirements of the
changing environment.

John B Watson is one amongst the

first thinkers who has proven that
behavioural changes occur as a
result of learning. Watson is
believed to be the founder of
Behavioural school of thought,
which gained its prominence or
acceptability around the first half of
the 20th century.
Gales defined Learning as the
behavioural modification which
occurs as a result of experience as
well as training.
Crow and Crow defined learning as
the process of acquisition of
knowledge, habits and attitudes.
According to E.A, Peel, Learning can
be described as a change in the
individual which takes place as a
result of the environmental change.
H.J. Klausmeir described Learning
as a process which leads to some
behavioural change as a result of
some experience, training,
observation, activity, etc.
The key characteristics of the
learning process are:
1. When described in the
simplest possible manner,
learning is described as an
experience acquisition process.
2. In the complex form, learning
can be described as process of
 acquisition, retention and
modification of experience.
3. It re-establishes the
relationship between a stimulus
and response.
4. It is a method of problem
solving and is concerned about
making adjustments with the
environment.
5. It involves all those gamut of
activities which may have a
relatively permanent effect on
the individual.
6. The process of learning is
concerned about experience
acquisition, retention of
experiences, and experience
development in a step by step
manner, synthesis of both old
and new experiences for
creating a new pattern.
7. Learning is concerned about
cognitive, conative and affective
aspects. Knowledge acquisition
process is cognitive, any change
in the emotions is affective and
 conative is acquisition of new
habits or skills.
b. Types of Learning:
Classical and Operant
Conditioning Methods of
Learning: Trial and Error;
Learning by Insight;
Observational Learning

Types of Learning:
According to John B Watson which
was highlighted in his seminal
work, “Psychology as the
Behaviorist View It”, stressed on
the fact that Psychology is an
objective science, hence mere
emphasis on the mental processes
should not be considered as such
processes cannot be objectively
measured or observed.
Watson tried to prove his theory
with the help of his famous Little
Albert Experiment, by way of
which he conditioned a small kid to
be scared of a white rat. The
psychology described three types
of learning: Classical Conditioning,
Observational Learning and
Operant Conditioning.
1. Classical Conditioning: In case
of Classical Conditioning, the
process of learning is described
as a Stimulus-Response
connection or association.
Classical Conditioning theory has
been explained with the help of
Pavlov’s Classic Experiment, in
which the food was used as the
natural stimulus which was paired
with the previously neutral stimuli
that’s a bell in this case. By
establishing an association
between the natural stimulus
(food) and the neutral stimuli
(sound of the bell), the desired
response can be elicited. This
theory will be discussed in detail in
the next few articles.
2. Operant Conditioning:
Propounded by scholars like
Edward Thorndike firstly and
later by B.F. Skinner, this theory
stresses on the fact that the
 consequences of actions shape
the behaviour.
The theory explains that the
intensity of a response is either
increased or decreased as a result
of punishment or reinforcement.
Skinner explained how with the
help of reinforcement one can
strengthen behaviour and with
punishment reduce or curb
behaviour. It was also analyzed that
the behavioural change strongly
depends on the schedules of
reinforcement with focus on timing
and rate of reinforcement.
3. Observational Learning: The
Observational Learning process
was propounded by Albert
Bandura in his Social Learning
Theory, which focused on
learning by imitation or
observing people’s behaviour.
For observational learning to
take place effectively, four
important elements will be
essential: Motivation, Attention,
Memory and Motor Skills.
Methods of learning:
1. Trial and Error Method.
2. Conditional Response.
3. Learning by Insight.
4. Learning by Imitation.
5. Transfer of Training.
1. Trial and Error Method
This is the most primitive and
simplest way in which learning
occurs.
Placed in a new situation the
individual makes a number of
random movements, those which
are unsuccessful are eliminated and
successful ones are fixed. It is
learning by blundering, by trying
something and succeeding or
failing.
2. Conditional Response
This theory was evolved as a result
of the experiments by Ivan Pavlov
and Watson. It is a process of
substituting the original stimulus by
a new one and connecting the
response with it.
Pavlov carried out an experiment
on a dog. He used to ring a bell
while giving food to the dog. When
the food was placed before the dog
and the bell was rung the saliva
would secrete in the mouth of the
dog.
But it was also seen that when the
bell was rung only, but the food
was not given, the saliva started
secreting. Pavlov called the
response as ‘conditioned reflex’.
In learning by the conditioned
response, there is no choice or
freedom. A good part of the
learning of early childhood is the
result of conditioning.
3. Learning by Insight
Gestalt psychologists opposed the
trial and error method. They argue
that learning is not a blind and
mechanical process. It involves
insight into the total situation.
In learning, we use our sense along
with the motor activity. Learning by
observation is learning by insight,
learning by perceiving the
relationship in the scene and
understanding the situation.
After looking over the whole
situation the learner strives to
make some sense out of it and it
gives him clues regarding the way
he should proceed to solve the
problem, the method he should
pursue and general awareness of
the consequences of performing an
act.
4. Learning by Iimitation
Imitation is one of the most
important means of learning.
Human beings, consciously or
unconsciously, imitate the actions,
manners, and styles of his fellow
being. A child learns to walk, talk
and behave as his parents or
brothers do. It is important
therefore that the first model
should be worthy of imitation.
Imitation does not crush originality:
on the other hand, it is the first
stage in the development of
individuality and the richer scope
for imitation the richer developed
individual will be.
5. Transfer of Training
Transfer of training means that
training is transferred from one skill
to another. It has special
significance for all kinds of the
industrial training program.
Stated simply, transfer of training
deals with whether or not learning
in one situation will facilitate
learning (and therefore
performance) in subsequent similar
situations. There are three
possibilities:
a) Positive transfer: learning in one
situation enhances learning or
performance in a new situation.
b) Negative transfer: learning in
one situation inhibits learning in a
new situation.