Examples of problem solving

Lesson_1. Harmonic oscillations

Problem 1. Write the harmonic oscillation equation,
if the amplitude of the velocity ʋmax = 0.63 m / s, the oscillation period is T = 1 s,
displacement of the point x from the equilibrium position at the initial moment
time is zero. Find the amplitude of acceleration a and frequency fluctuations ν.

Solution:
The harmonic vibration equation is:

where A is the amplitude of oscillations, ω is the circular frequency of oscillations, φ0

is the initial phase of oscillations.
Oscillation speed:

The velocity amplitude is determined by the equation where

The angular frequency ω and the oscillation period T are related by the relation

so
To find φ0, we use the condition that at the time t = 0, the displacement x = 0. From
the equation

we have
Then the equation of harmonic vibrations will take the form:
According to the condition of the problem: υmax = 0.63 m / s, T = 1s. and therefore:

The acceleration of the material point of harmonic vibrations is determined by the

equation:

Acceleration amplitude

At A = 0.1m / s, T = 1 s, we get

Oscillation frequency

Problem 2. Forced oscillations are described by the differential equation:

Find the frequency of forced oscillations ω. What is the frequency of natural

oscillations of the system ω0? At what frequency is the external force will be observed
resonance ωres?
Solution:
With forced vibrations to a material point,
in addition to the quasi-elastic force and the friction force , the
driving force acts:

where ω is the circular frequency of forced vibrations.

The differential equation of forced vibrations has the form:

Comparing the original equation from the conditions of the problem with the
differential equation of forced oscillations, we come to the conclusion that:

Dividing all terms in equation (1) by 0.4, we get:

Natural vibration frequency

but so .
The circular frequency of forced vibrations at resonance is determined by the
equation:

Where is the attenuation coefficient, then:

Let's substitute numerical data into the formula (2):

Answer:

Problem 3. A steel ball with a diameter of d = 0.23 m is attached to a spring. The

circular frequency of its oscillations in the air ω0 = 5 s-1, in glycerol ω = 4 s-1.
Determine the viscosity of glycerin η under experimental conditions. Consider that
the friction force acts on the ball in glycerin Ftr = 6πηRʋ, where η is the viscosity
coefficient, R is the radius of the ball, ʋ is the speed of the ball in glycerin. Density of
steel ρ = 7700 kg / m3.
Solution:
The frequency ω of free damped oscillations of the ball in glycerin is determined by
the equation:

where ω0 is the circular vibration frequency of the ball in air, β is the damping
coefficient.
The damping coefficient β and the coefficient of resistance of the medium r are
related by the ratio:

where m is the mass of the ball.

At low speeds, the friction force

Is proportional to speed.
By the condition of the problem Ffr = 6πηRʋ, comparing formulas (1) and (3), we
come to the conclusion that r = 6πηR, then the damping coefficient is
and the circular frequency
From the last equation we find the viscosity coefficient

Because the volume of the ball V = 4 / 3πR3, then the mass of the ball is determined
by the equation:

where ρ is the density of the ball.

Substituting the mass value into equation (4) and after mathematical transformations
we get:

Substituting the data into the equation:

Task 4. Determine the phase difference in the pulse wave between two points of the
artery located at a distance Δу = 20 cm from each other. The speed of the pulse wave
is considered equal to ʋ = 10 m / s, and the oscillations of the heart are harmonic with
frequency ν = 1.2 Hz.
Solution:
A pulse wave is a plane elastic wave, the equation of which has the form:
where S is the displacement of the oscillating point in the wave relative to the
equilibrium position; ω - circular vibration frequency; y is the distance from the
source of oscillations (heart) to the point at which the displacement S is determined
and ʋ is the speed of the pulse wave.

Attitude is a phase of oscillation.

The circular and linear frequencies are related by the ratio

The phase difference is expressed as Δφ = φ2 - φ1, where φ1, φ2 are the oscillation
phases at the points with coordinates y2 and y1.

Then or
Let's substitute the numerical values in the final formula: Δy = 0.2 m, ν = 1.2 Hz,
υ = 10 m / s.
We get:

2.3. Job options

2.1. The equation of motion of the body is given in the form x = 4 - 3t.
Determine the initial coordinate of the body, the speed of movement and movement
of the body in 2 seconds.

2.2. The kinematic equation of motion of a material point along a straight line (x-axis)
has the form: x = A + Bt + Ct3, where A = 4 m, B = 2 m / s, C = - 0.5 m / s2. For the
moment of time t1 = 2 s, determine:
a) the x1 coordinate of the point; b) instantaneous speed υ1; c) instant acceleration a1.
2.3. A material point with a mass of 5 g performs harmonic oscillations with a
frequency of 0.5 Hz. The vibration amplitude is 3 cm. Determine the speed of the
point at the time moment when the offset is 1.5 cm.
2.6. The equation of oscillations of a point has the form x = A cos ω (t + τ), where
ω = π s-1, τ = 0.2 s. Determine the period T and the initial phase φ of oscillations.

2.7. Determine the period T, frequency ν and the initial phase φ of the oscillations
given by the equation x = A sin ω (t + τ), where ω = 2.5π s-1, τ = 0.4 s.

Lesson_2. Doppler effect. Sound

Problem 5. Determine the average force acting on the human eardrum (S = 66 mm2)
for two cases:
a) on the threshold of audibility; b) on the verge of pain.
The speed of sound in air is ʋ = 340 m / s.
Solution:
According to the definition, pressure P is a physical quantity numerically equal to the
force F acting on a unit of surface area S perpendicular to this surface:

Where from

The intensity I and pressure P of the sound wave are related by the ratio:

where I is the intensity of the sound wave; ρ is the density of the medium in which
sound propagates; υ is the speed of sound.
From equation (2) we find
Substituting pressure P into formula (1), we obtain an equation for the average force
acting on the tympanic membrane:

Substituting the data into formula (3) will calculate the average force: υ = 340 m / s,
I0 = 10-12 W / m2, ρ = 1.29 kg / m2, I = 10 W / m2, S = 66 10- 6 m2.
a) At the threshold of audibility I0 = 10-12 W / m2:

b) On the threshold of pain sensation I = 10 W / m2:

Problem 6. Two cars are moving towards each other at a speed ʋ1 = 20 m / s and ʋ2 =
10 m / s. The first machine gives a signal with a frequency of νi = 800 Hz. Determine
the frequency of the signal perceived by the driver of the second car: a) before the
meeting of cars, b) after the meeting of cars.
Solution:
The perceived frequency νn by the observer when the source or the observer moves
(Doppler effect) is determined by the general equation:

where νn is the frequency of the waves perceived by the observer, νn is the oscillation
frequency of the source, ʋ0 is the speed of propagation of the sound wave in the air, ʋn
and ʋu are the speeds of the observer (н – наблюдатель) and the source (и –
источник), respectively. The upper signs correspond to the oncoming traffic, and the
lower signs correspond to the movement in opposite directions. Substitute the
numerical values of the given values into the corresponding formulas, taking into
account that u = ʋ1, and ʋн = ʋ2:
a) see the cars:

b) after meeting the cars:

Problem 7. A sound wave falls on the tympanic membrane with an amplitude of

particle oscillations A = 3.4 · 10-4 and an oscillation frequency ν = 103 Hz. Determine
the intensity level I of the sound at which the tympanic membrane ruptures, assuming
that the speed of sound ʋ = 340 m / s.
Solution:
The intensity I and the volumetric energy density ωρ of the sound wave are
determined by the equation:

where ʋ is the speed of a sound wave in a medium with density ρ.

The volumetric energy density and the amplitude of particle oscillations in a sound
wave are related by the relationship:

where ρ is the density of the medium (air), A is the amplitude of particle oscillations
in the sound wave, ω is the circular frequency and is related to the linear frequency of
sound ν, the ratio:

Substituting the value from formulas (2) and (3) into formula (1), we get:

The sound intensity level is determined by the equation:

where I0 is the sound intensity at the threshold of audibility. Substituting I from
formula (4) into formula (5), we get:

Substitute the numerical values of the given quantities into the formula (6):

We get:

Problem 8. Determine the intensity of sounds with frequencies ν1 = 100 Hz and ν2 =

104 Hz, if the loudness level of sounds is the same and is equal to E = 30 Phone.
Solution:
Sound intensity level LБ and sound intensity I are related by the equation:

where I0 is the intensity level at the threshold of audibility. From this equation we find
the sound intensity

Using curves of equal loudness (see A.N. Remizov "Medical and biological physics"),
we find a correspondence between the loudness level and the intensity level for:
Lesson_3. Fluid flow. Biorheology
Problem 1. From a horizontally located medical syringe (see Fig. 2) with a diameter
of 1.5 cm is squeezed out saline with a force of F = 10 N. Find the rate of fluid flow
from the syringe needle. The density of the physiological solution ρ = 1.03 g / cm3.
The cross section of the piston is much larger than the cross section of the needle.
Solution:

Fig. 2. Distribution of fluid velocities during its movement in a medical syringe

The Bernoulli equation for a perfectly incompressible fluid in the case of a horizontal
stream tube has the form:

where p1 and p2 are statistical pressures in the sections of the piston with a diameter D
and a diameter of the needle d;

are dynamic pressures in these sections, ρ is the density of the saline

solution, ʋ1 and ʋ2 are the flow rate of the solution in the syringe and needle,
respectively.
Taking into account that p2 is equal to zero (by pressure we mean excess pressure over
atmospheric) from equation (1) we get:

For a steady flow of fluid motion, the condition of the continuity of the jet is valid:

where S1 and S2 are the section of the piston and the section of the needle.
According to the condition of the problem, the cross-section of the piston is much
larger than the cross-section of the needle, i.e. S1 >> S2, therefore, the speed ʋ1 << ʋ2
and in
in equation (2), the term with respect to р1 is neglected.
Under these assumptions, equation (2) implies:

The p1 value and the force F acting on the piston are related by the ratio:

Equation (3) takes the form:

from where

Let us express the area S in terms of the diameter D and substitute it into equation (4):

Finally, we find that the rate of fluid outflow from the needle is determined by the
equation:

Substituting numerical data into formula (5), we get:

Problem 2. Find the speed and time of complete dust settling in a room with a height
of h = 3 m. Dust particles are considered spherical with an average diameter of 2 mcm
(microns) and a density of ρ = 2.5 g / cm3.
Solution:

Fig. 3. Distribution of forces acting on a speck of dust

when it subsides

To simplify calculations, from all dust grains of different diameters, we will take one
with an average diameter d. When a grain of dust settles in the air, three forces act on
it (see Fig. 3):

1) gravity

2) the strength of Archimedes

3) the resistance force of the medium, the Stokes force:

where ρ and ρ0 are the densities of the dust grain and air, respectively, R is the radius
of the dust grain, η is the air viscosity coefficient, ʋ is the settling rate of the dust
grain.
With a steady (uniform) motion of a dust grain in a gravity field, the following
equality takes place:

In scalar form:
Substituting the values FT, TC, FA into formula (1), we get:

From equation (2) we find the sedimentation rate of the dust grain:

Let's substitute the numerical data ρ = 2.5 · 103 kg / m3; ρ0 = 1.29 kg / m3; R = 10-6 m;
g = 10 m / s2; η = 17.5 10-6 Pa∙s into formula (3), knowing that R = d / 2 (d is the
diameter of the dust grain):

Time of complete settling of particles in a room height h = 3 m, under the condition

of complete immobility of the air and the absence of Brownian motion, we find from
the formula:

Substituting data into formula (4), we get:

Problem 3. Determine the maximum amount of blood that can pass through the aorta
in 1 s, so that the flow remained laminar. The diameter of the aorta D = 2 cm, blood
viscosity η = 5 · 10-3 Pa · s.
Solution:
The mass of blood flowing in one second through the aorta with diameter D can be
found by the formula:

where ρ is the blood density, ʋ is the blood flow rate in the aorta, S is the cross-
sectional area of the aorta.
Let us express the area S through the diameter D of the aorta:
Substitute S into formula (1) and get:

The nature of the flow of a liquid through a pipe depends on the properties of the
liquid, the speed of its flow, the size of the pipe and is determined by Reynolds
number:

where η is the blood viscosity coefficient.

From formula (4) we find the fluid flow rate and substituting it into formula (3):

Substitute the numerical values into the formula (6), D = 2 · 10-2 m; η = 5 · 10-3 Pa · s;
Recr = 2300, we get:

Problem 5. Determine the pressure in the wall of a capillary with a radius of 10 µm, if
the thickness of the vessel wall is 2 µm, and the tangential stress in the wall is 8*10-5
Pa.
Solution:
Blood vessel tissue is composed primarily of collagen, elastin, and smooth muscle
fibers. The mechanical properties of blood vessels depend on the properties of the
constituents forming the vessel wall.
Let's select the cylindrical part of the vessel with length l, thickness h and internal
section of radius R (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Geometric dimensions of the capillary

Let's mentally cut the vessel into two parts along the length l (see Fig. 6):

Fig. 6. Cross section of the capillary along the length l

The two halves of the vessel interact with each other with force:

where is the stress that occurs inside the vascular wall.

This force is balanced by the forces of pressure on the cylindrical part of the vessel
from the side of the bloodstream, which are directed in different directions (in Fig. 7
indicated by arrows)

Fig. 7. Distribution of forces on the capillary wall

during blood flow
The resulting pressure force of all forces acting on the cylindrical part of the vessel
from the side of the bloodstream can be calculate as the product of the pressure P
from the side of the bloodstream by the cross-sectional area of a cylinder of length l,
i.e.:

Equating the forces F1 and F2, we get:

From this ratio we find the pressure:

Let's substitute the numerical data h = 2 ∙10-6 m; R = 10 ∙10-6 m; = 8 ∙10-5 Pa; into
the resulting expression:

Fluid flow. Biorheology

3.3. Variants of tasks for independent work

3.1. The mass m of 100 drops of alcohol flowing from the capillary is equal 0.71 g.
Determine the surface tension of alcohol, if the diameter d of the neck drops at the
time of separation is equal 1 mm.
3.3. Glycerin rose in the capillary tube to a height of h = 20 mm. Determine the
surface tension б glycerin if the diameter d of the tube channel is 1 mm.
3.4. Two dissimilar liquids are poured into communicating vessels (see fig.). The
density of the fluid in the left knee is 600 kg / m3. Find the density of the fluid in
the right knee.
 Lesson_4.
Molecular physics and thermodynamics. Physiological processes
in biological membranes
Problem 1. In the oxygen cushion, 9.93 g of gas is under some pressure. Determine
the work to be done gas when its volume changes from 2 to 6 liters, if the process
takes place at a constant temperature of 20oС.
Solution:
Let us write the first law of thermodynamics in the general case:

where is the change in the internal energy of the gas, A is the work done by the
gas against external forces. With isothermal process (T = const), the change in
internal energy is determined by the equation:

where is the number of moles of gas, i is the number of degrees of freedom of

molecules of a given gas, ΔT is the change in temperature.
By the condition of the problem, T = const, then ΔT = 0 and, therefore, ΔU = 0. From
the first law of thermodynamics it follows that Q = A.
At T = const, the pressure and volume change, and the work done by the gas when the
volume changes from V1 to V2 is determined by the expression:

where P is the gas pressure.

From the Clapeyron-Mendeleev equation, we find the pressure:

Substitute the resulting expression pressure from formula (2) into formula (1) for the
gas to work against external forces, we get:
 or
Substituting the value of physical quantities in the formula (3):

we get:

Problem 4. Find the coefficient of permeability of the plasma membrane of

Musorlasma for formamide, if at the difference in the concentration of this substance
inside and outside membrane equal to 0,5 mol/liter, its flux density through the

membrane is equal to
Solution:
Let us find the relationship between the density of the formamide flux through the
membrane and the coefficient of permeability of this membrane. To do this, we write
down Fick's law:

where I is the density of the substance flux through the membrane, D is the diffusion
coefficient of the substance, dС/dx - concentration gradient diffusing substance.
Let us transform equation (1) as applied to biological membrane, assuming that the
concentration of the diffusing matter through the membrane changes linearly (see Fig.
8), i.e .:
Fig. 8. Distribution of the concentration of particles diffusing through biological membrane (Сi and
С0 - concentration of a substance inside and outside the cell, Cmi and Cm0 are the concentration of the
substance on the inner and outer parts of the membrane, i is the thickness of the membrane.)

It is believed that the ratio of the concentration of a substance at the boundary

membrane - solution, equal to the ratio of the concentrations of this substances in the
layers adjacent to the membrane, i.e.:

where k is the coefficient of distribution of the substance between the membrane and
the environment.

Then
We transform the expression dC/dx, which is part of Fick's law:

Substituting dC/dx from formula (2) into formula (1), we obtain:

Let us denote through P - membrane permeability coefficient.

As a result, we obtain the equation for the flow of matter through the membrane:

From equation (4) we find:

Substitute numerical data:

we get:

Problem 6. Determine the electric charge of a bilayer lipid membrane with a capacity
of 1 μF / cm, if the concentration of potassium ions, at a temperature of 27 ° C, inside
and outside the membrane, respectively, is 10-3m and 10-5m.
Solution:
According to the definition, the electrical capacity C (conductor, ball, membrane) is a
physical quantity numerically equal to the charge Δq, which must be communicated to

the membrane in order to change its potential by Δφ, i.e.

Where:

The potential difference is determined by the Nernst formula:

(for the notation in the formula, see Problem 5), then substituting Δφ from formula (2)
into formula (1), we obtain:

Let's substitute numerical data into the formula (3):

We get:

Lesson №5
Quantum optical phenomena. Atomic physics
8.1. Thermal radiation from bodies. Photoelectric effect
Problem 1. Studies of the solar radiation spectrum showed that the maximum spectral

density of the energetic luminosity falls on the wavelength = 5 · 10-7 m.

Taking the Sun as an absolute black body, determine:
1) the energetic luminosity of the Sun;
2) the flow of energy emitted by the Sun;
3) the mass of electromagnetic waves emitted by the Sun in 1 second.
Solution:
1) According to the Stefan - Boltzmann law, the energetic luminosity of the Sun Re is
expressed by the formula:

where T is the absolute temperature of the Sun.

We find the absolute temperature of the Sun from Wien's law:

where is the wavelength at which the maximum spectral density of the radiant
luminosity falls; b - Wien Constant.
From equation (2) we find the absolute temperature and substitute it into equation (1):
Energy luminosity of the Sun:

Substituting numerical data into equation (4), we get:

The energy flux Ф, emitted by the sun, is determined from the equation:

where r = 7∙10-8 (m) is the radius of the Sun.

Substituting the numerical data into equation (5), we get:

We find the mass of electromagnetic waves emitted by the sun in 1 s from the law of
proportionality of mass and energy:

where c is the speed of light in vacuum.

The energy of electromagnetic waves emitted during the time t is defined as the
product of the energy flux by the time t, i.e .:

Hence:

Where:

Having made the substitution of numerical data into the resulting equation (9), we
have:
Problem 3. Contrast agents are used for X-ray diagnostics of soft tissues. For
example, the stomach and intestines are filled with a mushy mass of barium sulfate
(BaSO4). Compare the mass attenuation coefficients of barium sulfate and soft tissue
(water).
Solution:
The absorption of X-rays is almost independent of the compound in which the atom is
present in the substance, therefore, according to the formula:

The mass attenuation coefficients for barium sulphate and for water can be
easily compared. The atomic numbers of Ba, S, O, and H are 56, 16, 8, and 1,
respectively.

We find the ratio of m1 to and, substituting the numerical data, we get:

8.9. Determine the energy luminosity of the human body at a temperature of t = 36oС,
taking it for a gray body with an absorption coefficient α = 0.9.
8.18. What energy flux is emitted by the human body at a temperature of 37oС, if we
assume that the area of the radiating surface of the body is 1.8 m2, and the absorption
coefficient at this temperature is 0.95?
8.19. How much has the human body temperature increased if the radiation flux from
the body surface has increased by 4%? The initial body temperature is 35oС.
9.2. Dosimetry
Absorbed dose - the amount of radiation energy absorbed by a unit mass of a
substance:

The unit of absorbed dose is Gray (Gy):

Equivalent dose is the absorbed dose multiplied by a coefficient reflecting the ability
of a given type of radiation to damage body tissues:

where k is the quality factor, which acts as a value of the relative biological
effectiveness. It is determined as the ratio of the absorbed dose of X-ray radiation Dri,
to absorbed dose of any other type of radiation Di and causing the same biological
effect, i.e .:

The equivalent dose is measured in Sieverts (Sv).

Effective dose is a value used as a measure of the risk of long-term consequences of
radiation of the whole human body and individual organs:

where KTK is a transition coefficient depending on a number of reasons and

primarily the irradiated substance.
The exposure dose is determined by the electric charge of ions of different signs
arising from ionization in 1 kg of dry air.
The relationship between absorbed and exposure doses is determined by the equation:
where f is the transition coefficient (for water and human soft tissues f = 1), if D is
measured in rad, then X in roentgen. The exposure dose rate is determined by the
equation:

where is a constant characteristic of a given radionuclide; a - the activity of the

radioactive preparation; r - distance from the source of ionizing radiation.

Problem 3. A body with a mass of m = 60 kg during t = 6 hours absorbed energy

E = 1 J. Find the absorbed dose D and the absorbed dose rate N.
Solution:
By definition:

Then:

The absorbed dose rate N is determined by the equation:

Having made the calculations, we get:

Problem 4.
10 g of tissue absorbs 109 α - particles with energy E = 5 MeV. Find the absorbed and
equivalent dose. The quality factor k for α - particles is 20.
Solution:
The absorbed dose is defined as:
where E0 is the energy of all α - particles.
E0 is defined as the product of the energy of one particle E by the number of α -
particles, i.e.:

Then:

We make the substitution:

The equivalent H and the absorbed dose D are related to each other by the ratio:

where k is the quality factor.

We finally get:

Problem 5.
The exposure dose rate γ - radiation at a distance r = 1 m from the point source is
P = 2.15 10-6 C / kg. Determine the minimum distance from the source at which you
can work 6 hours daily without protection. Maximum permissible equivalent dose for
occupational exposure
consider 5 · 10-2 J / kg throughout the year.

Solution:
The exposure dose rate P and the activity of the radioactive preparation a are related
by the equation:
where K γ is a constant characteristic of a given radioactive drug; r is a distance from
the source of ionizing radiation.
The permissible equivalent dose rate P1 at a distance r1 is determined by a similar
equation:

Let's find the relation:

Let us express r1:

Because:

where D is the permissible equivalent dose.

Let's calculate P1 separately:

Substitute the data into equation (4) to determine r1:

Problem 6.
Lethal dose for a person weighing 70 kg at irradiation of the whole body with X-rays
is equal to 6 Gy. How many degrees from normal will the body temperature of a
person rise with such irradiation, if we assume that the specific the heat capacity of
the human body 3.33 kJ / (kg · K)?
Solution:
An increase in human body temperature occurs at the expense of absorption of energy
by the body of X-ray radiation and is determined by the equation:

where m is the mass of the human body; С - specific heat capacity of the body
human; ΔT - temperature change.
From this equation (1) we find ΔT:

Energy and radiation dose are related by the ratio:

then:

Substituting numerical values into formula (4), we get:

Tasks for independent work

9.10. When the X-ray flux passed through the bone tissue, it was weakened by a
factor of two. Given that the bone layer was 20 mm thick, find the linear attenuation
coefficient.

9.16. In 10 g of tissue, 109 α-particles with an energy of about E = 5 MeV are

absorbed. Find the absorbed and equivalent dose.
The quality factor k for α-particles is 20.
9.17. Average exposure dose rate in the X-ray room is 6.45 ∙ 10-12 C / (kg ∙ s). A
doctor is during the day 5 hours in this office. What is his radiation dose in six
working days?

9.19. At what distance from a preparation with 100 mCi of radium can one be located
so that the equivalent dose for a six-hour working day does not exceed the permissible
daily dose for professionals?
Note
The SI unit of radioactivity is becquerel (Bq, Bq). 1Bq = 1 decay per second. In addition,
sometimes they use a historically formed, non-systemic unit - curie (Ki, Ci). Activity in 1 Ci
is possessed by 1 g of radium (226Ra) with equilibrium with radon. 1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq.
Due to the fact that the becquerel value insignificant, and curie - cumbersome, multiples and
sub-multiples are also used activity.
9.20. The exposure dose rate at a distance of 10 cm from the source is 85 mR / h. At
what distance from the source can one be without protection if the permissible dose
rate is 0.017 mR / h?

5.2. D.C. Current in metals, electrolytes and gases

Problem 3. Between two electrodes, to which a constant voltage U = 36 V is applied,
there is a part of living tissue.
Conventionally, we can assume that the tissue consists of two layers of dry skin (see
Fig. 11) and muscles with blood vessels. The thickness of each layer of the skin is l1 =
0.3 mm, the thickness of the inner tissue is l2 = 9.4 mm. Find the current density and
voltage drop in the skin and in muscle tissue, considering them as conductors.
Solution:
This system can be viewed as three conductors connected in series with each other.

Fig. 11. Scheme for determining the total resistance

of a part of living tissue
 The total resistance of the system is determined by the formula:

where R1 is dry skin resistance, R2 is muscle tissue resistance.

Resistance is defined as:

where ρ1 and ρ2 are the specific electrical resistances of dry skin and muscle tissue,
respectively; S is the cross-sectional area of the system.
Substituting formulas (2) into formula (1), we obtain:

By definition, the current density is equal to:

where I is the current flowing through the living tissue.

Ohm's law for a chain section:

Then the current density will be equal to:

Let us substitute numerical values in formula (6), taking into account that we find ρ1
and ρ2 from the table: ρ1 = 105 Ohm m, ρ2 = 2 Ohm m.

The drop in tension in the skin is determined by the equation:

The drop in tension in muscle tissue is defined as:

Substituting the numerical values into formulas (7) and (8), we obtain:

Problem 4. Between the plates of a flat capacitor with an area of S = 250 cm2 each,
there is hydrogen in a volume of V = 375 cm3. The concentration of ions in the gas is
n0 = 5.3 · 107 cm-3. Which voltage must be applied to the plates to obtain current force
I = 2 μA.
Solution. The voltage U on the plates of the capacitor is related to the strength E of
the electric field and the distance d between the plates by the ratio:

The field strength can be found from the expression for the current density:

where q is the charge of the ion, u + and u– are the mobilities of positive and
negative ions.
From this equation (2) we find E:

The volume of space between the plates of the capacitor is as follows:

whence d is equal to:

Substituting E and d into the original formula (1), we get:

From the table we find u+ and u-:

Substituting the data into the formula, we get:

Section 6. Electromagnetism
6.1. Basic laws and concepts of electromagnetism
Problem 6. A capacitor of C = 5 · 10-5 F and a self-induction coil with inductance
L = 0.2 H and ohmic resistance R0 = 0.4 Ohm are connected in series to an alternating
current network with voltage U

= 110 V and frequency ν = 100 Hz. Define:

a) the effective current in the circuit; b) current frequency at which voltage resonance
occurs in this circuit; c) the current in the circuit and the voltage at the terminals of
the coil and on the capacitor plates at resonance of voltages.
Solution:
The condition of this problem corresponds to the electrical circuit (Fig. 14), in which
the role of the active resistance is played by the ohmic resistance R0 of the coil itself.
 Fig. 14. Electrical circuit corresponding to the condition of task 6

a) The effective current strength is determined by the formula:

where
Substituting numerical values into formula (1), we get:

b) The resonant frequency is determined from the condition that:

Because ωres = 2πνres, then:

c) Resonant current intensity Ires arising under condition (2),

is equal to:

After substitution, we have:

The total value of (UL) res and (UC) res is found from the ratio:

Then: