KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS

DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

BACHELOR OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

BHM 111: CAREER GUIDANCE AND MANAGEMENT

 BHM 111: Career Guidance and Management

Unit Key Concepts:

Career development theories; career clusters; career awareness; assessment of values, interests,
personality and skills and how they relate to the world of work; career planning; career
mapping; career paths; career ladders; workplace, professional and basic skills; characteristics
for professional success; communication, teamwork and leadership; effect of environmental
factors on career development; economic, sociological, psychological, physical, educational, and
chance factors on career shaping. Effective career decision-making process; problem solving
models; critical-thinking skills and career decisions; employment trends in global economy.

Mode of Delivery

 Lectures

 Group discussions

 Assignments

 Classroom presentation

Examinations:

 Continuous Assessments tests (30%)

 Final Examination

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course the student should be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the concept of career
2. Compare and contrast major theories of career development and analyse their
implications for approaches to career development.
 3. Enumerate methods of career counselling

4. Explain the diagnostic methods of career development.

References

1. Anderson, P. & Vandehey, M (2012), Career counselling and development in a global

economy, 2nd edn, Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA.
2. Baer, T.E. (1976). The ways of information for career development. Boston: Houghton
House Muffin Company.
3. Omotosho, J.A. (1999). Prevalence of mid-life career change among males: Challenges
for counsellors and leaders in the next millennium the counsellor 17(1) 170-174.
4. Peterson, J.A. (1970). Counselling and Values. Scranton : International Textbook
5. Zunker,V.G. (1981). Career Counselling: Applied Concepts of Life Planning. Monterey,
C.A.: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
Table of Contents
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO CAREER GUIDANCE AND MANAGEMENT...............7
What is a career?..........................................................................................................................7
Career Clusters.............................................................................................................................7
Components of Career Clusters...................................................................................................7
Benefits of Career Clusters..........................................................................................................8
TOPIC 2: CAREER DEVELOPMENT......................................................................................9
Career Development....................................................................................................................9
Career Development Theories...................................................................................................10
Roe’s Personality Development Theory.................................................................................10
Super’s Theory of Career Development.................................................................................14
Trait and Factor Theory..........................................................................................................18
Krumboltz Theory of Career Development............................................................................18
TOPIC 3: CAREER PLANNING AND MAPPING................................................................20
Career planning..........................................................................................................................20
Importance of career planning...................................................................................................20
Process of career planning.........................................................................................................21
Step 1: Self-assessment..........................................................................................................21
Step 2: Self-development.......................................................................................................22
Step 3: A thorough research on self-development.................................................................22
Step 4: Making decisions.......................................................................................................23
Step 5: Action.........................................................................................................................23
TOPIC 4: CAREER MANAGEMENT.....................................................................................24
Career Management...................................................................................................................24
Career Management Framework................................................................................................25
 Other Issues in Career Management..........................................................................................27
Career choice..........................................................................................................................27
Career (occupation) changing................................................................................................28
Career success........................................................................................................................28
Career support........................................................................................................................29
Provision of career support.................................................................................................30
Types of career support.......................................................................................................30
Career Counselling.................................................................................................................31
Benefits......................................................................................................................................32
TOPIC 5: ROLE OF ORGANIZATIONS IN CAREER MANAGEMENT.........................32
Organizations Career Management Initiatives...........................................................................32
Aligning employee needs and opportunities..............................................................................33
The Role of HR in Employee Career Management...................................................................34
Developing Traditional Career Paths and Ladders.................................................................35
Non-traditional Methods of Career Progression....................................................................35
Employer-Employee The career planning process....................................................................36
References.....................................................................................................................................37
 TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO CAREER GUIDANCE AND MANAGEMENT

What is a career?

A career is an occupation or profession, especially one requiring special training, followed

as one's lifework. The term career is used to describe an occupation or a profession that usually
involves special training or formal education, and is considered to be a person’s lifework. In this
case "a career" is seen as a sequence of related jobs usually pursued within a single industry or
sector e.g. "a career in education" or "a career in the building trade. Better examples include
Lawyer, Accountant, Priest, Economist etc. the job or series of jobs that you do during your
working life.

Career Clusters

Where do you start when choosing a career? With the number of career choices out there, it helps
to organize your options. Career clusters are one way to group career choices. Careers with
common features are in the same cluster. Clusters can be used during career exploration as a
way to find ones’ best career match.

Components of Career Clusters

1. Career Fields: This are the broadest level of career options. They're a good place
to start exploring careers.
 2. Career Clusters: Underneath career fields are career clusters. This is where you
find more details about careers fields that interest you. Careers with the same
knowledge and skills are grouped in the same cluster. Each cluster may include
hundreds of different careers.

3. Career Pathways: Each career cluster includes one or more career pathways. A
pathway is a group of related career specialties within the career cluster. A
pathway has its own knowledge and skill requirements. Educational programs can
be developed around each pathway. They include curriculum that helps learners
prepare for a career. Programs of study are sequential and based on industry
expectations and skill standards. Career pathways show learners of all ages which
courses will give them the specific knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to
pursue their career choice.

The knowledge and foundation skills needed for academic and technical literacy are:

 Employability
 Ethics

 Systems

 Teamwork

 Career development

 Problem solving

 Critical thinking

 Information technology application

 Legal responsibilities

 Communication

 Safety, health, and environment

  Social studies

 Math

 Science

 English

 Personal finance

Benefits of Career Clusters

Why use career clusters to explore careers and plan your future? Thinking ahead and preparing
for careers is helpful if you are headed to the workplace or an institution of higher learning.
Some careers that are common today may not be needed tomorrow. And all careers require
flexibility, knowledge, and skills. All in all, Career Clusters help in the following ways:
 Think big. Career clusters help you take a broad look at your options through the
different career fields and the options within each field.
 Get excited. Choices seem endless, but remember you're in control. Exploring clusters
can get you excited about your options as you discover what's best for you.

 Save time. Exploring groups of similar occupations helps you select and eliminate
choices more quickly than researching many individual occupations.

 Spend wisely. Make wise decisions about what you're going to study. Don't declare a
major quickly and then realize halfway through the program that a different career
interests you more.

 Take control. Base your career choice on your own dreams and interests. Career clusters
help you learn about all the types of careers available so you don't leave the decision to
chance.

 Stand out. Grab employers' attention by knowing the skill requirements and knowledge
for specific fields and jobs.
 TOPIC 2: CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Career Development

 The lifelong psychological and behavioral processes as well as contextual influences

shaping one’s career over the life span. As such, career development involves the
person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles,
values expression, and life-role self-concepts.
 Career Development is the lifelong process of managing learning, work, leisure, and
transitions to move toward a personally determined and evolving preferred future.
In educational development, career development provides a person, often a student, focus
for selecting a career or subject(s) to undertake in the future.

In organizational development, the study of career development looks at:

 How individuals manage their careers within and between organizations and,
 How organizations structure the career progress of their members, it can also be tied into
succession planning within most of the organizations.

In today's world, more employers are looking for ways to facilitate career development and
encourage their employees to drive their own careers.

In personal development, career development is:

 The total constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic,
and chance factors that combine to influence the nature and significance of work in the
total lifespan of any given individual.

The evolution or development of a career - informed by

(1) Experience within a specific field of interest (with career, job, or task specific skills as
by-product)

(2) Success at each stage of development,

(3) educational attainment commensurate with each incremental stage,

 (4) Communications (the capacity to analytically reflect your suitability for a given job
via cover letter, resume, and/or the interview process), and

(5) understanding of career .development as a navigable process.

Career Development Theories

Roe’s Personality Development Theory

Roe’s (1956) theory focuses on early relations within the family and their subsequent influence
on career choice. Roe classifies occupations into two major categories: person oriented and non-
person oriented. Empirical investigations of Roe’s theory have generally failed to provide
validation, and the theory itself is difficult to implement in research terms. Roe’s major con-
tribution appears to be her emphasis of the impact of childhood experiences on career
development and her job classification system.
Trained as a clinical psychologist, Roe began her theory development through observations of
artists and research scientists focusing on “possible relationships between occupational behavior
(not just choice) and personality” (Roe & Lunneborg, 1990, p. 68). In looking at other studies,
Roe identified and categorized a list of needs involving persons’ feelings concerning work.
Common threads in these studies were bodily well-being, a need for food, a need for activity,
and a need for self-realization through work. Roe argued that people do not work just to earn a
living but that “much more is involved in and expected of a job than a pay check” (p. 23). Roe
determined that occupations form a major focus of individuals’ lives through thoughts and
activities, e.g., “in our culture, social and economic status depend more on the occupation (of the
individual, the father, or even less frequently now, the husband) than on any other one thing-even
wealth” (p. 69). Roe turned to Maslow’s (1948) hierarchy of needs including physiological
needs, safety needs, need for belonging and love, need for importance, respect, self-esteem,
independence, need for information, need for understanding, need for beauty, and a need for self-
actualization. Maslow’s theory suggested that people place greater urgency on basic needs such
as food, shelter, and safety before being capable of expressing needs on the higher levels, and,
consequently, these other needs remain unachievable to the average individual until those basic
needs are satisfied. Roe believed that occupations in modern society can provide satisfaction at
all levels of need.

Roe (1957) saw the interaction of heredity and environment as important in causing a child to
develop a person or nonperson orientation, and to lead an individual to select an occupation that
requires either high or low levels of interaction with others. Roe (1957) wrote extensively in
describing her theory, but it has been summarized by others (Osipow, 1973; Walsh & Osipow,
1983) as follows:

1. Limits of potential development are set by genetic inheritance including intellectual

abilities, temperament, interests, and abilities.
2. General cultural background and socioeconomic status of the family affect unique
individual experience.
3. Individual experiences governed by involuntary attention determine the pattern of
development of interests, attitudes, and other personality variables that have not been
genetically controlled.
4. Early satisfactions and frustrations resulting from the family situation, particularly
relations with parents; i.e., overprotectiveness, avoidance, or acceptance of the child.
5. Degrees of needs satisfaction determine which of Maslow’s (1948) needs will become the
strongest motivators.
6. The eventual pattern of psychic energies, i.e., attention-directed, is the major determinant
of interests.
7. The intensity with which an individual feels (Maslow, 1948) needs and the satisfaction of
needs determine the degree of motivation to accomplish.

Roe (1956) was dissatisfied with available classifications of occupations and developed a list of
eight occupational groups including service, business contact, organization, technology, outdoor,
science, general culture, and arts/entertainment. Each group was divided into 6 levels of
responsibility, capability, and skill needed to perform at each level.

Holland’s Personality Theory

John Hollands’ theory is one that has generated the most research and has the most influence on
the career practice of psychologists and counselors. According to Holland (1985), the choice of a
career is an extension of one’s personality into the world of work. Individuals choose careers that
satisfy their preferred personal orientations. Holland developed six modal personal styles and six
matching work environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and
conventional. A person is attracted to the particular role demand of an occupational environment
that meets his or her needs. For example, someone who is socially oriented would seek out a
work environment that provides interactions with others, such as nursing in a hospital setting.
Holland’s theory assesses each individual in terms of two or three most prominent personality
types and matching each type with the environmental aspects of potential careers. It is predicted
that the better the match, the better the congruence, satisfaction, and persistence (Holland, 1985).

Holland’s work with the theory of careers can be traced back to his military experience during
World War II. As an induction interviewer, he hypothesized that people could be classified into a
relatively small number of types. Holland later counselled students at Case Western Reserve
University, and physically disabled and psychiatric patients at a Veterans Administration
Hospital. These experiences reinforced his belief about classification (Weinrach & Srebalus,
1990).

Holland’s (1985) theory contends that every individual resembles one of six basic personality
types, and as a result, manifest some of the behaviors and traits associated with that type.
Holland also defined six environments, declared that environments are characterized by the
people who occupy them, and stated that an environmental type can be assessed by surveying the
occupants of the environment. Holland’s (1985) theory is built on four basic assumptions:

1. Most persons can be categorized as one of six types: realistic, investigative, artistic,
social, enterprising, or conventional.
2. There are six kinds of environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising,
or conventional.
3. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities,
express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles.
4. Behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and environment.

Holland (1985) defines the types as follows:

 1. Realistic people have a preference for activities that entail the explicit, ordered, or
systematic manipulation of objects, tools, machines, and animals. Realistic people have
an aversion to educational or therapeutic activities.
2. Investigative people have a preference for activities that entail the observational,
symbolic, systematic, and creative investigation of physical, biological, and cultural
phenomena in order to understand and control such phenomena. Investigative people
have an aversion to persuasive, social, and repetitive activities.
3. Artistic people have a preference for ambiguous, free, unsystematized activities that
entail the manipulation of physical, verbal, or human materials to create art forms or
products. In addition, artistic people have an aversion to explicit, systematic, and ordered
activities.
4. Social people have a preference for activities that entail the manipulation of others to
inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten. Social people have an aversion to explicit,
ordered, systematic activities involving materials, tools, or machines.
5. Enterprising people have a preference for activities that entail the manipulation of others
to attain organizational goals or economic gain. Enterprising people have an aversion to
observational, symbolic, and systematic activities/
6. Conventional people have a preference for activities that entail the explicit, ordered,
systematic manipulation of data, such as keeping records, filing materials, reproducing
materials, organizing written and numerical data according to a prescribed plan, operating
business machines and data processing machines to attain organizational or economic
goals. Conventional people have an aversion to ambiguous, free, exploratory, or
unsystematized activities.

Holland (1985) revised his belief that individuals could be characterized as belonging to a single
one of the six types to a belief that one of the six types will predominate and other subtypes
influence the person’s personality. All six types are represented in a person’s total profile, but
Holland developed a system of defining personalities based on the three most prevalent types
found in the individual. A three-letter code was used to describe personality types. The code
called RAI would describe a person who is realistic, artistic, and investigative.
Super’s Theory of Career Development
Donald Super’s (1953) life span developmental theory includes five major stages. The first,
growth, occurs from birth to ages 14 or 15 and is characterized by the development of attitudes,
interests, needs, and aptitudes associated with self-concept. During the exploratory stage (ages
15 through 24), occupational choices are narrowed, and the establishment stage (ages 25 through
44), is characterized by work experience. From ages 45 to 65 the person experiences a continual
adjustment process to improve the working situation. Finally, during the decline phase (ages 65
and over) there is reduced work output and eventual retirement.

Super’s (1990) theory of career development is a “loosely unified set of theories dealing with
specific aspects of career development, taken from developmental, differential, social,
personality, and phenomenological psychology and held together by self-concept and learning
theory”. Super felt that in a sense, there is no “Super theory”, but rather, the synthesizing of ideas
and concepts. Though Super himself was continually seeking to more clearly define an accurate
model of career development, his theory is considered a well-ordered, highly systematic
representation of the process of vocational maturation. Building on the ideas presented by others
e.g Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma, Super felt the need to formulate a theory that
incorporated their ideas and their attempt to formulate a theory.

Super took the notion of self-concept which is described as an individual’s self-descriptive and
self-evaluative thoughts revealed by behavior. Super said “an individual’s self-concept is his
concept of himself, not inferences made by outside others”. Super noted that self-concept
formation happens during several phases.

The first phase of self-concept formation is exploration. Exploration necessary for self-concept
development takes place throughout the life span as individuals adapt to their ever changing
environments. Super defined specific parts of the exploration process as differentiation,
identification, role playing, and reality testing with each being an important part of exploration.

The second phase of self-concept formation is translation which can occur in three ways. First,
adolescent identification with adults may lead to a desire to portray the occupational role filled
by an adult, but role playing or reality testing may lead the adolescent to discard the role.
Second, role playing or reality testing may allow adolescents to discover that their self-concept
and role concept are congenial. Last, adolescents may discover self-attributes that are thought to
be important in a certain field of work, therefore leading to conformation that the field of
endeavor might be enjoyable and one in which an individual might do well.

The third phase of self-concept development is implementation or actualizing. As one’s

education is completed, individuals move into their chosen profession for which education and
training have been received. Or in the case of individuals who have failed to prepare for a career,
a poor occupational self-concept will often be reinforced by low paying jobs or loss of jobs.
Evolving over several years, Super defined fourteen propositions concerning the role of abilities
and interests, self-concepts, life stages, and person-situation interactions in his theory.

Super’s propositions are:

1. People differ in their abilities and personalities, needs, values, interests, traits, and self-
concepts.
2. People are qualified, by virtue of these characteristics, each for a number of occupations.
3. Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits, with
tolerances wide enough to allow both some variety of occupations for each individual and
some variety of individuals in each occupation.
4. Vocational preferences and competencies, the situations in which people live and work,
and, hence, their self-concepts change with time and experience, although self-concepts,
as products of social learning, are increasingly stable from late adolescence until late
maturity, providing some continuity in choice and adjustment.
5. This process of change may be summed up in a series of life stages (a maxicycle)
characterized as a sequence of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and
decline, and these stages may in turn be subdivided into the fantasy, tentative, and
realistic phases of the exploratory stage and the trial and stable phases of the
establishment stage. A small (mini) cycle takes place in transitions from one stage to the
next or each time an individual is destabilized by a reduction force, changes in type of
manpower needs, illness or injury, or other socioeconomic or personal events. Such
 unstable or multiple-trial careers involve new growth, re-exploration, and re-
establishment (recycling).
6. The nature of the career pattern-that is, the occupational level attained and the sequence,
frequency, and duration of trial and stable jobs-is determined by the individual’s parental,
socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics (needs,
values, interest trails, and self-concepts), and career maturity and by the opportunities to
which he or she is exposed.
7. Success in coping with the demands of the environment and of the organism in that
context at any given life-career stage depends on the readiness of the individual to cope
with these demands (that is, on his or her career maturity), Career maturity is a
constellation of physical, psychological, and social characteristics; psychologically, it is
both cognitive and affective. It includes the degree of success in coping with the demands
of earlier stages and substages of career development, and especially with the most
recent.
8. Career maturity is a hypothetical construct. Its operational definition is perhaps as
difficult to formulate as is that of intelligence, but its history is much briefer and its
achievements even less definitive. Contrary to the impressions created by some writers, it
does not increase monotonically, and it is not a unitary trait.
9. Development through the life stages can be guided, partly by facilitating the maturing of
abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and in the development of
self-concepts.
10. The process of career development is essentially that of developing and implementing
occupational self-concepts. It is a synthesizing and compromising process in which the
self-concept is a product of the interaction of inherited aptitudes, physical makeup,
opportunity to observe and play various roles, and evaluations of the extent to which the
results of role playing meet with the approval of superiors and fellow (interactive
learning).
11. The process of synthesis of or compromise between individual and social factors,
between self-concepts and reality, is one of role playing and of learning from feedback,
whether the role is played in fantasy, in the counseling interview, or in such real-life
activities as classes, clubs, part-time work, and entry jobs.
 12. Work satisfactions and life satisfactions depend on the extent to which the individual
finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personality traits, and self-
concepts. They depend on establishment in a type of work, a work situation, and a way of
life in which one can play the kind of role that growth and exploratory experiences have
led one to consider congenial and appropriate.
13. The degree of satisfaction people attain from work is proportional to the degree to which
they have been able to implement self-concepts.
14. Work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization for most men and
women, although for some persons this focus is peripheral, incidental, or even non-
existent. Then other foci, such as leisure activities and homemaking, may be central.
(Social traditions, such as sex-role stereotyping and modeling, racial and ethnic biases,
and the opportunity structure, as well as individual differences, are important
determinants of preferences for such roles as worker, student, leisurite, homemaker, and
citizen).

Super’s (1990) propositions are particularly important to explain why and how adolescents use
information about self as they cycle through the exploration life stage. Super pointed out that
interests are learned and as such are manifestations of self-concept. Information about self is
needed in the development of self-concept, and it is important that this information be available
to the student at the time and in the amount needed. Super pointed out that “if a student or an
adult has given little thought to occupational choice or to the unfolding of a career, he or she is
not likely to be ready to use aptitude, ability, interest, or value data in planning the next stage or
steps in a career”. Super prescribed a plan for career exploration, and it called for guiding the
adolescents through the exploratory life stage by facilitating the maturing of abilities and
interests, by aiding in reality testing, and in the development of self-concepts.

Super also laid out measures of career maturity that provide a yardstick for determining an
individual’s progress through the life stages. Super’s five developmental tasks occurring within
the exploratory stages are:

a) Concern with vocational choice,

b) Increased vocational information, comprehensive and detailed planning,
 c) Increasing consistency of vocational choice,
d) The crystallization of traits relevant to vocational choice, and
e) Increasing wisdom of vocational preferences.

Trait and Factor Theory

Among the early theorists on career development, Frank Parsons in Choosing a Vocation
(Boston, 1909) argued that a wise vocational choice was made first by studying the individual,
second by understanding the relevant characteristics of occupations, and finally by matching the
individual with the occupation. This process, called the trait-and-factor theory, became the
foundation for many career counseling programs and is still in use today. It has led to the
development of assessment instruments, as well as to the study of individual job requirements.
This theory focuses on individual traits but does not account for changes in values, interest,
skills, achievement, and personality over the course of a lifetime. Thus, although assessments
based on the trait-and-factor approach are quite useful in career counseling, this theory is
generally considered to be quite limited.

Krumboltz Theory of Career Development

Krumboltz’s (1979) theory of career development is grounded in social learning theory and in
classical behaviorism. It also incorporates the more recent ideas from self-efficacy theory and
cognitive-behavioral theory. This theory incorporates many factors, each of which has a different
impact on the person in his or her career decision making. First, genetic endowment may expand
or limit options for each individual. Included in genetic endowment are set factors (sex, race,
developmental disabilities), as well as those innate talents that a person can choose to develop.
Second, career decisions are influenced by environmental conditions and events beyond a
person’s control. such as cultural norms and economy. The third factor is individual learning,
which can occur both instrumentally (e.g., being rewarded for writing may lead to an interest in
being a journalist) and associatively (e.g., watching a movie in which a policeman is seriously
injured may reduce the desire to go into law enforcement). Learning experiences include
acquiring (or failing to acquire) work habits and problem-solving skills. Finally, Krumboltz
highlights the importance of what he calls self-observation generalizations. That is, people
compare their own performance, skills, and abilities with some standard and draw conclusions
about their competence and worth. These conclusions are used in making responses to future
situations. If the conclusions reached are not reasonable but rather unrealistic or inappropriate,
their images of themselves as workers, may be damaged. For example, a girl may not believe
that she could be capable in math, and so she avoids math-related activities and career
possibilities. In summary, Krumboltz sees career development as unique for the individual and
believes that most of the influences on career development and career choice (e.g., interests. self-
concept) are capable of being altered at any point in life.
Krumboltz’s theory built on the work of Bandura to develop his revised theory which posits two
major types of learning experiences that result in individual behavioral and cognitive skills and
preferences that allow people to function effectively in the world. First, is instrumental learning
experiences which occur when a person is positively reinforced or punished for the exercise of
some behavior and the associated cognitive skills. Second, is associative learning experiences
which occur when people associate some previously affectively neutral event or stimulus with an
emotionally laden event or stimulus. Within these factors, Krumboltz developed a number of
testable propositions and determined that equal importance rests on the inverse influence of each.
Listed here are the basic propositions of Krumboltz theory of career Development:

1. An individual’s occupational or academic interests at any point in time are reflective of

his or her concurrent self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations.
2. An individual’s occupational interests also are influenced by his or her occupationally
relevant abilities, but this relation is mediated by one’s self-efficacy beliefs.
3. Self-efficacy beliefs affect choice goals and actions both directly and indirectly.
4. Outcomes expectations affect choice goals and actions both directly and indirectly.
5. People will aspire to enter (i.e., develop choice goals for) occupations or academic fields
that are consistent with their primary interest areas.
6. People will attempt to enter occupations or academic fields that are consistent with
choice goals, provided that they are committed to their goal, and their goal is stated in
clear terms, proximal to the point of actual entry.
7. Interests affect entry behaviors, (actions) indirectly through their influence on choice
goals.
 8. Self-efficacy beliefs influence career-academic performance both directly and indirectly
through their effect on performance goals. Outcome expectations influence performance
only indirectly through their effect on goals.
9. Ability (or aptitude) will affect career/academic performance both directly and indirectly
through its influence on self-efficacy beliefs.
10. Self-efficacy beliefs derive from performance accomplishments, vicarious learning,
social persuasion, and physiological reactions (e.g., emotional arousal) in relation to
particular educational and occupationally relevant activities.
11. As with self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations are generated through direct and
vicarious experiences with educational and occupationally relevant activities.

Outcome expectations are also partially determined by self-efficacy beliefs, particularly when
outcomes (e.g., successes, failures) are closely tied to the quality or level of one’s performance.

TOPIC 3: CAREER PLANNING AND MAPPING

Career planning

Career planning applies the concepts of Strategic planning and Marketing to taking charge of
one's professional future. Career is an ongoing process and so it needs to be assessed on
continuous basis. This process of re-assessing individual learning and development over a
period of time is called Career Planning. Therefore, Career planning is an ongoing process
whereby an individual sets career goals and identifies the means to achieve them.

Career planning is the continuous process of:

 Thinking about your interests, values, skills and preferences;
 Exploring the life, work and learning options available to you;

 Ensuring that your work fits with your personal circumstances; and 

 Continuously fine-tuning your work and learning plans to help you manage the changes
in your life and the world of work. 
Importance of career planning

 gives you the much-needed direction and makes it clear there where you see yourself in
future.

 It makes you aware of your strength and weaknesses and the skills and knowledge that
are required to achieve your goals in future.

 it is very important to make sure that right steps were taken and correct planning was
done in the early years of your life.

 . But majority of us are not sure what we want from life and so it in very important to
plan out things.

 Thus career planning is what gives your career and in some way your life, true meaning
and purpose.

Process of career planning

The process of career planning is also known as career development stages and career
development model. These steps help you in planning your career and deciding about your
future.

Step 1: Self-assessment

This is the first step. Self-assessment is a process that helps you in assessing your skills, your
potential, your strengths and your ability to fulfill your aims. As the name of the step suggest,
you assess yourself and then, based on your analyses and keeping your strengths and weaknesses
in mind, you draft your future plan. By drafting your future plan we mean that executing this step
helps you to finalize the profession and career path you want to choose. Make sure that you
choose and finalize more than one career, keep one or two careers in case you decide to roll
back. In case the career you chose does not satisfy you or later in time you come to know that
this was not meant for you then in that case you must have a backup plan.

Begin by thinking about where you are now, where you want to be and how you’re going to get
there.  Once you have thought about where you are at now and where you want to be, you can
work on getting to know your skills, interests and values.  One can begin by asking the following
questions:
 Where am I at now?
 Where do I want to be?

 What do I want out of a job or career?

 What do I like to do?

 What are my strengths?

 What is important to me?

At the end of this step one will have a clearer idea of your work or learning goal and your
individual preferences. You can use this information about yourself as your personal ‘wish list’
against which you can compare all the information you gather in the proceeding steps.

Step 2: Self-development

Once you have self-analyzed yourself, the second step that awaits your attention is to fill the
loopholes you have identified in the above step. By this we mean that in this step you have to see
that what are the qualities and skills that are required by you to help you achieve your aims and
goals
This step is about exploring the occupations and learning areas that interest you. Once you have
some idea of your occupational preferences you can research the specific skills and qualifications
required for those occupations.
 Explore occupations that interest you and ask yourself how do my skills and interests
match up with these occupations?
 Where are the gaps?

 What options do I have to gain these skills or qualify for these occupations? 

 What skills do I need?

 Where is the work?

At the end of this step you will have a list of preferred occupations and/or learning option. For
instance you might decide that you need training or a particular course in a field in order to make
you perfect for the profession you have chosen.

It could be that you are interested in painting but you are not much aware of the trends or the
knowledge that is required for this field. Or there can be a case where you are interested and
much aware about a profession like teaching but you do not yet know that what is the niche level
that is meant for you like and the subjects you can carry off pretty well.

Step 3: A thorough research on self-development

Once you have listed the careers that are favorable in your case and the skills and improvements
that are required by you in order to achieve excellence the third step requires you to do an
intensive research and see that what that are findings related to career options and the skills that
are required to make you champion in that. You research will be looking into following
questions:

 What is the scope of the career you have chosen?

 Will that career pay you off in the future?

 Is there room for expansion in that career field?

 Come up with action form

Once you have researched the feasibility of the factors that you have finalized in above steps, the
next step is to show some action and translate your plans on a piece of page. This step requires
you to make plan as in how you are going to achieve and fulfill the steps you have decided
above. The best way to come with an action plan is to come up with small goals for oneself.
Once these small goals are achieved, we can see that how much close we are to our main aim and
major goal. This small step acts as a path way to the main aim.  

Step 4: Making decisions

This step involves comparing your options, narrowing down your choices and thinking about
what suits you best at this point in time. Here it is important to ask oneself the following
questions:

 What are my best work/training options?

 How do they match with my skills, interests and values?

 How do they fit with the current labour market?

 How do they fit with my current situation and responsibilities?

 What are the advantages and disadvantages of each option?

 What will help and what will hinder me?

 What can I do about it?

At the end of this step you will have narrowed down your options and have more of an idea of
what you need to do next to help you achieve your goals.

Step 5: Action

Once you are done with small goals and the main aim, the next step remains to start
implementing your plans. Keep a very close track of your activities to make sure that you are on
the right track and that by following this path you are surely going to achieve you goal!

Here you plan the steps you need to take to put your plan into action. Use all you have learnt
about your skills, interests and values together with the information you have gathered about the
world of work to create your plan.  Begin by asking yourself:

 What actions/steps will help me achieve my work, training and career goals?
 Where can I get help?

 Who will support me?

At the end of this step you will have:

  A plan to help you explore your options further (eg work experience, work shadowing or
more research); or
 A plan which sets out the steps to help you achieve your next learning or work goal

TOPIC 4: CAREER MANAGEMENT

Career Management

Career management describes the active and purposeful management of a career by an

individual. Career management is the combination of structured planning and the active
management choice of one's own professional career. Career management was first defined in a
social work doctoral thesis by Mary Valentich as the implementation of a career strategy through
application of career tactics in relation to chosen career orientation. These concepts are defined
as below:

1. Career orientation refers to the overall design or pattern of one's career, shaped by
particular goals and interests and identifiable by particular positions that embody these
goals and interests.
2. Career strategy pertains to the individual's general approach to the realization of career
goals, and to the specificity of the goals themselves. Two general strategy approaches are
adaptive and planned.
3. Career tactics are actions to maintain oneself in a satisfactory employment situation.
Tactics may be more or less assertive, with assertiveness in the work situation referring to
actions taken to advance one's career interests or to exercise one's legitimate rights while
respecting the rights of others.

Career success is seen as managing one's career effectively through the attainment of desired
positions and other rewards. The outcome of successful career management should include
personal fulfillment, work/life balance, goal achievement and financial security.

As earlier defined, career includes all types of employment ranging from semi-skilled through
skilled, and semi-professional to professional. Careers have often been restricted to an
employment commitment to a single trade skill, profession or business firm for the entire
working life of a person. In recent years, however, a career now includes changes or
modifications in employment during the foreseeable future.

Career Management Framework

The following is a framework and a guideline involved in Career Management:

1. Development of overall goals and objectives,

2. Development of a strategy (a general means to accomplish the selected goals/objectives),

3. Development of the specific means (policies, rules, procedures and activities) to

implement the strategy, and

4. Systematic evaluation of the progress toward the achievement of the selected

goals/objectives to modify the strategy, if necessary.

Goals or objectives development

The career management process begins with setting goals/objectives. A relatively specific
goal/objective must be formulated. This task may be quite difficult when the individual lacks
knowledge of career opportunities and/or is not fully aware of their talents and abilities.
However, the entire career management process is based on the establishment of defined
goals/objectives whether specific or general in nature. Utilizing career assessments may be a
critical step in identifying opportunities and career paths that most resonate with someone.
Career assessments can range from quick and informal to more indepth. Regardless of the ones
you use, you will need to evaluate them. Most assessments found today for free (although good)
do not offer an in-depth evaluation.

The time horizon for the achievement of the selected goals or objectives - short term, medium
term or long term - will have a major influence on their formulation.

1. Short-term goals (one or two years) are usually specific and limited in scope. Short-term
goals are easier to formulate. Make sure they are achievable and relate to your longer
term career goals.
 2. Intermediate goals (3 to 20 years) tend to be less specific and more open ended than
short-term goals. Both intermediate and long-term goals are more difficult to formulate
than short-term goals because there are so many unknowns about the future.

3. Long-term goals (Over 20 years), of course, are the most fluid of all. Lack of life
experience and knowledge about potential opportunities and pitfalls make the formulation
of long-term goals/objectives very difficult. Long-range goals/objectives, however, may
be easily modified as additional information is received without a great loss of career
efforts because of experience/knowledge transfer from one career to another.

4. Making career choices and decisions – the traditional focus of careers interventions. The
changed nature of work means that individuals may now have to revisit this process more
frequently now and in the future, more than in the past.

5. Managing the organizational career – concerns the career management tasks of

individuals within the workplace, such as decision-making, life-stage transitions, dealing
with stress etc.

6. Managing 'boundaryless' careers – refers to skills needed by workers whose employment

is beyond the boundaries of a single organization, a workstyle common among, for
example, artists and designers.

7. Taking control of one's personal development – as employers take less responsibility,

employees need to take control of their own development in order to maintain and
enhance their employability.

Key skills include the ability to reflect on one's current career, research the labour market,
determine whether education is necessary, find openings, and make career changes.

Other Issues in Career Management

In Career Management is not a static event but rather a process that may involve other sub-
actions and activities taking place. Some of these may include:
Career choice

According to Behling and others, an individual's decision to join a firm may depend on any of
the three factors viz. objective factor, subjective factor and critical contact.
 Objective factor theory assumes that the applicants are rational. The choice, therefore,
is exercised after an objective assessment of the tangible benefits of the job. Factors may
include the salary, other benefits, location, opportunities for career advancement, etc.
 Subjective factor theory suggests that decision making is dominated by social and
psychological factors. The status of the job, reputation of the organization and other
similar factors plays an important role.

 Critical contact theory advances the idea that a candidate's observations while
interacting with the organization plays a vital role in decision making. For example, how
the recruiter keeps in touch with the candidate, the promptness of response and similar
factors are important. This theory is more valid with experienced professionals.

These theories assume that candidates have a free choice of employers and careers. In reality the
scarcity of jobs and strong competition for desirable jobs severely skews the decision making
process. In today’s business economy where there are high unemployment rates; this maybe
skewed. In many markets employees work particular careers simply because they were forced to
accept whatever work was available to them.

When choosing a career that's best for you, there are multiple things to consider. Some of
those include:

1. natural talents,
2. work style,
3. social interaction,
4. Work-life balance,
5. Whether or not you are looking to give back,
6. Whether you are comfortable in the public eye,
7. Dealing with stress or not, and
8. Finally, how much money you want to make.
In today's workplace, choosing a career doesn't necessarily mean you have to stick with that line
of work for your entire life. Make a smart decision, and plan to re-evaluate down the line based
on your long-term objectives.

Career (occupation) changing

Changing occupation is an important aspect of career and career management. Over a lifetime,
both the individual and the labour market will change; it is to be expected that many people will
change occupations during their lives. Data collected by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
through the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth in 1979 showed that individuals between the
ages of 18 and 38 will hold more than 10 jobs.

The following reasons may necessitate career changing.

 The downsizing or the restructuring of an organization.

 New challenges or opportunities that arise.

 Poor or ineffective leadership.

 Having a poor relationship with a manager(s).

 For the improvement of work/life balance.

 Contributions are not being recognized.

 For better compensation and benefits.

 For better alignment with personal and organizational values.

 Personal strengths and capabilities are not a good fit with an organization.

 The financial instability of an organization.

 An organization relocated.

Career success
Career success is a term used to refer to the extent and ways in which an individual can be
described as successful in his or her working life so far. Traditionally, career success has often
been thought of in terms of earnings and/or status within an occupation or organisation. This can
be expressed either in absolute terms (e.g. the amount a person earns) or in relative terms (e.g.
the amount a person earns compared with their starting salary). Earnings and status are examples
of objective criteria of success, where "objective" means that they can be factually verified, and
are not purely a matter of opinion.

Many observers argue that careers are less predictable than they once were, due to the fast pace
of economic and technological change. This means that career management is more obviously
the responsibility of the individual rather than his or her employing organisation, because a "job
for life" is a thing of the past. This has put more emphasis on subjective criteria of career
success. These include:

1. Job satisfaction,
2. Career satisfaction,
3. Work-life balance,
4. A sense of personal achievement, and
5. Attaining work that is consistent with one's personal values.

A person's assessment of his or her career success is likely to be influenced by social

comparisons, such as how well family members, friends, or contemporaries at school or college
have done.

The amount and type of career success a person achieves is affected by several forms of career
capital. These include:

1. Social Capital (the extent and depth of personal contacts a person can draw upon),
2. Human capital (demonstrable abilities, experiences and qualifications),
3. Economic capital (money and other material resources which permit access to career-
related resources), and
4. Cultural capital (having skills, attitudes or general know-how to operate effectively in a
particular social context).
Career support

There are a range of different educational, counseling, and human resource management
interventions that can support individuals to develop and manage their careers. Career support is
commonly offered while people are in education, when they are transitioning to the labour
market, when they are changing career, during periods of unemployment, and during transition to
retirement. Support may be offered by career professionals, other professionals or by non-
professionals such as family and friends.

The activities may take place on an individual or group basis, and may be face-to-face or at a
distance (including helplines and web-based services). They include career information
provision, assessment and self-assessment tools, counselling interviews, career education
programmes (to help individuals develop their self-awareness, opportunity awareness, and career
management skills), taster programmes (to sample options before choosing them), work search
programmes, and transition services."

However this use of the term "career guidance" can be confusing as the term is also commonly
used to describe the activities of career counselors.

Provision of career support

Career support is offered by a range of different mechanisms. Much career support is informal
and provided through personal networks or existing relationships such as management.

Types of career support

Key types of career support may include:

 Career information describes information that supports career and learning choices. An
important sub-set of career information is labour market information (LMI), such as
salaries of various professions, employment rate in various professions, available training
programs, and current job openings.
 Career assessments are tests that come in a variety of forms and rely on both
quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Career assessments can help individuals
 identify and better articulate their unique interests, personality, values, and skills to
determine how well they may match with a certain career. Some skills that career
assessments could help determine are job-specific skills, transferable skills, and self-
management skills. Career assessments can also provide a window of potential
opportunities by helping individuals discover the tasks, experience, education and
training that is needed for a career they would want to pursue. Career counselors,
executive coaches, educational institutions, career development centers, and
outplacement companies often administer career assessments to help individuals focus
their search on careers that closely match their unique personal profile.

 Career counseling assesses people's interests, personality, values and skills, and helps
them to explore career options and research graduate and professional schools. Career
counseling provides one-on-one or group professional assistance in exploration and
decision making tasks related to choosing a major/occupation, transitioning into the
world of work or further professional training.

 Career education describes a process by which individuals come to learn about

themselves, their careers and the world of work. There is a strong tradition of career
education in schools, however career education can also occur in a wider range of other
contexts including further and higher education and the workplace.

Much career support is delivered face-to-face, but an increasing amount of career support is
delivered online and today there are organizations that have set-up to primarily help people in
this area.

Career Counselling

Career Counseling is a process that will help you to know and understand yourself and the
world of work in order to make career, educational, and life decisions.

Career counseling and career guidance are similar in nature to other types of counseling, e.g.
marriage or psychological counseling. What unites all types of professional counseling is the role
of practitioners, who combine giving advice on their topic of expertise with counseling
techniques that support clients in making complex decisions and facing difficult situations. The
focus of career counseling is generally on issues such as career exploration, career change,
personal career development and other career related issues.

Career counseling or career guidance includes a wide variety of professional activities which
help people deal with career-related challenges. Career counselors work with adolescents seeking
to explore career options, experienced professionals contemplating a career change, parents who
want to return to the world of work after taking time to raise their child, or people seeking
employment. Career counselling is also offered in various settings, including in groups and
individually, in person or by means of digital communication.

Benefits

 Professional career counselors can support people with career-related challenges.

 Through their expertise in career development and labor markets, they can put a person's
qualifications, experience, strengths and weakness in a broad perspective while also
considering their desired salary, personal hobbies and interests, location, job market and
educational possibilities.

 Through their counseling and teaching abilities, career counselors can additionally
support people in gaining a better understanding of what really matters for them
personally, how they can plan their careers autonomously, or help them in making tough
decisions and getting through times of crisis.

 Finally, career counselors are often capable of supporting their clients in finding suitable
placements/ jobs, in working out conflicts with their employers, or finding the support of
other helpful services.

TOPIC 5: ROLE OF ORGANIZATIONS IN CAREER MANAGEMENT

Organizations Career Management Initiatives

Organisations devise and implement several initiatives in order to develop their careers. More
significantly of them are career planning workshops, career counselling, sabbaticals, personal
development plan and career workshop.

Career Planning Workshops: structured workshop are available to guide employees

individually through systematic self - assessment of values, interest, abilities, goals and
development plans. During Workshop employees are made to define and match specific career
objectives with the company needs. These workshops are designed to guide individuals to figure
out their strength and weakness, job and career opportunities and necessary steps for reaching
their goals.

Career Counselling: Helps employees their employees discuss their career goals in one to one
counselling sessions. Along with goals, other variables identified are capabilities, interest and
current job activities and performance. While some firms make counselling a part of the periodic
performance appraisal. Career counselling is usually voluntary. Career counselling may be
provided by the HR Staff, managers, supervisors or consultant.

Sabbaticals: These are temporary leaves of absences, usually at reduce amount of pay. Periodic
leaves or sabbaticals help employees in terms of refreshing their learning and rejuvenating their
energies.

Personal Development Plan: In these employees write their own personal development plans.
Such development plans include development needs and actions plans to achieve them. A
Personal Development Plan could be the nucleus of a wider career plan such as setting out
alternative long term strategies, identifying one’s long term needs and setting out plan of self-
development.

Career Workbooks: these consist of questions and exercises designed to guide individuals to
figure out their strengths and weakness, job and career opportunities and necessary for reaching
their goals. Many workbooks are tailor-made for particular firm and can be completed in several
sessions. Workbooks generally contains organisation’s career policy, career options available in
the organization, organization structure and job satisfactions along the career ladders.

Aligning employee needs and opportunities

Employees usually feel more engaged when they believe that their employer is concerned about
their growth and provides avenues to reach individual career goals while fulfilling the company's
mission. A career development path provides employees with an ongoing mechanism to enhance
their skills and knowledge that can lead to mastery of their current jobs, promotions and transfers
to new or different positions. Implementing career paths may also have a direct impact on the
entire organization by improving morale, career satisfaction, motivation, productivity, and
responsiveness in meeting departmental and organizational objectives.

Aligning the employee's career goals with the strategic goals of the organization not only helps
the organization achieve its goals but also helps the organization in the following ways:

 Differentiate itself from labor market competitors Employers can easily differentiate
themselves from competitors by investing in their employees' career development by
investing in training and development. . Even a relatively small employer investment has
a positive impact on loyalty
 Keep younger workers. Employees' views of work and growth opportunities vary by
generation. For example, Generation Y workers (those born between 1980 and 1987) are
the least likely to be interested in pay increases and most likely to be interested in
learning new skills. They are also more likely to value a career path than any other
generation. Randstad also found that high percentages of Generations Y and X (those
born between 1965 and 1979) want pathways to personal growth.
 Retain key workers. Managing employee perceptions of career development
opportunities is a key to enhancing engagement and loyalty among employees.
Organizations should identify workers who are central to the execution of business
strategy and then develop or update retention plans to meet the needs and expectations of
these employees. Critical workers include those who drive a disproportionate share of
key business outcomes, significantly influence an organization's value chain or are in
short supply in the labor market. Providing identifiable career paths is an important
aspect of retention plans, along with coaching and mentoring employees with high
potential and moving proven performers into new roles that fit skills developed over time.

The Role of HR in Employee Career Management

HR professionals have new and varied roles to play in developing and implementing career
paths.

 HR should encourage employees to take control of their own ladders.

 Though an organization can provide resources and tools to assist employees in

developing their skills and abilities, the organization is no longer the sole option that
employees have.

Developing Traditional Career Paths and Ladders

Corporate-wide initiatives around career planning can be as simple as role-playing with

managers on how to discuss career interests or use career mapping with their employees. More
complex initiatives involve developing formal career paths for all positions within the
organization. Traditional career ladders are based on the assumption that the individual wishes to
continue to climb the ladder as long as he or she is able to and that the employer continues to
provide opportunities.

Non-traditional Methods of Career Progression

In today's business environment, many organizations are unable to advance all employees up
traditional career ladders due to low turnover, limited growth or financial constraints. In such
situations, other kinds of development opportunities offer ways to retain and engage employees,
including

 job redesign,

 job rotation,

 dual career ladders,

 horizontal career paths, accelerated and "dialed down" career paths, and encore career
paths.
Job redesign

As organizations have experienced downsizing, new technologies and demographic changes, the
result has been flatter organizations that provide less opportunity for career advancement via
promotions. Job redesign is an important ingredient in continuing to challenge employees to do
their best work.

Job redesign can provide increased challenges and opportunities for employees to get more out
of their jobs while staying on the same rung of their ladders. Commonly used job redesign
strategies are job enlargement and job enrichment.

 Job enlargement involves broadening the scope of a job by varying the number of

different tasks to be performed

 . Job enrichment involves increasing the depth of the role by adding employee

responsibility for planning, organizing and controlling tasks of the job.

These strategies can be used to add variety and challenge to a job while also allowing the
individual to learn new skills and to further refine and develop existing skills to better prepare for
advancement opportunities when they do occur. However, when jobs are enlarged but not
enriched, motivational benefits are unlikely. Although the distinction between job enlargement
and enrichment is fairly straightforward, employees may not correctly perceive the changes as
enrichment or as enlargement

Job rotation

Job rotation is an effective method to provide job enrichment from an employee's perspective. It
involves the systematic movement of employees from job to job within an organization.
Typically, formal job rotation programs offer customized assignments to promising employees in
an effort to give them a view of the entire business. Assignments usually run for a year or more.
Rotation programs can vary in size and formality, depending on the organization.

Dual career ladders

A dual career ladder is a career development plan that allows upward mobility for employees
without requiring that they be placed into supervisory or managerial positions. This type of
program has typically served as a way to advance employees who may have particular technical
skills or education but who are not interested or suited to management.

Employer-Employee The career planning process

The career planning process involves both the organization and the individual responsibility.
Thus, the individuals must identify their aspirations and abilities, and through assessment and
counseling to understand their needs of training and development; the organization needs to
identify its needs and opportunities, to plan its employees and to ensure its staff the necessary
information and appropriate training for career development.

Self- assessment Reality check Setting goals Planning activities

1. Self-assessment assists employees in setting goals, values, skills and behavioral trends.
Psychological tests are used as „Inventory goals Strong – Campbell” (it helps employees to
identify occupational and professional goals) and „self quest” (it identify the employee’
preferences for different working environments - sales, consulting, etc.) which contributes to
identify the level of emphasis on work and leisure. Career counselors are often used to assist
employees in self-evaluation process and in interpreting test results.

2. Reality check: the employees are informed on how the company assess their skills and
knowledge and what place they took on company plans (eg opportunities for promotion, lateral
moves). Usually, this information is provided by the direct managers in the performance
evaluation process; the discussion on career development can take place separately.

3. Setting goals: Employees establish the short and long term career objectives that are related to
concerned professional positions, the necessary level of competence, setting steps forward,
learning new skills. These objectives are discussed with the manager and recorded in the
individual development plan.
4. Planning activities: during this phase, the employees determine how to achieve short and
long term career goals. These plans may include attending lectures and seminars, applications to
fill vacancies within the company or participating in interviews.

References
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economy, 2nd edn, Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA.
2. Baer, T.E. (1976). The ways of information for career development. Boston: Houghton
House Muffin Company.
3. Omotosho, J.A. (1999). Prevalence of mid-life career change among males: Challenges
for counsellors and leaders in the next millennium the counsellor 17(1) 170-174.
4. Peterson, J.A. (1970). Counselling and Values. Scranton : International Textbook
5. Zunker,V.G. (1981). Career Counselling: Applied Concepts of Life Planning. Monterey,
C.A.: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.