Chapter 2

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Mechanics

It is a physical science that deals with the state of rest or motion of bodies under the influence
of forces (compressive, tensile and shear).

Fluid Mechanics

It is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest and in motion.

Fluid
Is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress.

A Fluid may be a Liquid or Gas.

Liquid
A liquid occupies a fixed volume and forms a horizontal free surface.

Gas
A gas fills the container which holds it, and it does not form free surface.

The main differences between liquids & gases are

▪ Liquids are practically incompressible whereas gases are compressible.

▪ Liquids occupy a definite volume and have a free surface whereas a given mass of gas
expands until it occupies all portion of any containing vessel.

Fig.2.1 Behaviour of a fluid (liquid and gas) in a container.

1
Units of Measurements

There are two fundamental systems of units.

Metric system

Quantity Symbol Main unit Fractions

Mass M kg gr

Length L m cm

Time T sec msec

Force F N dyne

English system

Quantity Symbol Main unit Fractions

Mass M lb slug

Length L ft in

Time T sec msec

Force F lbf

The International System of Units [SI Units]

The Basic Units

Quantity Symbol Name of Unit Symbol

Length L Metre m

Mass M Kilogram kg

Time t Second sec

Kelvin or
Temperature T K= °C+273
Celsius

2
The Derived Units

Quantity Symbol Name of Unit Symbol

Frequency ƒ Hertz Hz = 1/sec

Force F Newton N = kg. m/s2

Energy E Joule J = N. m

Work W Joule J = N. m

Heat Q Joule J = N. m

Power P Watt Watt = J/s

Pressure P Pascal Pa = N/m2

Stress τ Pascal Pa = N/m2

Fluid Properties

Mass (m)

It is the amount of matter contained in the substance.

The principle of mass conservation is [the mass cannot be created nor destroyed] Unit of
mass [kg].

Volume (V)

It is the amount of space occupied by the substance. Unit of volume [m3].

1 m3 = 1000 Liter

Density (  )

It is the mass per unit volume. It changes with pressure & temperature. Unit of density
[kg/m3].
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 at standard conditions.
3
Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3 at standard conditions.

Weight Density or Specific Weight (  )

It is the weight of fluid contained in a unit volume. Unit of weight density [ N/m 3 ].
𝑤
𝛾=
𝑉
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 [ Newton's 2nd law]
𝑚𝑔
𝛾=
𝑉
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔

Relative Density (r.d) or Specific Gravity (s.g)

It is the density of a substance relative to that of water at a specified temperature & pressure.

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑟. 𝑑 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏
𝑟. 𝑑 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏
𝑟. 𝑑 =
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Specific Volume (v)

It is reciprocal of density. Unit of v [m3 /kg].

𝑉 1
𝑣= =
𝑚 𝜌

4
Compressibility, Elasticity

All fluids may be compressed by the application of pressure. Fluids are elastic media this
means that elastic energy can be stored in fluids. If we plot (P) versus V/Vo then the slope
of this curve at any point is known as the bulk modulus of elasticity (Unit of Bulk modulus
of elasticity N/m2). Bulk modulus of elasticity is the measure of compressibility of a fluid.
P
Compressive Stress

dP
dV VO

Volumetric Strain 𝑉 Τ𝑉𝑜

Figure 1 fluid compressibility.

1
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
If the compressibility = 0 then

Bulk modulus = ∞ and the fluid is incompressible.

𝐸𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2 ∗ 106 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

𝐸𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 100 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

𝐸𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 2 ∗ 106
= = 20 000
𝐸𝑎𝑖𝑟 100

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

5
 𝑑𝑝
𝐸=−
𝑉
𝑑[ ]
𝑉𝑜

For liquids the value of E is taken as constant for practical purposes. Thus,

∆𝑝
𝐸=− 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜
∆𝑉
[ ]
𝑉𝑜

For gases the equation may be written more generally as.

𝑑𝑝
𝐸=− 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑉
𝑑[ ]
𝑉𝑜

Other forms can be derived for gases as follows:

𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝜌 = 0

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝜌
=−
𝑉 𝜌
For an Isothermal processes (constant temperature)
𝑃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑐 𝑑𝜌
𝑃
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝜌
𝜌
Thus,
𝐸=𝑃
For an adiabatic process
𝑃
=𝑐
𝜌𝑘
Thus,
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑃

6
Sonic Speed (Celerity) [C]

𝑑𝑃
𝐶=√
𝑑𝜌

𝐸
𝐶=√
𝜌

Where:

C = sonic speed [M]

For adiabatic atmosphere we can write.

𝑘𝑝
𝐶=√
𝜌

𝐶 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇

Where,

k is specific heats ratio

Mach Number (M)

𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑀=
𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑣
𝑀=
𝐶

7
Example

Calculate the sonic speed in atmosphere when temperature = 25 °C

Solution

𝐶 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇

𝑘 = 1.4

𝑅 = 287 𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔. °𝐾

𝑇 = 25℃ + 273.15

𝑇 = 298.15 °𝐾

𝐶 = √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 298.15

𝐶 = 346.12 𝑚Τ𝑠

Example

What is the pressure required to reduce a given volume of water by 1 %, if,

𝐸𝐻2𝑂 = 2 ∗ 106 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Solution.

∆𝑃
𝐸=−
∆𝑉
𝑉𝑜

∆𝑉 = −0.01𝑉𝑜

∆𝑃
2 ∗ 106 = −
−0.01𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑜

∆𝑃 = 2 ∗ 104 𝑘𝑃𝑎

8
Viscosity:

Viscosity is the property of fluid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses. It
results from cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers. It is the
fluid resistance to flow.

The coefficient of dynamic viscosity (  ):

The constant of proportionality in the relationship

𝑑𝑣
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

𝜇 is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity (or viscosity). It arises from the
intermolecular cohesion forces and molecular momentum exchange. It is affected by
temperature, but hardly affected by pressure (within practical limits). The viscosity of
liquids decrease with the increase of temperature, while the viscosity of gases increase with
increase of temperature. The unit of the coefficient of dynamic viscosity is [Pa.s].

Kinematic Viscosity (𝝂):

𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌

Where,

𝑚2
𝜈 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 [ ]
𝑠

9
Newtonian Fluids:
The fluid in which the shear stress  is directly proportional to the rate of angular
deformation is known as a Newtonian Fluid.

Non-Newtonian
Fluids

Solid
Ideal
Shear Stress

Ideal
Fluid
Rate of Strain

Fig. Rheological behaviour of fluids.

The rate of angular deformation is:

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝐿
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑡
but
𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡
Therefore,
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑣
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
for Newtonian fluids, the shear stress is directly proportional with velocity gradient or

𝑑𝑣
𝜏∝ dL
𝑑𝑦
F

Therefore,
b b
dy 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑣 a
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

Where 𝜇 is the constant of proportionality and the slope of the curve. The above

proportionality does not apply to non-Newtonian fluids such as tooth paste, blood…...etc.

10
Thin Films:

• Two boundaries separated by a thin film of fluid or a single layer of height (h),

Fig. A thin film of fluid.

𝜐
𝜏=𝜇 a linear velocity profile.
ℎ

• Two coaxial cylinders separated by a thin film of fluid.

Stationary
Cylinder

Fluid

Fig. Two coaxial cylinders separated by a thin film of fluid.

𝑑𝑠
𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜔
𝜏 = 𝜇. 𝑟
𝑑𝑟
𝑑 𝑣
𝜏 = 𝜇. 𝑟 ( )
𝑑𝑟 𝑟
𝑑𝑣 𝑣
𝜏=𝜇 −𝜇
𝑑𝑟 𝑟

11
Surface tension & Capillarity:

Due to the unbalanced force on the molecules at the free surface of a liquid, these molecules
pulled inwards to the center of the liquid. The liquid free-surface acts as a membrane
between the air and the rest of liquid body.

Surface tension (  ):

Is defined as the force in the liquid surface per unit length of a line drawn in the surface.
The Unit of 𝜎 = [𝑁/𝑚].

Capillary Rise & Depression

Hg
Water

Cohesion > Adhesion

Cohesion < Adhesion

Fig. Change of liquid surface due to capilarity.

𝜋𝑑 2
𝜎𝜋𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
4
4𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑

𝜃 = 0𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜃 = 130𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦

12
Pressure in a Droplet:

𝑃𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝜎
𝑝𝜋𝑟 2 = 2𝜋𝑟𝜎
2𝜎
𝑃=
𝑟

Fig. The free-body diagram of half a droplet

Pressure in a Bubble
The bubble has two interfaces with air. Therefore,

𝑃𝐴 = 2 ∗ 2𝜋𝑟𝜎
𝑃𝜋𝑟 2 = 4𝜋𝑟𝜎
4𝜎
𝑝=
𝑟

Fig. The free-body diagram of half a bubble.

13
Vapour Pressure 𝑃𝑣 (for liquids):
The negative pressure (gauge) at which a liquid starts to boil is called the vapour pressure
of that liquid.

As the temperature increases, the vapour pressure increase till the boiling point is reached
at the ambient pressure. Water boils at 100°C, which is the temperature at which the vapour
pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure 1.03 Kg/cm2.

14
Example

A vertical gap 25 mm wide of infinite extent contains oil of relative density 0.95 and
viscosity 2.4 Pa.s. A metal plate 1.5 m  1.6 mm weighing 45 N is to be lifted through the
gap at a constant speed of 0.06 m/sec. Estimate the force required?

Solution
Assuming a unit width of plate.

𝐹𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 + 𝐹𝑏𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 + 𝑊

𝐹𝐿 = 𝐹𝑆 + 𝑊 − 𝐹𝑏
𝑊 = 45 𝑁
𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑔𝑉
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏
𝑟𝑑 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
0.95 =
1000
𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 950 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝐹𝑏 = 950 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 1.5 ∗ [1.6 ∗ 10−3]
𝐹𝑏 = 22.36 𝑁
𝐹𝑠 = 𝜏𝐴𝑠
𝐴𝑠 = 2 ∗ [1.5 ∗ 1]
𝐴𝑠 = 3 𝑚 3
𝑣
𝜏=𝜇∗
ℎ
0.06
𝜏 = 2.4 ∗
0.0117
𝜏 = 12.307 𝑁Τ𝑚2
𝐹𝑠 = 3 ∗ 12.307
𝐹𝑠 = 36.92 𝑁
𝐹𝐿 = 45 + 36.92 − 22.36
𝐹𝐿 = 59.56 𝑁

15
Example

A piston of 50 mm diameter moves within a cylinder of 50.1mm diameter. Determine the

percent decrease in force necessary to move the piston when the lubricant warm up from 0
to 120°C use crude oil viscosity.

Solution

50.1 mm
50 mm

The viscosity of crude oil varies with temperature as follows:

𝜇0° = 1.8 ∗ 10−2  𝑃𝑎. 𝑠

𝜇120° = 2.1 ∗ 10−3  𝑃𝑎. 𝑠
𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = 𝐴𝜇
𝑑𝑟
0
−𝐹 𝑟𝑜
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑣 𝐴𝜇 𝑟𝑖
−𝐹 𝑟𝑜
−𝑣 = 𝐿𝑛
2𝜋𝜇𝐿 𝑟𝑖
𝜇𝑣𝐿
𝐹=
3.18 × 10−4
𝐹0° = 56.605𝑣𝐿

𝐹120° = 6.604𝑣𝐿
𝐹0° − 𝐹120°
∆𝐹𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 = × 100 %  = 88.3 %
𝐹0 °

16
Example

A piece of pipe 300 mm long weighing 13 N and having i.d of 51 mm is slipped over a
vertical shaft of 50 mm diameter and allowed to fall by its own weight. Calculate the
approximate velocity attained by the pipe if a film of oil of viscosity 25 Pa.s is maintained
between the pipe and the shaft.

Solution: 50 mm

51 mm

300 mm

𝑑𝑣
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑟
W v
𝑊 = 𝐹 = 𝜏𝐴
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = 𝐴𝜇
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = (2𝜋𝑟𝐿)𝜇
𝑑𝑟
𝑣 𝑟𝑜
𝐹 𝑑𝑟
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫
0 2𝜋𝜇𝐿 𝑟𝑖 𝑟
𝐹 𝑟
𝑣= ln 𝑟]𝑟𝑜𝑖
2𝜋𝜇𝐿
𝐹
𝑣= (ln 𝑟𝑜 − ln 𝑟𝑖 )
2𝜋𝜇𝐿
13
𝑣= (ln 0.0255 − ln 0.025)
2𝜋 ∗ 25 ∗ 0.3
𝑣 = 5.46 ∗ 10−3  𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 = 5.46 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

17
Example

Calculate the maximum capillary rise of water at (20°C) to be expected in a vertical glass
tube of 1 mm in diameter.

Solution:

𝜎𝑤 = 0.073 𝑁/𝑚2

2𝜎𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑤 𝑔𝑟

𝜃 = 0 for maximum rise

2 ∗ 0.073 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0
ℎ=
1000 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.0005

ℎ = 0.0297 𝑚

18