Developments in bridge design, with special reference to

concrete arch-type bridges in South Africa

A C liebenberg', V Triimpelmann " and R 0 Kratz "

Synopsis Introduction
This serves as an introduction to the accompanying papers on the Tsitsikama The planning, design and construct ion of three major concrete arch
bridges. A brief history is given of the evolution of bridges, with special reference to bridges within a 15 km stretch of Route 2 national highway in the
arches. Modem understanding of the design process and design criteria for
Tsitsikama near Plettenberg Bay on the southern Cape Province
bridges are discussed In the list of developments In the philosophy of structural
coastl ine were un ique opportun ities for all those involved. These bridges
engineering. The Gouritz river bridge which, together with the Storms river and
Van Staden's gorge bridges, was a forerunner of the above bridges, Is described in and others previously constructed along the Garden Route (Fig 1)
outline and the Influence of 'secondary' effects on the results of the analysis is represent in their conception, design and construction the culmination
explained. of knowledge and ·3xperience acqu ired by the engineering profession
over a period stretching far back into the history of bridge' building.
Samevattlng Bridges have fascinated mankind from the earliest recorded times.
Hlerdle dlen as Inleldlng tot die referate oor die TsltSlkama-briie. 'n Kort Apart from their civil and military importance, they are considered by
geskledenis van die ontwlkkellng van briie, met speslfleke verwyslng na boogbriie, many as symbolic of civil engineering achievement. Although the origins
word gegee. Ole hedendaagse begrip van die ontwerpproses en ontwerpskriteria
are uncertain, the evolution of the various types of bridge structures
word bespreek In die IIg van ontwikkelings in die fIIosolle van struktuur-
probably covers a period exceeding 5 000 years. One can speculate with
ingenleurswese. Die Gouritzrivierbrug, wat tesame met die Stormsrlvler-en Van
Stadens-kloolbriie, 'n voorloper was van bogenoemde briie, word in bree trekke fair certainty that modern configurations were foreshadowed in the
beskryf en die invloed van 'sekondere' effekte op die ontledlng word beskryf. earliest constructions to span rivers and gorges. Various authors
covered the major periods in the history of bridges in some detaip ,2,3 and
made reference to source material dating back more than four millenia.
• Fellow. Partner. Liebenberg & Sta nder, Consulting Engineers. Knowledge of the historical development of bridges is essential for any
•• Member, Panner, Li ebenberg & Stander, Consulting Engineers. prospective bridge designer.

experience in a wide variety of work over a period of five years in the

employ of two consulting engineering firms. I n pursuit of his ambition to
become a bridge engineer, he joined the consulting firm of Liebenberg &
Stander in 1967.
He became an associate of the firm in 1971 and a partner in 1973.
In his capacities as design engineer, associate and eventually partner,
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

he has been involved with a wide variety of structures ranging from

high-rise buildings and industrial projects to bridges.
He has been involved in the design of several major bridge structures
such as the Van Staden' Gorge Bridge, the Gouritz River Bridge and the
Dr Charles liebenberg was born in Bredasdorp in 1926 and educated at Bloukrans R.iver Bridge. as well as the design of the temporary works for
the local High School and the University of Cape Town, where he gained the Bobbejaans and Groot River Bridges.
his BSc(Eng) and PhD. He has been in practice as a consulting engineer Over recent years he has written and read and contributed to several
since t he early 1950s and founded the firm of Liebenberg & Stander technical publications and papers some of which have been read at
together with Ruben Stander. in 1954. symposia and seminars.
He 'has been commissioned by a sub-committee of the Committee of He is a member of the South African Institution of Civil Engineers and
State Road Authorities to praft a code of practice for the design of a member of the South Af rican Association of Consulting Engineers. He
highway bridges and culverts in South Africa ( TMH7), of which Parts 1 is a member of the Su b-Comm ittee on Roadworks for the Western Cape
and 2 were published in 1981 anq Part 3 is now in final draft form. He has Branch of the SAACE.
published numerous papers andcontributions to discussions, based on
research and practical experience, in professional journals of South Rolf (RO) Kratz matriculated at Paarl Boys High School in 1960 and
African and overseas Institutions. He reported on Bridges in South obtained the degree BSc( Eng) at the University of Cape Town in 1965.
Africa at the 1970 FIP Congress in Prague and at the 1978 FIP Congress After a year in the bridge section of the Cape Provincial Administration
in London ( where he also read a paper on the Gouritz River Bridge); he Roads Department, and six months on bridge construction at Ruacana
read a paper on the Bloukrans Bridge at the 1982 FIP Congress in in South West Africa, he went to Canada to further his studies. He
Stockholm. At a Colloquium of the International Association for Bridge completed his formal studies at the University of British Columbia in
and Structural Engineering held in Cambridge, u.K. in 1975, he read two Vancouver in 1969 and then worked for a year on high rise structures for
papers on the simulation of normal traffic loading on highway bridges consulting engineers in Vancouver and Toronto . In 1970 he obtained his
and the assessment of future trends in highway bridge loading. He is the Master's degree in structural engineering.
author of Chapter 36: Bridges of The handbook of structural concrete In October 1970 he joined Liebenberg & Stander, becoming a partner
published by Pitmans of London. of the firm in 1978, where he had been in charge of the computer section.
He is a Past Presidetn of the Institution, as well as of the South African As from January 1984, he has joined the staff of the Civil Engineering
Association of Consulting Engineers. He serves on the Council of the Department of the Un ivers ity of Cape Town to do research towards a
Institution, the Civil Engineering AdviSOry Council and the Building PhD degree, while at the same time acting as senior lecturer.
Industry Advisory Council and is af) Honorary Member of the Institute of He had been involved with the design and especially the analysis of
South African Architects and a member of the Permanent Committee of major bridge projects (viz the Gouritz river bridge, Bloukrans river bridge
the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering. He and the temporary works of the Groot and Bobbejaans river bridges).
is a member of Die Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns. Over the last twelve years he has contributed to and/or read several
papers at symposia, conventions and seminars.
Volker Triimpelmann graduated at Stellenbosch where he obtained the He is a committee member of the Electronic Computation Division of
degree BSc Bing. in 1962. As an engineer- in-training he gained the South African Institution of Civil Engineers.

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984 141

·f
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).
 A brief history of the development of arch bridges was probably the beginning of modern structural analYSis.
Although the history of bridges should preferably be considered in a The 19th century saw the rise of the great iron and steel bridges, in
broad context' for a proper appreciation of the underlying factors and which Great Britain took the lead, and included a large variety of
trends that shaped the course of development, a brief factual account of configurations, including several famous suspension bridges. Initially
some of the salient aspects in the development of arches in relation to the proposals were mainly in cast iron and some very bold designs were
the overall history of bridges shall be given here. This is done purely in proposed by Watt, Telford, the Stephensons, Brunei and others. A cast
the context of the accompanying papers and does not imply a general iron arch of 183 m span proposed by Telford was never built due to
preference for arches. various objections and it was many years before an arch of comparable
The development of the brick or masonry arch can be traced back to span was built in steel. I K Brunei designed the Royal Albert bridge at
the Chaldeans and Assyrians, but was apparently developed independ- Saltash, completed in 1859, in which he combined the principles of arch
ently in the Western world. Until the time of the Roman conquest of and suspension bridge to form the two 139 m main spans. For the arch
Persia, it appears that these arches mostly took the form of corbelled he used a massive wrought iron tube. In the USA a large number of
arches with a pointed profile built of brick or stone in horizontal courses. masonry arches and patented trusses, mainly of composite wood and
The first arches with voussoirs were most probably built in Egypt where wrought iron, were built for the rapidly expanding railroad system.
tombs dating from eighteen centuries BC were discovered with roofs of In the second half of the 19th century, steel superseded iron in the
elliptical profile. The Persians built arches with ogival or pointed as well superstructures of bridges although it took time before it was generally
as elliptical profiles. The Etruscans, the immediate predecessors of the accepted with confidence. It introduced the era of large steel bridges.
Romans, developed the semi-circular arch built with voussoirs. One of the famous early bridges to be built in steel was the St Louis
The Greeks had developed an elementary theory of statics and bridge over the Mississipi river designed by J BEads and completed in
Archimedes (287-212 BC) understOOd the basic conditions of equili- 1873. This was the first big bridge of steel arches to be erected by the
brium . There is, however, no evidence from ruins that they built true modern cantilever method. It consisted of three arches with a central
stone arches. Even the Romans apparently never had a full understand- span of 158 m. In 1879 the tragic collapse of the Tay bridge occurred in
ing of how arches resisted the forces generated by self weight and England and badly shook the confidence of engineers. However,
applied loads. However, they have gone down in history as the greatest significant advances were made in construction materials and a large
builders of stone-masonry arches, almost without exception of circular number of large steel arches were built. Amongst the most famous are
profile and of comparatively small span and heavy proportions. the 152 m span Victoria Falls spandrel-braced arch over the Zambezi
Little progress was made during the Middle Ages. However, the revival river, designed by Sir Ralph Freeman (Snr) (1880-1950), under the
of the arts and sciences under the leadership of men such as Leonardo direction of G A Hobson; the 298 m span Hell Gate bridge over the East
da Vinci (1451-1519) that occurred during the Renaissance, had a River in New York designed by Gustav Lindenthal and 0 H Ammann and
fundamental influence on engineering. completed in 1916; the 504 m span Bayonne bridge across the Kill van
The knowledge of what became known as the strength of materials Kull at New York, designed by Ammann and completed in 1931 ; and the
advanced significantly in the 17th century and resulted in the evolution Sydney Harbour bridge completed in 1932 with a span of 503 m. The
of various new designs in masonry and timber. The later decades of the latter bridge had been conceived by Dr J J C Bradfield after studying the
18th century saw the first application of the products of the Industrial Hell Gate bridge, but was designed for the contractor by Sir Ralph
Revolution to structural engineering in England. The first cast-iron Freeman (Snr) who also designed the 329 m span Birchenough arch
bridge to be built in the world, the famous Coal brookdale bridge, a bridge, completed in 1935, over the Sabi river in Zimbabwe. This bridge
semi-circular arch w ith a span of 30,5 m over the river Severn, built by has very slender and beautiful proportions. It was probably the first
Abraham Darby and probably based on designs by Thomas Pritchard instance of the use of wind tunnel tests on scale models to establish the
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

and John Wilkinson, was comp leted in 1779. wind forces on a structure.
In the early part of the 19th century, very significant advances were Whereas steel bridges dominated in the long span range, reinforced
made in the theory of the mechanics of materials by Navier. This work concrete gradually made progress. Francois Hennibique of France

_ _35 1m 301 m'---_ __ _ _--j

127m

VAN STADENS GROOT RIVER

----; 2e ~ m

STORMS RIVER
1'20 m BOBBEJAANSRIVIER

270m

GOURITZ
~

~~_ _ _ _~2~
7,2_m
______ _ ~~

BLOUKRANS

Fig 1: Spanning the gorges of the Garden Route

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984 143

 designed and built the first notable reinforced concrete arch, the Pont de
Chatellerault, in 1898 with spans of 40, 50 and 40 m and a rise-ta-span
ratio of approximately one-tenth. The depth of the arch at the crown is
only about one-hundredth of the span. His Resorgimento bridge in
Rome (1913), with aspan of 100 m, is considered to bea masterpiece for
that period.
Robert Maillart (1872-1940) of Switzerland made a considerable
impact with his mastery of both the technical and aesthetical aspects of
330 1\
bridge design, and with Hennebique played a leading role in establishing --I
reinforced concrete in bridge building.
Prestressed concrete developed in Europe during the early decades of
this century.
Various reinforced concrete arches varying in span from 145 m to
192 m were built in Europe before 1943 when the famous Sando arch
ID~DI
designed by S H8ggbom was completed over the Angerman river in SEeTON Tt-ROUGH ARCH

Sweden, with a span of 264 m, a thickness-ta-span ratio of 1:100 and a

rise-ta-span ratio of 0,151 . It was successfully completed after the initial SCAl E

centering, which consisted of a timber-framed tied arch, had failed and

was replaced by a timber trestle supported on piles. This bridge was a
very significant achievement at that time in terms of its span, low rise,
slender dimensions and high strength of concrete. It was only exceeded
in span twenty years later by the Arrabida arch in Portugal. Fig 2: Storms River Bridge: erection stage of arch
The most Significant development in the post-war years has been the
growth in the application of reinforced and prestressed concrete to
bridge construction. However, nine steel arches in the span range of
305 m to 518 m were built in the USA, as well as one each in En~land,
Canada and Czechoslovakia. The world's only bridge of any size built of
aluminium alloy is the fixed arch of 88 m span crossing the Saguenay
river at Arvida in Canada.
Since the Sando bridge, five reinforced concrete arches of larger span
have beenbuilt.·The world's longest span concrete arch, the mainland to
Island-of-Krk bridge near Zagreb in Yugoslavia with a span of 390 m,
was built by a cantilever method using temporary composite
trusses anchored to the banks, that were progressively constructed from
opposite ends and which incorporated portions of the arch ribs and the
spandrel columns in conjunction with temporary upper chords and
diagonals consisting of steel members and post-tensioneu steel tendons.
In South Africa some notable arch structures have been constructed
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

8S S m
in the past. In fact. the crest of the SAlCE incorporates an abstraction of
the oldest existing masonry arch at Somerset West in the Cape, which
Fig 3: Kowle River Bridge: tied arch
has been declared a historical monument.
Numerous examples, mainly of filled spandrel arches with small to Tied (or bow-string) arches such as the Kowie river bridge at Port
medium spans, exist in various parts of the country, such as the three- Alfred, completed in 1969 (Fig 3), offer an aesthetically pleasing solution
span reinforced concrete bridge over the Gcuwa river at Butterworth in for a medium span bridge where foundation conditions do not favour an
the Transkei and the bridge over the Orange river near Douglas:pue to abutting arch and where the depth of the deck structure must be kept to
road improvements, many of these bridges are being replaced by beam a minimum. Here the prestressed concrete deck which acts as a
or girder bridges. The Krantz bridge was built fifteen years ago over the horizontal tie between the arch springings is supported by vertical
Olifants river nearClanwiliiam, using the Melan method. A 93 m latticed prestressed concrete hangers which are suspended from two slender
structural steel arch served as centering during construction and as parallel reinforced concrete arches which extend above the deck,
permanently encased reinforcement to the completed concrete arch . providing a clear unobstructed river opening of 85 m between abut-
Sections of the arch were progressively cast in a sequence that ments.
minimized the bending moments in th'e steel arch during construction. Another pleasing application of concrete arches is seen in the two
In the fifties the well-known Italian Morandi had gripped the imagina- Diepsloot outfall sewer bridge structures near Johannesburg. These
tion of South African ehgineers with the design and construction of a bridges incorporate three arches, each with spans of 140, 150and 140 m,
new arch bridge over the Storms river near Plettenberg Bay, using an which support South Africa's largest sewerage pipe with an inside
innovative and daring construction method. The bridge, known as the diameter of 2,89 m.
Paul Sauer bridge, has a clear span of 100 m and is a welt known In re'cent years a number of major concrete arch bridges have been
landmark on the Garden Route (Figs 1 and 2) . Thearch was constructed constructed in various parts of the world, notwithstanding the prediction
in two halves, each consisting of two separate ribs, from opposite banks by a prominent bridge engineer some twenty years ago that concrete
with temporary hinges provided above each springing. After casting the arches would be replaced by other more economical structural configu-
half arch rib segments in near vertical positions like columns, they were rations . Due to the high cost of conventional centering and .the
temporarily prestressed and then rotated to the final pOSitions by means complexity of construction procedures on concrete arch bridges,
of a system consisting of steel ropes suspended over towers and contractors had in the subsequent years favoured concrete girder type
controlled by winches. The arch segments were jOined at the crown by bridges with mechanized and repetitive construction methods. thereby
an in situ concrete section, after which the two completed arches were minimizing skilled labour and supervision. Construction techniques
'joined transversely by in situ reinforced concrete members. such as that of the free cantilever, the suspended cantilever with cable-
A graceful steel arch spanning the Umtamvuma river near the coast on stays, the incremental launching method and various other applications
the border between Natal and Transkei was completed in 1966. It is a of launching girders, had been developed mainly forthe construction of
twa-pinned braced parabolic arch with partly suspended roadway and girder bridges. It was not until Similar techniques were applied to the
one approach span on each bank. The high-strength, low-alloy steel, design and construction of arch bridges that the concrete arch again
'Corten', was used because of its corrosion resistant properties. This became competitive on suitable bridge sites, such as deep gorges in the
bridge won the Institution's award for the most outstanding civil span range of 100 m to 400 m.
engineering project of 1966. In 1969, construction history was made in South Africa by the

144 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984

 successful application of the suspended cantilever method to a major by creative thinking. Henri Poincare referred to it as off-centre thinking
arch bridge. The Van Staden's gorge bridge (Figs 1 and 4), with a clear and more recently Edward de BonoS has developed the concept of
span of 198 m, was constructed using travelling formwork and suspen- lateral thinking, a mental process that differs fundamentally from logical
sion cables supported over temporary towers. It won the Institution thinking. 'Vertical' logic, which is suitable for applying or extending rules
award for 1971. This method of construction was however first applied or algorithms, is, however, essential for testing the validity of creative
on two small arch bridges in Wales. Whereas the conventional methods ideas.
of construction with centering as used in the early sixties on the 270 m Although there are limitless possibilities of varying the detail of design
span Amizade arch over the Parana-joki, Brasilia-Paraguay and on the conception by rearrangement of the configuration and changing the
305 m span Gladesville arch in Australia had become too costly, the type and shape of members, there do appear to be definite limits to
suspended cantilever method as well as other methods such as the significant innovative progress. This is due to the physical constraints
composite cantilever trusses used in the case of the Island-of-Krk bridge . that determine the bounds of the possible and the exhaustion of ideas
described previously, have once more made the long span arch within the range of practical configurations of structure and application
competitive. of available materials. The rate of progress has in many cases reduced as
The construction of the arch on the route between Caracas and La development approached an optimal ceiling or a threshold depending
Guaira in Venezuela, on articulated formwork supported by cables from on whether or not pertinent ideas were expended, or whether subse-
towers on the abutments, can be considered a compromise between the quent innovations were of a sufficiently revolutionary nature to initiate a
two methods. new phase. This has happened in the case of large reinforced concrete
The Gouritz river bridge near Mossel Bay (Fig 1 and 5), the highest arches, which as previously mentioned, tended to become uneconomi-'
concrete strut frame bridge in the world, with a span of 170 m, was cal and obsolete before the application of the suspended cantilever and
completed in 1976 using the suspended and free cantilever techniques. composite cantilever truss construction methods which appear to have
A description of this bridge, which won the Institution's award in 1977, is initiated a new phase in arch construction.
given later.
The three recently constructed arches in the Tsitsikama have been Design criteria for bridges
constructed by the suspended cantilever method using travelling Design criteria can be categorized into functional requirements,
formwork and suspension cables supported over temporary towers. It is
therefore clear that modern techniques which eliminate ex.pensive
centering enable the engineer to fully exploit the advantages oi the arch
in spanning wide and deep gorges with suitable founding conditions.

Developments in the understanding of the design process

The conception and selection of structural form and configuration,
the determination of the shapes and dimensions of the component
members and the arrangement of the assembly or synthesis of all the
parts to comply with the overall concept, is the most challenging and
crucial part of the design process. It provides the structural designerwith
an opportunity to participate in creative design. After having established
his brief and identified the problems, he is faced with the task of finding
conceptual solutions which have to be reduced to optimal states by what
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

is generally known as the standard design method. This method in the

form mainly used is based on a deterministic decision model which
consists of discrete steps including information research, defining
criteria, formulating assumptions, conception, arrangement and selec-
tion, synthesis, analysis, checking, appraisal and comparison, followed
by feedback with repetitive cycles including adjustments or alternative
conceptions to satisfy design criteria 'and to optimize the product.
Although the process is applied deterministically, modern practice does
recognise the neep for a probabilistic approach as discussed later.
The conceptual design of engineering ~tructures requires that the
designer have a combination of mental attributes, consisting at least of
the ability to innovate by Intuitive adaptation of existing concepts. In
more imaginative cases, the conception of original ideas comes about Fig 4: The Van Staden's Gorge Bridge
•

Fig 5: The Gouritz River Bridge

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984

Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).
 practicability, reliability, durability, total cost. aesthetic quality and such risks, even if only approximate, can be critically important,
environmental impact especially in large structures. The history of bridge building reveals
The functional requirements relate to the use of the bridge, namely to many examples of catastrophic failures such as the Tacoma Narrows
carry traffic across a span. This implies the ability to safely resist the suspension bridge in the USA which failed due to conceptual errors
loading effects of transient traffic superimposed on its selfweight, as well related to its response to wind loading. Numerous others have failed
as the effects of actions caused by natural phenomena such as wind, d(!ring construction. These disasters have taught the bridge building
earthquakes, or floods. Furthermore, the cross-section and the profile of fraternity expensive but invaluable lessons and led to greater efforts in
the bridge deck should satisfy the geometric highway standards the form of both experimental and theoretical work to understand the
necessary for the applicable class of traffic. This also applies to the actions that bridges are subjected to and their response thereto. With a
surfacing and the bridge furniture such as the balustrades. proper understanding it is usually possible to reduce such risks to safe
In the case of the Tsitsikama bridges, the above requirements were levels at relatively small additional costs.
specified by the client. The original appointment and brief were given by Durability is essential if the structure is going to survive economically
the Cape Provincial Roads Department, but authority was subsequently for its projected lifetime, which for major structures is usually considered
transferred to the National Roads Department, later renamed the to be about 100 years, but can even exceed that period. The problem
Department of Land Transport. relates largely to the construction materials used, in which case concrete
The long-term planning of the highway makes provision for a double has a definite advantage over structural steel, especially for structures
carriageway and the initial designs and estimates were based on a deck near the coast. It depends on the particular circumstances of exposure
having a total width of 30 m. The need to reduce costs produced' a which may result in weathering, ie corrosion of steel, deterioration,
compromise in the form of a 16 m deck for a single carriageway that discoloration, or cracking and spalling of concrete. Failure due to fatigue
made provision for a sub-standard double carriageway with reduced under repetitive loading is more likely to be a problem in structural steel
shoulder widths in the future. The approximate road location had been structures than in reinforced concrete.
determined by the client, but the precise location of the bridges could be The choice of reinforced concrete as a material was, apart from other
at the best site within reasonable distance of the route. The route in the considerations, largely dictated by cost and durability. Steel as an
vicinity of the Bloukrans bridge was subsequently relocated in order to alternative was given consideration at the initial stages of the conceptual
reduce the damage to the indigenous forests. The exact location was development, but bearing in mind maintenance costs during its lifetime,
determined by judgement on the basis of risk in terms of the relative it was soon evident that it could not be competitive in the South African
soundness of the rock formations and the cost in terms of cut and fill of market. It cannot be assumed that concrete structures will require no
the road approaches to the site as part of the optimization of the total maintenance as defects may arise, but there is ample evidence that it can
cost. On this basis the bridge was finally sited approximately two km be kept to a minimal level provided a high quality of workmanship is
downstream of the original site at a point where the gorge had a larger maintained. A high level of supervision was maintained by resident staff
span than the alternative sites investigated. on the Tsitsikama bridge sites, not only to ensure that the completed
The design philosophy and the actions and loadings applied to structure would comply with all the specifications, but also specially
theoretical models of the bridge were those specified in what were at that aimed at reducing subsequent maintenance to a minimum. In exposed
time draft clauses ofTMH7, Parts 1 and 2 (1981): Codeof practice for the reinforced concrete structures, this is related almost directly to a
design of highway bridges and culverts in South Africa. The analysis and consistently high density of concrete and adequate cover to reinforcing
design of the structure was done in ac(;;ordance with BS5400, Part 4 steel. Because of such deficiencies, numerous concrete structures have
(1978): Code of practice for the design of concrete bridges. The wind required extensive repairs due to spalling caused by corrosion.
loading procedure used was a forerunner of Method B of the wind Since the 1960's, people have become more aware of the need to
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

loading specified in TMH7, Part 2 and the seismic analysis was in preserve what is referred to as the 'quality of life'. This term is not easily
accordance with Method D of the earthquake loading. Reference to defined, but amongst other things it relates to the attainment of certain
these analyses is made in the accompanying paper on the Bloukrans social and aesthetic standards and freedoms for mankind, whilst
bridge. preserving as much of the beauty of the natural environment and its
Relating conceptual design, especially of large structures, to the resources as is feasible and keeping it free of pollution. Likewise
envisaged construction methods is critically important for purposes of engineers have come to recognize the importance of these
practicality and economic construction. The designs of these arches considerations that extend beyond those values directly related to
were made compatible with the suspended cantilever method of engineering technology as practised in the past. It is consequently
construction and although the tenderers were allowed the option of highly desirable that competitiveness should not be assessed entirely in
alternative methods of construction, they .did not select to do so. The terms of financial cost and that the concept of economy should be
sizing of all members of the structure accordingly had to make provision broadened to include aesthetics and environmental impact.
for every stage of construction, to the extent that concrete cross- Aesthetics, being a subject belonging to philosophy and the arts,
sections had to be adequate. to safely provide resistance to the differs essentially from the disciplines that constitute modern
temporary forces in the members during construction, with additional engineering. Aesthetic values cannot be derived from simple shortcuts,
reinforcement where these exceeded the envelope of the probable but depend upon a large number of qualities, of which the following are a
forces that the permanent structure would have to withstand. few: unity of form; good order; proportion and harmony; composition;
Modern codes of practice such as BS5400 and the new draft code of character; contrast and interest; the expression of function; the
practice for the design of highway bridges and culverts in South Africa expression of construction; appearance of strength and stability;
are formulated in terms of the philosophy of modern reliability theory. rhythrT); colour and texture of materials. It follows that an understanding
This approach to design has developed over the last two decades as part of aesthetics does not come naturally to most engineers. There have,
of a general reassessment of structural safety based on statistical however, always been gifted engineers with a good understanding of the
methods and probabilistic theory. However, because of the complexity subject. During the last decade or two, engineers have shown a renewed
and intractibility of 'exact' analyses, simplified procedures have been interest in aesthetics, coupled with an awareness of the environment.
developed for incorporation into codes of practice. The above- The principles of aesthetics for application to bridges are described by
mentioned codes are based on the so-called Level 16 method in which the first author in reference 4.
appropriate levels of structural reliability are provided, on a structural Environmental impact studies and evaluations are best carried out
element basis, by the specification of a number of partial safety factors during the early stages of the site investigation and selection, but
related to some pre-defined characteristic or nominal values of the basic subsequent feedback studies are also necessary during the conceptual
variables. Although this procedure is deterministic in application, these design of the structure.
factors nevertheless take account' of uncertainty and risk and provide The construction cost cannot be considered on its own, as
improved conSistency in design. subsequent maintenance costs can in some cases be a substantial part
In addition to applying the prescriptions of the code to the design of of the total cost of the structure during its lifetime. Optimization can in
the final structure, it is very important that the design principles be theory be best achieved by maximizing total utility expressed in terms of
clearly understood, especially in the design of the temporary works an objective function defined operationally with probabilities and
where the risks are even greater. The identification and quantification of evaluated in monetary terms. The terms of the function should include

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984 147

 criteria such as expected present value of the overall benefits derived arch has a constant depth of 2,74 m, but the depth at springing points is
from the existence of the structure, initial costs, capitalized normal 4,27 overall, decreasing parabolically to 2.74 m at the second set of
maintenance costs and expectation of damages. The evaluation of utility spandrel columns. The webs are 267 mm thick. The flanges are 229 mm
can be extended by the inclusion of subjective criteria such as aesthetic thick for the central portion of the arch. thickening to 305 mm at the
quality and environmental impact which require evaluation by springing points. For reasons related to economy of the deck structure
judgement. the spandrel columns, which are of hollow circular cross-section
At present it is not possible to do these evaluations accurately, but it IS spaced in pairs at 16.76 m centres, are supported close to the edges of
nevertheless necessary to take all these factors into account, if not the arch rib. Cross beams of 381 mm width are provided at these
quantitatively, then in a qualitative manner using judgement. The art of positions to distribute the concentrated loads to the webs. These
estimating in its simplest form relating to the initial cost of the structure, columns have been kept to a minimum size to reduce dead weight.
is in itself complex as there are so many variables that are difficult to The deck construction consists of precast reinforced concrete beams
predict. The contractors when tendering can determine many of their spanning longitudinally between cast in-situ main beams which are
cost items with fair accuracy, but they have to make provision for certain supported on the spandrel columns. The deck slab, which is constructed
risk factors which can have a radical influence on their tender rates. The of precast units with intermediate cast in-situ strips, spans continuously
amount of profit which they add depends on many factors including over the longitudinal beams which are spaced at 4,27 m centres and
their need for work and the level of competition. cantilevers for approximately 2,13 m over the edge beams. The 4,27 m
spacing of the longitudinal beams may appear to be too wide, but this
Factors affecting the choice of configuration, materials and methods of was found to be the best arrangement in terms of the total economy.
construction After launching and erection, the secondary beams were made
Almost every major bridge that is designed seems to be unique, but structurally continuous over the supporting main beams by means of
experience has shown that certain configurations are most suitable post-tensioned bars to provide partial continuity and to ensure stability
under specific circumstances that can be related to the functional of the superstructure during that stage of erection. High tensile steel
requirements, the site conditions, the magnitude of span(s) required and reinforcement in the deck slab over the main beams ensured full
the materials and the methods of construction used. These factors are all continuity under live load. The deck structure was designed to an
interrelated so that there are usually several alternative solutions that optimum weight for economy in terms of the arch and deck together. For
may be competitive. The profile and size of the space that must be aesthetic reasons, the soHit levels of the main transverse and
spanned, together with the nature of the founding conditions, will longitudinal beams were kept the same.
usually narrow down the selection of the configuration considerably. The arch itself is boldly expressed and the slightly curved deck line is a
In the span range beyond approximately 350 m, the dead load is a major feature . It was considered that these elements should be
governing factor in suspension bridges, so that only steel dissociated as far as possible and that the connecting vertical spandrel
cable - suspended bridges have been built to date, although concrete columns should aesthetically speaking have minimum mass. It was felt
towers and substructures were used for the Humber suspension bridge that heavy piers at the springing pOints would detract from the aesthetic
with the longest span in the world (1 410 m). Cable-stayed bridges with merit.
steel decks are at present competitive in other parts of the world in the The construction methods used on the Bloukrans bridge (described in
range of JOOt0500 m.ln the rangeof 100to 350 m, cable-stayed bridges an accompanying paper) are generally improvements on those used on
with concrete decks are able to overcome the dead load disadvantage the Van Staden's gorge bridge. A brief account of some aspects of the
where t he material arid construction cos!? are lower. New developments design and construction of the Gouritz river bridge only will therefore be
will in all probability increase the range considerably. given here.
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

Suspension bridges with draped cables and suspension hangers, The Gouritz River gorge near Mossel Bay is approximately 230 m wide
apart from being the most competitive solution in the immediate past for and 70 m deep at the site of the highway bridge. The rock formations of
spans in excess of 500 m, have the added advantage that centering is not the steeply sloping sides of the gorge extend to a depth of approximately
necessary for the deck construction. This makes them eminently 43 m below the surface of the overlying loosely depOSited silty sands
suitable for large spans over wide rivers or estuaries where the deck forming the river bed. The rock on both embankments is extensively
sections can be floated and hoisted into position to assemble the deck in jOinted and highly fractured in places. A well developed joint set which
a predetermined sequence. Cable-stayed bridges have a similar strikes approximately north east-south west and dips at 80 0 towards the
advantage and are also very suitable for construction over deep gorges, south, has resulted in a near vertical face on the west bank with relatively
the deck normally being constructed by the suspended cantilever thin layers of unstable material near the surface.
method with ' the cable-stays being applied after completion of the These features, together with the weathered nature of the rock on the
related segment of deck. eastern bank, ruled out foundations supporting vertical loads on the
Concrete arches over gorges appear to be competitive up to spans steeply sloping parts of the embankments. Foundation investigation by
approaching 400 m if the suspended cantilever or temporarily trussed drilling indicated, however, that sound quartzitic sandstone existed near
cantilever methods of construction are uSed. In the medium span range, the surface on both sides of the gorge at a level of approximately 15 m
concrete girder bridges with a wide range of cross-sections are suitable above the river bed. Several structural configurations were considered
for construction by the cantilever method (with or without temporary which included arches, box-girders on vertical piers in both steel and
suspension) in which travelling formwork carriages are used. A wide prestressed concrete, a cable-stayed structure and several versions of
range of specialized travelling steel girders that span the piers are strut-frame. Economic considerations coupled with the risk of sudden
available to support falsework for in-situ casting of concrete, as well as flooding during construction, dictated against schemes based on piers
support for precast sections placed by cranes or hoisted into position. on deep foundations in the riverbed.
The strut-frame bridge, as constructed, is a single carriageway
The Van Staden's and Gouritz River Bridges structure with a 13,8 m wide deck between precast concrete balustrades
Together with the Storms River bridge, the Van Staden's and Gouritz (Figs. 4 and 5). The superstructure which consists of a continuous 270 m
River bridges (Figs 1, 2, 4 and 5) were the forerunners of the Tsitsikama long prestressed concrete box-girder of varying depth with a
bridges. The latter two were furthermore the first concrete arch bridges cantilevered deck slab, is divided into four spans, viz. a 55 m long
to be constructed by the suspended cantilever method. western side span, with a 105 m main span supported by two pairs of
The Van Staden's gorge, which is situated 40 km west of Port sloping struts and a 65 m long eastern side span continuous over a
Elizabeth, is about 300 m wide across the top where the bridge crosses, double column pier with a 45 m end span. This span arrangement
with the sides sloping at approximately 45° to a depth of 140 m below resulted from the unsymmetrical shape of the gorge and diHerent
the peneplain. The gorge was formed by erosion and in the vicinity of the approach gradients dictated by the road geometrics.
site traverses at approximately right angles to the strike direction of the The struts are founded on conventional 8,5 m2 reinforced concrete
rock formation of the pre-Cape system. foundations bearing on rock. In order to increase the lateral stiHness of
The reinforced concrete arch bridge as constructed is of the single-rib the structure, the struts have been raked outwards in the transverse
type which is fully fixed at the arch abutments. The rib is of hollow box direction. Diaphragms have only been provided in the box-section of the
construction, 14,63 m in width with fourwebs. The central portion of the superstructure at the intersection with the struts, over the vertical piers

148 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984

 and at each end of the deck. span then proceeded on the suspended cantilever princilJle staying each
The abutments are of the filled type, but differ greatly in detail due to segment , until only the closure segment with the above-mentioned
the absence of an end span and vertical pier on the western side. portions of superstructure constructed on the struts remained to be
Both abutments were utilized for the anchorage and stabilization of completed. At this stage the travelling formwork was transferred to the
the superstructure during construction, both in the longitudinal and strut head section and set up for construction of the main span.
transverse directions. A total number of 63 rock anchors with a working The closure between the temporarily cable stayed side span and the
load of 2,0 MN each, and with lengths varying from 20 m to 35 m, were str'ut head section on the stayed struts was complicated by temperature
installed for the purpose of supporting the superstructure and struts. effects on the stay cables wh ich resulted in differential deflections of up
The anchorage zones, as well as the foundation areas of the abutments to 30 mm in one 24 hour temperature cycle. The differential movement
and the vertical pier, required systematic pressure grouting. Grouting between the two structures was carefully monitored for a number of
pressures were limited to between 0,75 MPa and 2,0 MPa depending on cycles before closure precedure was carried out. This carefully planned
the depth below surface and the volume of grout acceptance. The strut operation consisted of a sequential locking operation in which
legs were constructed in 3,25 m stages on the suspended cantilever differential vertical and longitudinal deflections and finally differential
principle, utilizing climbing formwork . Stay cables consisting of the solid rotations between the two parts of the structure were systematically
prestress bar type were attached at approximately 9 m centres and eliminated. The procedure was timed to take place in the early hours of
anchored in the pier footings on the east bank and in the western the morning under conditions of minimum temperature change. Upon
abutment for the struts on the western side. Four sets of cables were completion of the closure segment, the continuity prestress cables in the ,
used on each pair of struts. During construction each strut was hinged at webs of the box section paSSing through the closure segment and
the foundations with a temporary mild steel plate hinge. After anchored in the first segments of the main span were stressed. This
completion of the superstructure, the struts were connected completed the connection and provided a monolithic frame consisting
monolithically to their foundations . This was achieved by special of the end span, side span and struts: Construction of the western side
techniques using the strut suspension cables, special steel wedges, span followed similar procedures except that due to the absence of an
welding of reinforcement, concreting and contact pressure grouting. end span and vertical pier on that side, the temporary tie-back tower was
After the inclined struts had reached the soffit level of the deck, supported by the abutment and all stay cables were anchored into an
approximately 23 m portions of superstructure were constructed on top external anchor block remote from the structure.
of the struts using fixed formwork on cantilevered centering to form The cantilever construction of the main span proceeded concurrently
portions of the side spans. from both sides, utilizing the permanent prestressing cables in the deck
This was necessary in order to have the closure segment at a suitable and webs. The side span stay cables were released in stages and
section where most of the web prestress cables over the struts had been removed as the sagging bending moment due to the self weight of the
terminated, thus simplifying construction of the closure segments. The side spans was reduced by the cantilever action of the successive main
struts were constructed to a pre-camber which would result in span segments. The tension force which developed in the
theoretically straight elements after release of the suspenSion cables superstructure due to the horizontal component of the thrust in the
when the bridge superstructure had been completed. inclined struts was resisted at the abutments by short temporary
The eastern end span was constructed on conventional centering, prestress cables, coupled to the 'ends of the main prestressing system.
after which the travelling formwork for the stage-by-stage cantilever These temporary anchor cables were released in stage~ after completion
construction of the side spans and maif1 span was assembled on the of the central closure operation, which was similar to those for the side
deck. At the western side, the first segment of 5,0 m length had to be spans. Due to the longitudinal asymmetry of the structure and the
constructed on conventional centering before the travelling formwork temporary anchor cables, the temporarily lock-in strain energy of the
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

for the remainder of the side span and half main span could be two halves had to be carefully balanced so as to avoid longitudinal sway
assembled. after closure. This could cause subsequent complications due to creep.
Temporary tie-back towers, constructed from precast post-tensioned After completion of the superstructure and all permanent prestressing
concrete elements, were erected on top of the deck above the vertical operations, the strut cables were removed and the fixing of the precast
pier on the eastern side, while deck segments of five m length were being balustrade panels proceeded.
cast on the cantilever prinCiple. After completing the fourth segment All cable forces, extensions and deck deflections were closely
from the pier, all end span prestress cables had been stressed and the monitored and compared with theoretical values during construction.
first t~ mporary stay cable could be installed , stressed and anchored When necessary, corrections were applied for minor deviations from the
back in the end diaphragm beam of the deck. Construction of the side theoretically calculated values which took accoLint of creep shrinkage

Fig 6(a): Gouritz River Bridge: canti-

lever construction 01 struts and
sldespans

Fig 6(b): Gourilz River Bridge: cantI-

RIVERBED SILTY SA f'V lever construction 01 central span

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984 149

Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

Con Rou
Civil Engineers and Contractors

constructing the future

Earthworks, Stormwater Drainage, Sewage & Water Reticulation, Industrial Tarmac, Township
Roads, Freeways, Bridge and Culvert Construction.
14 Atlas Rd, Boksburg. Telephone 894·4265/9
150 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984
 and temperature effects on a stage-by-stage basis. movement relative to the abutments indicate agreement with the
The bridge was completed in May 1977,. at a total cost of R2,9 m. theoretical prediction.
The stage-by-stage creep analysis was not only done for the
The analysis of creep, shrinkage, temperature and dynamic effects on longitudinal bridge movement but also served to control and check the
the Gouritz River Bridge internal forces and profile to which the structure had to be constructed.
The Gouritz River bridge was a very interesting structure to analyse The resulting setting out profiles at some of the stages of construction
This is illustrated by the following examples. It was found that the effects are shown in Fig 7. This plot shows the precambers over the central
of concrete creep, temperature and dynamic application of traffic span. Similar diagrams were drawn up for the side spans and inclined
loading, which are usually only of second order relative to the total struts. These profiles are the summation of all displacements expected
effects of loading, happened to be of primary importance. The after construction of each particular segment. Shrinkage and creep
complexities of stage-by-stage construction as applied in this case had a effects make up a substantial portion of these displacements.
significant influence on the analy1ical procedures. Figs 6(a) and (b) SpeCialist literature provided most of the background for the creep
show how the two side spans and struts were supported during and shrinkage analysis referred to in the previous paragraphs. The creep
construction. Due to the unsymmetrical nature of the gorge, both the data given in the FIP Recommendations (1970) were applied in
side span arrangement and the temporary cable support configuration conjunction with test data obtained from creep and shrinkage tests
differed significantly for the two sides. This required a detailed stage-by- performed at the Civil Engineering Department of the University of Cape
stage analysis of both sides. Town on concrete test samples made with the aggregates and mix
Firstly, each stage of construction had to be checked for the proportions as specified for the Gouritz river bridge. The assumptions
cumulative stresses and secondly, the cumulative displacements during on which the creep analysis were based can be summarized as follows:
construction and after completion, had to be established. The creep and
shrinkage characteristics of concrete had a major influence. Since creep t:(t) = t£! f1 + 0(t,to )} + aft) - °0 f1 +p 0(t,ti)} + I:s(t)
in concrete is both a function of age at loading and time under load, the Ec Ec
analy1ical procedure had to take the construction calendar into account. Where c(t) strain in concrete at time t;
Creep redistribution of the internal forces at a section in a statically
00 initial stress in concrete at time to;
indeterminate structure is only dependent on relative changes in the
Ec Young's modulus of concrete;
stiffness of its members. Such relative changes in stiffness due to creep
0(t,to) creep factor of concrete for the period t - to;
do not, however, have large effects. Therefore a fairly simplified
aft) stress in concrete at time t;
assumption of creep law and numerical procedure could have sufficed in
0(t,ti) creep factor of concrete for the period t - ti;
the structural modelling if the only concern was the distribution of
ti time at which stress was increased from 00 to Ot;
internal forces. However, any increment in displacement ofthe structure
p relaxation coefficient for concrete;
is proportional to the absolute stiffness of its members at that time.
complicated expression depending on creep and
Creep displacement of a concrete structure under long-term load is two stress history;
to three times the elastic displacement. The determination of deflection 0,85 a good approximation for most applications;
of the bridge structure therefore demanded a more accurate stage-by- shrinkage strain over the period t.
stage creep assessment and numerical procedure.
Due to the length of construction (30 montns) of a structure of this In terms of a stage-by-stage analYSis, this can be written as
size, a significant portion of creep and shrinkage took place during
construction. However, the expected movements after completion also
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

had to be accounted for in the vertical alignment of the longitudinal

profile. Allowances had to be made in the expansion joint design and
bearing details at the abutments. It was found after completion of the first where M is the bending moment at section m due to loading Li at the
creep analysis that the bridge deck would undergo a considerable stage n at the time tru . Superscript OG refers to a 'one go'
longitudinal movement because of the asymmetry. Since a 'one go' analysis using effective E-moduli for the members
elastic analysis was in fair agreement with the former result, it was
decided to use this method to find a sOI.ution for a 'stationary' structure
by varying the inclination of one of the inclined struts supporting the
deck. The right hand (western) strut was therefore rotated about its
intersection with the deck and three pOsitions were analysed. A 0tr - 0tr-
andR= _________ 1 = redistribution factor for
graphical interpolation then indicated the correct strut position for a
'stationary' bridge. Based on this bridge geometry, a final stage-by-stage 0
1 +p [ tr -0 ] time interval {t r - tr-,}
tr-,
creep analysis was carried out. The final cumulative longitudinal
displacement was negligibly Sni~lI. To date measurements of the bridge with p = 0,85 a good approximation.

A - CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION.
B-PRESTRESS.
C-BALUSTRADE AND PREMIX.
0 - CREEP AND SIflINKAGE

170

PRECAMBER ENVELOPE
AFTER CONTINUITY PRESTRESS
(VALUES IN mm.)
(DAY 861)
BEFORE STAGE 14
BEFORE STAGE 16
(DAY 311)
(DAY 591)
BEFORE STAGE 11
(DAY 322)

8910111213141516

Fig 7: Gourltz River Bridge: precamber

AFTER CLO~.J
(DAY 828)
AFTER BALUSTRADE
AMJ PREMIX
evaluation for cantilever conltNction (DAY I 0611)

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984 151

 Each one of 'one go' analyses performed for a particular structural occur, the time travelled from the top of one inclined strut to the other
stage, is done 'with a normal linear (elastic) stiffness analysis by must be equivalent to half the period of the moving structure since
computer, using the applicable effective E-moduli for the members in opposite movements are generated at these two pOints. The natural
the structure for that stage. Each analytical operation is followed by a longitudinal period is 2,4 seconds and the distance is 110m, therefore
redistribution operation to produce the state at the end of the time x= 110/1,2 = 91,7 m/sec. This is equivalent to 330 km/h.
interval. The redistribution operation is also done by computer usi ng·the This.can of course not be attained by vehicular traffic and is not of
equation given above as operator between two computer files. This is direct concern. Vehicles travelling at half this speed, ie 165 km/h, cause
not a rigorous creep analysis as that would require an analytical automatic cancelling of longitudinal movement. But vehicles travelling
programme based on a non-linear time integration scheme. Such a at a third of this speed, ie 110 km/h, will have traversed one and a half
programme was, however, not available at the time the Gouritz river longitudinal periods, arriving at the second inclined strut when the
bridge was on the drawing board. The piece-wise linear approach used structure is swinging back the second time. Resonance is therefore still
was considered adequate for the accuracy required in this analysis. possible.
In practice, the setting out of the construction profile as described in This displacement model as pictured above, is of course a gross
the previous section, is complicated greatly by the superimposed effects simplification of the actual motion. Firstly a rolling load across the deck
of temperature on the existing structure. This temperature dependency causes continuous proportional longitudinal motion. Such an effect
is experienced mainly during the phases of construction when the would therefore have to be integrated to arrive at the correct value.
structure is held up by the suspension and tie-back cable system. Even Secondly, the structure exhibits damping which reduces this cyclic
though the cables were painted white. their size (cross-sectional area) motion. A typical reduction of motion of Glne cycle relative to the
made them very sensitive to temperature transients. The various cable previous one for an uncracked concrete structure is 5 per cent.
groups are subjected to changing states of shade and sunshine as the In order to take all the above effects into account, the concept of
day progresses, causing corresponding amounts of setting out and dynamic influence lines has been developed here. The influence line for
contraction. Meanwhile the concrete members, due to their horizontal displacement of the deck due to a unit vertical static load
massiveness, only experienced very slight temperature variation. They traversing the structure, is shown in Fig 8. Fig 9 shows a similar influence
were, however, subjected to temperature gradients through their depth, line for vertical deflection of the centre of the dec~. Figs 10 -14 show the
which caused profile changes. mode shapes of the lowest five natural frequencies of the structure.
The way all these temperature effects were accounted for in the These have been included here to give a more complete insight into the
setting out of the construction profile on site (ie ttie segment to be possible structural response to mechanical excitation. Fortunately the
constructed) was by drawing up a matrix of unit temperature changes longitudinal motion is uncoupled from all other motions while several
for each cable gro~p and concrete member for each analytical stage of vertical natural vibration modes can be excited due to a particular load
construction. Tt1'e temperatures were measured at representative points and its position. The latter would require the evaluation of participation
in the structure. setting-out corrections could be assessed from this unit factors to derive at the portions of each mode excited by this load.
temperature by matrix, by summing the products of the unit temperature The concept of dynamic influence lines can be defined as the effect of
displacements produced at the setting-out pOints and the various a unit load traversing the structure at constant speed on a particular
meal'ured.temperature differences relative to an assumed ambient internal force or displacement. In the case of horizontal deck
temperature datum (20°C). displacement, it is assumed that the axial strain in the deck is negligible
The last analytical matter of interest which will be considered here, is relative to lhe displacement caused by flexure. A unit vertical load is
the dynamic influence of traffic on the bridge structure. Most bridge sequentially placed and removed on successive deck nodes along the
structures 'are fairly insensitive to these dynamic effects since their structure at intervals to simulate a constant speed. A time integration of
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

natural frequencies of vibration are not in the range of those excited by all these load effects on the position under consideration (influence
traffic loading. Theireffect is therefore covered in the codes by an overall ordinate position). is done taking damping into account. The resulting
factor or impact factor, usually of the order of 1,25 which is already ordinates are plotted and joined together to form the dynamic influence
included in the prescribed loading intensities. line. These are shown for various vehicular speeds on Fig 15.
I n the case of the Gouritz river bridge, being a strut frame: vertical load By applying the corresponding spacing distances of vehicles at these
placed on top of one of its inclined legs will produce a longitudinal speeds and taking transverse lane occupation into account, a combined
displacement of the structure. This characteristic gave concern, since it dynamic effect can be evaluated. This, together with other coexistent
meant that the possibility existed that repeated loading at the right effects (dead load, prestress, creep, shrinkage, settlement and
interval could produce a build-up of movement due to structural temperature), determines bearing plate dimensions and presets and the
resonance. As an example of this possibility, let us consider a vehicle range of expansion joint movements.
travelling across the bridge at x metres per second. For resonance to

Fig 8: Gouritz River Bridge: influence

line for horizontal longitudinal deflec-
tion due to unit vertical load

Ag 9: Gouritz River Bridge: influence

line for vertical deflection at centre
span joint 31

152 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984

 PERIOD: 2,396 sees.

FREQUENCY = 0,4175 ''Is

SCALE I 1000 Fig 10: Mode shape 1

PERIOD = 0,747 secs.

FREQUENCY = 1,3386 7.

SCALE I I 000 Fig 11: Mode shape 2

PERIOD =0,430 sec~.

FREQUENCY = 2,325 %
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

SCALE I: I 000 Fig 12: Mode shape 3

PERIOD = 0,346 seci

FREQ~ENCY = 2,892 cIs

SCALE I I 000 Fig 13: Mode shape 4

PERIOD = 0,280 secs.

FREQUENCY = 3,572 %

SCALE I 1000
Fig 14: Mode shape 5

THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984 153

 ...~ . '-- .

/
./

0 Km / hr
20 Km / tIr
40 Kn\I'"
60 Km/ hr
80 Kn\l1Y
100 Km/ tr
120 Km/tr
DEFLECTION SCALE

0 10 15 20

FIg 15: Gourltz River Bridge: dynamic Inftuence lines for a point load 011 MN moving at constant speed lrom left to right causing horizontal displacement ollhe deck

Relerences Middlesex, England .

1. Hopkins, H J. A span of bridges. David and Charles, Newton Abbot, 1970, pp 6. Construction Industry Research and Information Association. Rationalization
288. 01 safety and serviceability lactors in structural codes, CIRIA Repor/63. London ,
2. Smith, H Shir1ey. The world's great bridgeS. Rev Edn, Phoenix House, London. July 1977, pp 226.
1964, pp 250.
3. Wittfoht , H. Triumph der spannweiten, Beton Verlag. Dusseldorf, 1972, pp 314. Acknowledgements
4. Liebenberg, A C . Bridges, Chapter 36 - Handbook of structural concrete. Ed by We wish to thank Mr R Meyer, Deputy Director General , Directorate of Land
F K Kong, R H Evans .. E Cohen , F Roll, Pitman Books Ltd, London, 1983, pp 168. Transport, and Mr John de Kock, Provincial Roads Engineer of the Cape, for
5. De Bono, Edward. Lateral thinking, Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth, permission to publish this paper.
Reproduced by Sabinet gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011).

154 THE CIVIL ENGINEER in South Africa - April 1984