Digestion and Absorption

⚫ The primary struggle for any life form on Earth

is first ‘survival of self’ and then ‘survival of its Rack your Brain
species’.
⚫ To survive, living bei ngs depend on necessary What is the principal requirement
nutrients they get from the food they consume. for the survival of any living
⚫ Nutrition (L. nutritio- to nourish) has prime individual?
importance in providing energy to living beings.
⚫ The components of food when digested, absorbed
and assimilated by a living body help in their
growth, development, maintenance of structure,
repair and protection.
⚫ The, major components of our food are
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Vitamins and
minerals are also required in small quantities.
⚫ An indigestible but essential component of food
Definition
is roughage. It is composed of fibres of plant
origin and connective tissues present in food
Nutrition: The process by
from an animal source.
which living organisms obtain,
⚫ Roughage does not provide any calorific value
digest, assimilate and utilise
to the food but it maintains the efficiency of
nutrients of food to produce
alimentary canal.
enough energy for maintaining
⚫ Food eaten by human beings comes majorly from
their structural and functional
two sources i.e. plants and animals.
integrity.
⚫ Our digestive system carries out digestion of
food by:
○ Mechanical method (physical breakdown of
food into smaller pieces by chewing with the
help of teeth)
○ Biochemical methods (chemical breakdown
of complex organic food into simpler organic
substances with the help of enzymes).

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

⚫ Human beings exhibit a ‘tube within a tube’ body
plan. The outer tube represents the body wall. Gray Matter Alert!!!
Digestion and Absorption

The second inner tube is represented by digestive

tract. Roughage does not provide any
⚫ Human Digestive System includes: calorific value to the food but
○ Alimentary canal (digestive tract) along with it maintains the efficiency of
the digestive glands presents in its inner alimentary canal.
lining.

1.
 ○ Accessory digestive glands like liver, gall
bladder, pancreas, salivary glands which are
present outside the alimentary canal.

ALIMENTARY CANAL
The alimentary canal is a tubular structure (5-
7 metres long) that extends from mouth to
anus. Gray Matter Alert!!!
Digestion and Absorption

Mouth Alimentary canal develops from

⚫ Anterior opening or slit of the alimentary canal. ectoderm and endoderm. Tissue
⚫ Surrounded by the upper and lower lip. supporting the alimentary canal
from outside are mesodermal in
Buccal cavity origin.
It is divided into two parts.

2.
⚫ Buccal vestibule
○ The space between the gums and cheeks.
○ Peripheral in location.
○ Two folds of mucous membrane called
superior labial frenulum and inferior labial
frenulum are present in the vestibule between
the upper lips and upper gums and the lower
lips and lower gums respectively.
⚫ Main oral cavity
○ It is the inner and central part.
○ Surrounded by the upper and lower jaw.
○ Contains openings of salivary glands.
○ Consists of palate, tongue, teeth.
⚫ Palate: The Roof of Buccal Cavity
○ The anterior part of the palate is hard palate.
○ It is made up of maxilla and palatine bone in
humans. Definition
○ It consists of transverse ridges/folds (palatine
rugae). They help in holding the food during Mastication: The action of
mastication and facilitates backward chewing food in the oral cavity
movement of food. with the help of teeth and
○ The posterior part of the palate is soft palate tongue to mix it with saliva
and it helps in swallowing. for its initial mechanical and
○ It is made up of muscles, fibrous connective chemical breakdown.
tissues and mucous epithelium.
○ The posterior outgrowth of the soft palate is
uvula or velum palati.
 ⚫ Tongue
○ Tongue is joined to the floor of buccal cavity
by frenulum linguae.
○ The anterior part of tongue is free while the
posterior is connected to the hyoid bone.
○ The upper surface of tongue is divided into Gray Matter Alert!!!
two unequal parts by sulcus terminalis
(inverted V-shaped).
Lingual frenulum is a fold of
○ Three types of functional papillae (raised
mucous membrane present
projections) on the tongue give it a rough
below the tongue to provide
texture.
support and to limit its movement
○ Gustatory or taste receptors are present on
in different directions.
the tongue surface in the form of taste buds.
○ Anterior tip of the tongue sense sweet taste.
Taste buds present anterio-laterally sense
salty taste. The posteriorly placed taste buds
sense bitter taste while the laterally placed
taste buds sense sour taste.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PAPILLAE PRESENT ON TONGUE

Filiform Fungiform Circumvallate/Vallate

Most numerous Less than filiform 8-12 in number

Larger than filiform but smaller

Smallest Largest
than circumvallate

Threadlike (cone Mushroom like (spherical with a

Dome shaped
shaped) stalk like pedicle)
Digestion and Absorption

White coloured Pink coloured Pinkish red

4.
 Filiform Fungiform Circumvallate/Vallate

Present on entire
Most numerous at the anterior
anterior 2/3 of Near sulcus terminalis
most tip of tongue
tongue surface

No taste buds Approximately 100

Approximately 5 taste buds
present, tactile taste buds present per
present per papilla
receptors papilla

○ The tongue helps in reception of taste, mixing

of food with saliva, cleaning of the oral cavity,
speech, and swallowing food.

⚫ Teeth
In humans, teeth are attached to the maxilla
and mandible bone. The sockets presenting
these bones are called alveoli. Thus, teeth are
embedded in alveoli or sockets.
⚫ Structure of Tooth Gray Matter Alert!!!
A tooth is differentiated into three parts— Crown,
neck, and root. Teeth are ecto-mesodermal in
○ Crown: It is the white part of the tooth which origin. Enamel originates from
Digestion and Absorption

is exposed outside the gums (gingiva) and is the ectoderm of embryo. The ti
covered by enamel. It is the hardest material remaining part of the teeth o
in the body of human. Enamel is secreted by develops from the mesoderm of n
ameloblast cells. embryo.
○ Dentine is the main part of tooth. It is formed
Absor
by odontoblasts which line the pulp cavity.
and

5.
 It contains fine canaliculi passing from pulp
cavity to the enamel.
○ Neck: It is the part of the tooth which is Previous Year’s Question
embedded inside the gums.
○ Root: It is the part of tooth that is embedded The crown of the teeth is covered
inside the socket of jawbone (alveoli) by:
and covered by cement and periodontal (1) Keratin
membrane. (2) Enamel
○ Cement is made up of cementocytes. (3) Dentine
○ Cement is further covered by a periodontal (4) Chondrin
ligament which fixes the tooth in its socket.
○ Dentine surrounds a cavity called pulp-
cavity. It contains blood vessels, nerves,
odontoblasts, and loose connective tissue.
○ At the base of pulp cavity, an aperture called
apical foramen is present.
○ Through this aperture, blood capillaries and
nerve fibres enter inside the root canal of
tooth.
Digestion and Absorption

6.
⚫ Human Dentition
○ Milk teeth: Teeth which appear during Definitions
childhood are called milk teeth/temporary
teeth/lacteal teeth/deciduous teeth/primary  Dentition: Arrangement of
teeth. teeth on jaws.
○ Permanent teeth: Milk teeth are shed and  Diastema: The space between
replaced by permanent teeth which are not two teeth.
shed again in life.
⚫ Types of Teeth
Four types of teeth found in mammals are:
○ Incisors: These are long, chisel-like teeth with
sharp edges for gnawing the food. Gray Matter Alert!!!
○ Canines: These are sharp-pointed, one cuspid
teeth meant for tearing and shearing the food. Permanent human teeth do not
○ Premolars: These bicuspid teeth are meant form again because after certain
for chewing and crushing the food. time odontoblast activity gets
○ Molars (cheek teeth): 4-5 cusps are present over.
in the first and second molars while the third
molars have 3 cusps. These are also meant
for chewing and crushing the food.

Human dentition shows the following features:

⚫ Monophyodont: These teeth erupt only once in life e.g., premolars and last molars of
human.
⚫ Diphyodont: These teeth erupt twice in life e.g., incisors, canines, 1st and 2nd molars
(20 teeth come twice in human life).
⚫ Thecodont: These teeth are attached to the bony sockets of jaw.
⚫ Heterodont: These are of different types based on their structure and function.
 Dental formula
Child (2 – 4 years) Definitions
2 1 0 2 5 10
I C PM M = × 2 = = 20  Polyphyodont: Teeth replaced
2 1 0 2 5 10 many times during life e.g.,
Adolescent (17 – 18 years) fish, frog.
2 1 2 2 7  Monophyodont: Teeth formed
I C PM M = × 2 = 28 once in lifetime e.g., platypus,
2 1 2 2 7 marsupials, moles, sirenians,
Adult (23 – 25 years) toothed whales.
2 1 2 3 8 16
I C PM M = × 2 = = 32
2 1 2 3 8 16
Pharynx
⚫ It is a common passage for food, water and air.
⚫ Pharynx has three parts– nasopharynx,
oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. Gray Matter Alert!!!
⚫ Nasopharynx (behind the nasal cavity): It is
linked to middle ear by a pharyngotympanic
 Canines are absent in
tube (Eustachian tube). The mouth of this
herbivorous animals.
tube is enclosed by tubal tonsils. Posteriorly,
 Temporary teeth start shedding
nasopharyngeal tonsils are also present.
at around 6 years of age due to
⚫ Oropharynx (behind the oral cavity): In
the activity of osteoclast cells.
oropharynx, two palatine tonsils occur laterally.
⚫ Laryngopharynx (close to the mouth of the
larynx): It is found between hyoid bone, larynx
and oesophagus and guides the movement of
swallowed materials and air into oesophagus and
larynx respectively.

Rack your Brain

 Why food or water always

goes into the food pipe even
though windpipe is present
Digestion and Absorption

immediately ventral to it?

 Why can we breathe during
chewing of food and cannot
breathe during swallowing?

8.
 Deglutition Reflex
⚫ Ideally, the masticated food in the oral cavity
(bolus) should move into the oesophagus via the
oropharynx. To prevent the entry of bolus into the
nasal cavities (through nasopharynx) and into the Definitions
larynx (through the laryngopharynx) deglutition
reflex occurs.  Deglutition: The act of
⚫ Physiologically, larynx is placed ventrally, and swallowing food.
oesophagus is placed dorsally in the neck. But  Bolus: Soft mass of chewed
the gullet is placed slightly at a higher level than partially digested food mixed
the glottis. with saliva which moves into
⚫ During the initial stage of swallowing, the tongue the stomach from oral cavity
voluntarily exerts upward and backward pressure via oesophagus.
against the soft palate.  Gullet: Opening of oesophagus
⚫ As the bolus from oral cavity is pushed into the  Glottis: Opening of Larynx
oropharynx, the stretch receptors (epithelial
swallowing receptors) in the wall of oropharynx
stretches and give this information to the brain.
⚫ In the brain, a deglutition reflex is formed,
because of which two responses occur:
○ The soft palate including uvula is pulled
upwards to close the internal nares. This
does not allow the bolus to enter into the
nasal cavities.
○ The neck muscles contract and pull the
Gray Matter Alert!!!
trachea up so that glottis emerges at a
higher position than that of gullet. When this
happens, the epiglottis covers the glottis and  Waldeyer’s Lymphatic Ring:
closes it (breathing stops currently). Arrangement of tonsils of oral
⚫ The upper surface of epiglottis becomes like a cavity and pharynx. It includes
slide or slippery surface over which the food lingual, palatine, tubal and
slides and enters the gullet. As soon as, the food nasopharyngeal tonsils and
enters the gullet, the neck muscles relax and the provides lymphocytes and
trachea comes down and epiglottis moves away Immunoglobulin A.
Digestion and Absorption

from glottis, thus breathing starts.

⚫ From gullet food sinks down the oesophagus ti
involuntarily and reaches the stomach due to o
peristalsis. n

Absor

and

9.
 Oesophagus
⚫ Long (25 cm) and uniform fibromuscular tube. Rack your Brain
⚫ Originates from lower end of pharynx and
runs downward through the thorax, pierces Assertion: Digestion of
the diaphragm and finally opens into stomach carbohydrates starts in the
through the gastro-oesophageal orifice. oesophagus.
⚫ The outermost wall of oesophagus lacks serosa. Reason: Mucosal lining
Instead, a white fibrous peritoneum covering of oesophagus consists of
called tunica adventitia is present. digestive glands.
⚫ It transfers food from the pharynx to the stomach Select the correct option.
through peristalsis. (1) If both assertion and
⚫ No digestion takes place in the oesophagus as reason are true and reason
enzyme secreting glands are absent in its inner is the correct explanation
epithelial lining (mucosa). of assertion.
(2) If both assertion and reason
Stomach are true but reason is not
⚫ It is situated on the left side of abdominal cavity. the correct explanation of
⚫ It is the widest part of alimentary canal. assertion.
⚫ It is a bag like muscular structure, J-shaped in (3) If assertion is true but
empty condition. reason is false.
⚫ Stomach is covered by the layer of peritoneum. (4) If both assertion and reason
Fat tissues and lymph tissues are deposited over are false.
the peritoneum. Such a type of peritoneum is
called omentum.
⚫ Left curved surface of stomach is covered by
the greater omentum. Right curved surface of
stomach is covered by the lesser omentum.
⚫ The stomach contains the following parts
○ Cardia: The food from the stomach enters in
cardia through gastroesophageal sphincter
(cardiac sphincter).
Gray Matter Alert!!!
○ Fundus: It is filled with air.
○ Body: It is the main part of the stomach.
○ Pylorus: It is the posterior end part of the Heartburn: Sometimes the lower
oesophageal sphincter fails to
Digestion and Absorption

stomach through which food enters the

duodenum through pyloric sphincter. close adequately. This causes
⚫ The bolus which enters the stomach remains reflux of acidic stomach contents
there for about 4-5 hours. into the oesophagus. This is
⚫ The longitudinal, circular and oblique muscular called gastroesophageal reflux
layers present in the gastric wall thoroughly mix disease (GERD) or heartburn.

10.
 the bolus with acidic gastric juice of the stomach.
⚫ The inner lining of the stomach (mucosa) has
many folds called gastric rugae for its timely
expansion to accommodate more food.

⚫ Functions of Stomach
○ HCl present in the gastric juice provides an
acidic pH (pH – 1.8) which gives an optimum
functioning condition for gastric enzymes
and kills microorganisms coming along with
the swallowed materials.
○ Gastric digestive enzymes are secreted
on stimulation by Gastrin hormone which
partially digests the food components.
○ Mucus and bicarbonates present in the gastric Previous Year’s Question
juice lubricate and protect the mucosal
epithelium from excoriation by the highly The mucosal layer in the stomach
concentrated HCl. form irregular folds known as
(1) Villi
Small intestine (2) Lumen
⚫ It is about 6.25 m long. Complete digestion of (3) Rugae
proteins, carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids (4) Crypts of Lieberkuhn
Digestion and Absorption

occurs in small intestine. ti

⚫ Absorption of digested food also happens in the o
small intestine. n
⚫ Hormones like cholecystokinin, secretin,
enterogastrone, duocrinin, enterocrinin and
Absor
villikinin are produced here.
and

11.
 ⚫ It also secretes intestinal digestive enzymes.
⚫ The small intestine is differentiated into three
parts— duodnum, jejunum, and ileum,
○ Duodenum (25cm long): Duodenum is the
shortest, widest, C-shaped and the fixed part
of the small intestine. Maximum digestion
takes place in duodenum.
○ Jejunum (2.5m long): It is a long, coiled,
middle part of small intestine where maximum Previous Year’s Question
absorption takes place.
○ Ileum (3.5m long): It is the longest part of the Peyer’s patches are found on the
small intestine. Small nodules of lymphatic ileum in
tissue are particularly present along the ileum (1) Fish
which are clustered in groups called Peyer’s (2) Reptiles
patches (produce lymphocytes). (3) Birds
○ Various modifications are present in the (4) Mammals
small intestine to increase the surface area
for efficient absorption of digested food, e.g.,
greater length of the intestine, presence of
permanent deep folds in mucosa called plicae
circulares or Valves of Kerckring (prominent
in jejunum), finger like projections called
villi of the mucosa of small intestine (absent
over Peyer’s patches), finger-like extensions
(microvilli) of the cell membrane of cells
present in the epithelium of villi (enterocytes).

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DUODENUM, JEJUNUM AND ILEUM

Feature Duodenum Jejunum Ileum

Location-
occurs in
Occupies upper
Digestion and Absorption

the upper Occupies lower

and left part of
Location abdomen and right part of
the intestinal
close the intestinal area
area
to the
midline

12.
 Feature Duodenum Jejunum Ileum

Thicker and
Wall less Thinner and less
Wall more vascular
than 3 mm vascular
(redder)

Wider and often Narrower and often

Lumen Widest
empty loaded

Villi broad Large, thick Shorter, thinner

Villi leaf like, (leaf-like) and (finger-like) and
abundant more abundant less abundant

Peyer’s patches Absent Absent Present

Brunner’s gland Present Absent Absent

Less than
Plicae circulares More prominent Less prominent
jejunum

Large intestine
⚫ It is about 1.5 m long. Absorption of water and
elimination of solid wastes occur here.
⚫ Large intestine is differentiated into three parts—
Caecum, colon, and rectum.
⚫ Caecum (6 cm long): Previous Year’s Question
○ The lower end of the ileum opens in a pouch
called caecum. This opening is guarded by an Vermiform appendix is a part of
ileocaecal valve. (1) Alimentary canal
○ Its thick mucus membrane absorbs water and (2) Nervous system
Digestion and Absorption

salts from the undigested and unabsorbed (3) Vascular system

ti
mass coming from ileum and also lubricates (4) Reproductive system o
this mass with mucus. n
○ About 2 cm below the ileocaecal orifice,
a worm-like blind structure arises from
the caecum called a vermiform appendix Absor

and

13.
 (8 cm long). Its length varies from 2 to 20 cm.
It serves as a safe storehouse of beneficial Rack your Brain
gut bacteria. It provides immune responses
(B-cell mediated immune response and T- What gives the colon its
cells of extrathymic source). segmented appearance?
○ It is thought to give early protection against
deadly diseases. Innate lymphoid cells are
also present in the appendix which maintain
digestive health.
⚫ Colon (140- 155 cm long)
○ Colon of human has an ascending (shortest Previous Year’s Question
part of colon, 18 cm long), transverse (50 cm
long), descending (25 cm long) and sigmoid
Water is largely absorbed in the
(S – shaped, 40-45 cm long) part.
(1) Stomach
○ Its length is about 100 cm in living adults and
(2) Oesophagus
about 150 cm at autopsy.
(3) Small intestine
○ The bend between ascending colon and
(4) Colon
transverse colon is called the right hepatic
flexure whereas the bend between the
transverse colon and the descending colon is
called the left splenic flexure.
Digestion and Absorption

○ The fibres of its external muscular layer are

collected into three longitudinal bands, the
taeniae coli. Because these bands are shorter
than the rest of the colon, the wall of the
colon forms outpouchings (haustra) between

14.
 the taeniae. This sac-like haustra formation
(sacculation) gives a segmented appearance Previous Year’s Question
to the colon.
○ There are no villi, digestive glands and plicae
Which of the following is not a
circulares on its mucosa.
function of the large intestine?
○ Small, fat-filled epiploic appendages are
(1) Absorption of water
present in the colon which are presumed to
(2) Elimination of waste
protect in the same way as greater omentum
(3) Manufacture of vitamin K
in the stomach and help in colonic absorption.
and vitamin B complex
○ Many symbiotic microorganisms reside in the
(4) Absorption of fats
colon and depend on undigested food. They
produce Vitamin K and Vitamin B complex as
their metabolic products.
○ The type of contraction that occurs only in
the colon is the progressive and continuous
mass action contraction which pushes the Gray Matter Alert!!!
waste material forward into the rectum.
⚫ Rectum (15-20 cm) We can live without a colon. This
○ The colon then continues in a uniform tube is because the nutrients from the
called rectum (storage chamber for faeces). digested food are predominantly
○ Taeniae coli and haustra are absent here. absorbed by our small intestine.
○ Transverse and longitudinal folds are present Therefore, a person can have his/
internally to allow wavy motion of stool. her colon removed and continue
○ Terminal end of large intestine is anal canal to have a healthy life.
(3-4 cm long).

Anus
⚫ Anal canal opens outside by the anus. Anal
opening is controlled by anal sphincters.
Previous Year’s Question
⚫ There are two types of anal sphincters: Internal
anal sphincter (involuntary) and external anal
Where do certain symbiotic
sphincter (voluntary).
microorganisms normally
occur in human body
(1) Caecum
Digestion and Absorption

Gray Matter Alert!!!

(2) Oral lining and tongue ti
surface o
Haemorrhoids (Piles): Painful internal
(3) Vermiform appendix and n
or external swollen (dilated) veins in the
rectum
lower rectum, anal canal and anus.
(4) Duodenum
Absor

and

15.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SMALL INTESTINE AND LARGE INTESTINE

Feature Small Intestine Large Intestine

Length 6.25 m 1.5 m

Greater part is freely

Mobility Greater part is fixed
mobile

Sacculation (Haustra) Absent Present

Taenia coli Absent Present

Plicae circulares Present Absent

Epiploic appendages Absent Present

Villi Present Absent

Peyer’s patches Present in ileum Absent

Digestion Complete No digestion

Effects of infection
Diarrhoea Dysentery
and irritation
Digestion and Absorption

(a) Entamoeba histolytica

(a) Intestinal worms
(b) Organisms causing
Common site for (b) Typhoid and
dysentery
(c) Tuberculosis
(c) Carcinoma

16.
 HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
The wall of alimentary canal is made up of four Previous Year’s Question
layers (outer to inner):
Serosa (visceral peritoneum)
In the gastrointestinal tract
⚫ It is the outermost layer of alimentary canal.
the Meissner’s plexus and
⚫ Serosa is composed of areolar connective tissue
the Auerbach’s plexus occur
and simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium).
respectively in the
⚫ Oesophagus is lined with external adventitia
(1) Lamina propria and
which is made up of dense elastic fibrous
muscularis mucosa
connective tissue.
(2) Submucosa and muscularis
externa
Muscularis (muscle layer) (3) Submucosa and mucosa
⚫ The muscularis of the mouth, pharynx and superior (4) Mucosa and muscularis
and middle parts of the oesophagus consists externa
of skeletal muscles that produce voluntary
swallowing. The external anal sphincter is also
formed by skeletal muscles, thus permitting
voluntary control of defecation.
⚫ The muscularis of the rest of the digestive tract
consists of two layers of smooth muscles i.e.
circular inner layer and longitudinal outer layer
Definition
of smooth muscle.
⚫ The thickest layer is found in stomach (maximum
Peristalsis: Rhythmic
peristalsis) and the thinnest layer in rectum
contraction and relaxation
(minimum peristalsis).
of longitudinal and circular
⚫ Stomach contains an additional oblique muscle
muscles present in the wall of
layer just inner to circular muscle layer.
alimentary canal to propel the
⚫ Auerbach’s plexus (myenteric plexus) is the
food forward.
network of nerve cells and parasympathetic
nerve fibres which is present in between
longitudinal and circular muscular fibres to
control gastrointestinal movement (peristalsis).

Submucosa
Digestion and Absorption

⚫ It is composed of areolar connective tissue layer

Rack your Brain ti
with blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves.
o
⚫ Meissner’s plexus (submucosal plexus) is the
How many layers of muscularis n
network of nerve cells and sympathetic nerve
are present in the stomach?
fibres which is present between muscularis
and the mucosa. It controls gastrointestinal Absor

and
17.
 secretion and local blood flow. In stomach,
Meissner’s plexus lies between oblique muscle
and submucosa.

Mucosa
⚫ It is the innermost layer of alimentary canal that
contains the secretory and absorptive cells. It
forms plicae circulares in the intestine. Mucosa
is differentiated into three layers— mucosa
muscularis, lamina propria, and epithelial Previous Year’s Question
mucosa.
⚫ Mucosa muscularis The intestine is different from
○ It is the outer layer (towards submucosa). the stomach by the presence of
○ It is made up of outer longitudinal and inner (1) Digestive gland
circular smooth muscle layers which open (2) Villi
and close the folds of mucosa (villi) during (3) Sub mucosa
digestion and absorption. (4) Serosa
○ It plays an important role in exposing
the surface area of intestinal wall for the
absorption.
○ It also provides support to the folds of
mucosa.
⚫ Lamina propria
○ It is the middle layer and contains blood
vessels and lymphatic tissue called as MALT
(Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue) which
provides immunity e.g. Peyer’s patches (in
small intestine, mainly ileum).
Digestion and Absorption

18.
 ○ Made up of areolar connective tissue.
⚫ Epithelial mucosa Gray Matter Alert!!!
○ It is the Innermost layer (in contact with
food). Three types of ducts open in the
○ In oesophagus, this layer is made up of non- lumen of intestine.
keratinised stratified squamous epithelium. ⚫ Ducts from glands outside
Except for oesophagus, this layer is single intestine: e.g. Salivary glands,
layer thick, which is made up of columnar liver, pancreas.
mucous epithelium. ⚫ Ducts from glands of
○ Folds of epithelial mucosa in oesophagus submucosa: e.g. Brunner’s
are less developed, whereas these folds glands.
in stomach are finger-shaped and well ⚫ Ducts from glands of mucosa:
developed as glands called gastric glands. e.g. Gastric glands, intestinal
○ Folds of mucosal epithelium in small intestine glands.
are conically shaped called villi (maximum
villi are found in jejunum).
○ Intestinal villi contain blood and lymph Digestive Glands
(lacteals) capillaries.
○ Invaginations of epithelium called Crypts of
Lieberkuhn are present in the small intestine. Mucosal Glands Accessory
digestive glands

DIGESTIVE GLANDS  Gastric glands  Salivary glands

Digestive glands bring about digestion of food  Intestinal glands  Liver
 Pancreas
by secreting digestive enzymes. Digestive glands
present in the mucosa of alimentary canal are
called gastric glands. Some digestive glands are
present outside the alimentary canal and are
Gray Matter Alert!!!
called accessory glands.

Volume of saliva is more from

Salivary Glands submandibular glands but the
⚫ There are three pairs of digestive glands amount of salivary amylase is
situated outside the oral cavity— parotid glands, more from parotid glands.
submandibular glands, and sublingual glands.
⚫ Secretion of salivary glands is called saliva.
Digestion and Absorption

⚫ Saliva composition:
○ Daily secretion - 1500 ml (appr.) ti
○ pH - 6.8 Definition o
○ Composition of Water - 99.5% - moisten the n
food. Mumps: Infection of Parotid
○ Salivary amylase (Ptyalin) – Mainly secreted glands by Paramyxovirus. Absor
by parotid glands- digests carbohydrates.
and

19.
 ○ Antibacterial substances - Lysozymes,
lactoferrin, thiocyanates Gray Matter Alert!!!
○ Few ions like Na+, K+, Cl–, HCO – Buffering
3
agents Salivary amylase is absent in the
○ IgA antibody saliva of most herbivores.
○ Mucin (mucus)
○ Small amount of urea and uric acid
(nitrogenous waste)

SALIVARY GLANDS

Parotid Glands Submandibular Glands Sublingual Glands

At the junction of
Location Near ear (cheeks) Below tongue
upper and lower jaw

Size Largest Medium sized Smallest

Wharton’s duct Ducts of Rivinus

Duct Stenson’s duct (longest salivary (shortest salivary
duct) duct)

In vestibule of
Openings upper jaw near Under the
Behind lower incisors
of Duct upper second tongue
molar

Saliva 25% 70% (max) 5% (min)

Nerve
Digestion and Absorption

controlling IXth (Glosso- VIIth (Facial

VIIth (Facial nerve)
the pharyngeal nerve) nerve)
secretion

20.
 Liver
⚫ Liver is endodermal in origin, weighs about Previous Year’s Question
1.2- 1.5 Kg and is placed on the right side of
abdominal cavity, below the diaphragm.
Which of the following guards
⚫ The liver is the largest gland of the body.
the opening of hepatopancreatic
⚫ Falciform ligament (fibrous connective tissue) is
duct into the duodenum?
made up of folds of peritoneum and divides the
(1) Semilunar valve
liver superficially into a left and right lobe. Left
(2) Ileocaecal valve
lobe is smaller than right lobe. Right lobe forms
(3) Pyloric sphincter
5/6 of the liver and left lobe forms 1/6 of liver.
(4) Sphincter of Oddi
⚫ Right and left hepatic duct drains bile from right
and left hepatic lobe respectively. These ducts
join to form a common hepatic duct.

⚫ Gall bladder is a thin muscular sac situated

below right lobe of liver and drained by the cystic
duct. Its function is to store and concentrate bile
prepared by the liver.
⚫ Cystic duct of gall bladder is connected to
common hepatic duct to form a common bile Previous Year’s Question
duct also called ductus choledochus.
⚫ The common bile duct joins with the main Fat digestion is facilitated by
pancreatic duct and forms an ampulla (1) Bile juice
(Hepatopancreatic ampulla or the ampulla of (2) Pancreatic juice
Digestion and Absorption

Vater). (3) Gastric juice

⚫ Sphincter of Oddi guards the opening of (4) None of the above ti
hepatopancreatic ampulla into the duodenum. o
⚫ Sphincter of Boyden guards the mouth of common n
bile duct before it joins the main pancreatic duct.
Absor

and

21.
 ⚫ Hepatic Lobule
○ The functional and structural unit of liver is
hepatic lobule.
○ Each hepatic lobule is covered by a thin
fibrous connective tissue sheath called
Glisson’s capsule.
○ Each lobule consists of radial rows of hepatic
cells (hepatocytes) which are called hepatic
cords.
Previous Year’s Question
○ Sinusoids are lined mostly by the endothelial
cells, but a few fixed macrophages cells are
also present. These are called as Kupffer’s Characteristic of mammalian
cells (Phagocytic cells). liver is
○ The bile canaliculi run in between the two (1) Kupffer cells and leucocytes
layers of cells in each cord. Hepatocytes pour (2) Leucocytes and canaliculae
bile into the canaliculi. Canaliculi open into (3) Glisson’s capsules and
branch of hepatic duct which is situated at Kupffer cells
the angular part of lobule in the Glisson’s (4) Glisson’s capsules and
capsule. leucocytes
○ Hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein enter
liver and divide to form many branches. These
branches are also found at the angular part.
Its fine branches open into hepatic sinusoids.
Digestion and Absorption

22.
 ○ Branch of hepatic portal vein, branch of
hepatic artery and branch of hepatic duct are
collectively called portal triad.
○ All hepatic sinusoids open into central vein
or intralobular vein through fine aperture. All
central veins combine to form a hepatic vein
which comes out from liver and opens into
inferior vena cava.
○ All branches of hepatic duct of right and
left lobe are combined to form right and left Previous Year’s Question
hepatic ducts which come out from the liver
and forms a common hepatic duct. Bilirubin and biliverdin are found
⚫ Bile Juice in
○ Hepatic cells of the liver produce bile juice (1) Blood
and it is stored in the gall bladder. (2) Bile
○ Bile juice does not contain any digestive (3) Pancreatic juice
enzyme. Hepatic bile pH is 8.6 whereas bile (4) Saliva
from gall bladder has a pH of 7.6.
Digestion and Absorption

○ Daily secretion is 500-1000ml.

ti
○ Bile contain water (98%), cholesterol, lecithin. o
○ Bile pigments are the excretory substances n
of the liver. They are yellowish (bilirubin) and
greenish (biliverdin).
○ Bile contains two types of salts– inorganic Absor

and

23.
 salts (NaCl, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, etc.), organic salts
(Sodium bicarbonate, Sodium glycocholate
and Sodium taurocholate).
○ Inorganic salts neutralize the acidity of the
food and make the medium basic whereas
organic salt help in emulsification of fats.
○ Bile salts also help in the absorption of fats
and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). Bile salts
combine with fats, cholesterol, phospholipid
(lecithin) and fat soluble vitamins to form Rack your Brain
compounds called micelles.
⚫ Functions of Liver bile
Why is secretion of
○ Secretion and synthesis of bile.
is proportional to the
○ Carbohydrate Metabolism: The main centre concentration of fats?
of carbohydrate metabolism is liver. Following
processes are related with carbohydrate
metabolism:
Glycogenesis: The conversion and storage of an
extra amount of glucose into glycogen. The main
stored food in the liver is glycogen.
Glycogenolysis: The conversion of glycogen into
glucose again when glucose level in blood falls,
is called glycogenolysis.
Gluconeogenesis: At the time of need, liver
converts non carbohydrate compounds (e.g. Previous Year’s Question
amino acids, fatty acids) into glucose.
Glyconeogenesis: Synthesis of glycogen from One of the following is a specific
lactic acid. function of liver. Mark it.
○ Storage of fats: Liver stores fats in a small (1) Excretion
amount. (2) Glycogenolysis
○ Deamination and Urea formation: Deamination (3) Digestion
of amino acids is mainly done by liver (Amino (4) Histolysis
acid → NH3).
○ Liver converts ammonia (more toxic) into urea
(less toxic) through ornithine cycle.
Digestion and Absorption

○ Purification of blood: Kupffer cells of liver are

the phagocytic cells, help in phagocytosis of
dead blood cells and bacteria from the blood.
○ Synthesis of plasma proteins: All the plasma

24.
 proteins except Gamma-globulins are
synthesised in the liver. Previous Year’s Question
○ Prothrombin and fibrinogen proteins are also
formed in hepatic cells. These help in blood
The toxic substances are
clotting. Factors II, VII, IX and X are formed in
detoxicated in the human body
liver, which are responsible for blood clotting.
by
○ Synthesis of heparin: Heparin is a natural
(1) Lungs
anticoagulant (mucopolysaccharide).
(2) Kidneys
Some heparin is also formed by basophils
(3) Liver
(granulated WBC) and mast cells.
(4) Stomach
○ Synthesis of vitamin A: The
liver changes -carotene into vitamin A.
○ Storage of vitamins: Liver stores vitamins A,
D, E, K and B12.
○ Storage of minerals: Liver stores iron, copper,
zinc, cobalt, molybdenum etc. Liver is a good
source of iron.
○ Detoxification: The conversion of toxic
substances into non-toxic substances is
Rack your Brain
done by liver.
○ Haemopoiesis: The formation of blood cells
is called haemopoiesis. In embryonic stage, How does liver help in formation
RBCs and WBCs are formed by liver. of blood in human body?
○ Formation of Lymph
○ Formation of Angiotensinogen:
Angiotensinogen formed in the liver is changed
to angiotensin which helps in regulation of
kidney.
⚫ Functions of Bile Juice
○ Neutralization of HCI.
○ Emulsification: Sodium glycocholate and
sodium taurocholate are bile salts which
break large fat droplets into the smaller ones Gray Matter Alert!!!
thereby increasing the surface area for lipase
Digestion and Absorption

action. Gall stone: Sometimes the

○ Absorption of fat and fat-soluble vitamins: passage inside the bile duct gets ti
Salts of bile juice help in the absorption of blocked or becomes narrow, so o
the cholesterol gets deposited or n
fat (fatty acids and glycerol) and fat-soluble
vitamins (Vitamin A, D, E and K). precipitated in the gall bladder to
○ Excretion: Bile pigments (bilirubin and form gall stone (cholelithiasis). Absor

and

25.
 biliverdin) are excretory products.
○ Activation of lipase: Bile contains no enzyme Previous Year’s Question
but activates the enzyme lipase.

In pancreas, pancreatic juice and

Pancreas hormones are secreted by
⚫ It develops from endoderm. (1) Same cells
⚫ Pancreas is a mixed/compound (both exocrine (2) Different cells
and endocrine) organ situated between the (3) Same cells at different
limbs of the C-shaped duodenum. Its 99% part is times
exocrine while 1% part is endocrine. (4) None of these
⚫ The exocrine part of pancreas is made up of
numerous acini. Acini is a group of secretory
cells surrounding a cavity. Each acinus is lined
by pyramidal shaped cells. These acinar cells
secrete the enzymes of pancreatic juice.
⚫ Each acini opens into pancreatic ductule. Many
pancreatic ductules combine to form the main
pancreatic duct (duct of Wirsung). The main
Gray Matter Alert!!!
pancreatic duct joins with the common bile duct
to form the hepatopancreatic ampulla which Secretion of pancreatic enzymes
opens into duodenum. The accessory pancreatic is stimulated by Cholecystokinin
duct (duct of Santorini) opens into duodenum pancreozymin (CCK-PZ) while
with a separate opening located above the bicarbonate is stimulated by
opening of main pancreatic duct. secretin.
Digestion and Absorption

26.
⚫ The endocrine part of pancreas consist of group
of endocrine cells (, , , and PP cells) found Rack your Brain
in-between group of acini are called Islets of
Langerhans. These islets secrete glucagon, The zymogen cells release
insulin, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide protein digesting enzymes in
hormone respectively. inactive form. Why?
⚫ Composition of pancreatic Juice:
⚫ Daily secretion of pancreatic juice in human is
about 500-800 ml (pH is 8.4).
⚫ Pancreatic juice has water (98%), salt (sodium
bicarbonate), inactive enzymes like , trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, and
active enzymes like pancreatic lipase, pancreatic
amylase, nucleases (DNase and RNase).

Gastric Glands
⚫ Digestive glands associated with the mucosa of Gray Matter Alert!!!
stomach are called gastric glands.
⚫ They are numerous, microscopic, simple, Prorennin is found in gastric
branched or unbranched tubular glands formed juice of infants that helps in the
by the invagination of epithelium in the stomach. digestion of milk proteins.
⚫ The cardiac region of the stomach has cardiac
gastric glands which mainly consist of mucus-
secreting goblet/mucous neck cells.
⚫ Principal gastric glands are present in the fundus
and body of the stomach.
⚫ These glands have:
○ Chief cells or peptic cells (Zymogen cells):
Secrete protein-digesting inactive enzymes
called pepsinogen and prorennin, lipid
digesting enzyme called gastric lipase and
small quantity of carbohydrate digesting
enzyme called gastric amylase.
Previous Year’s Question
○ Oxyntic cells (Parietal cells): These secrete
Digestion and Absorption

hydrochloric acid and Castle’s Intrinsic factor.

pH of pancreatic juice is about ti
The acidic medium in the stomach (due to
(1) 6.4 o
HCl secretion) is necessary to convert inactive
(2) 8.4 n
enzymes (zymogens) into active enzymes
(3) 12.0
(Pepsinogen to Pepsin and Prorennin to Rennin).
(4) 7.0
Microorganisms that enter the gut along with Absor
food are destroyed by HCl.
and

27.
 ○ Mucous neck cells or Goblet cells: These
secrete mucus.
○ Argentaffin cell: Secrete somatostatin (which
suppresses the release of gastrin hormone), a Gray Matter Alert!!!
precursor of serotonin (5-hydroxy tryptamine),
and histamine. Serotonin acts as a
○ G-cells: Secrete gastrin hormone which in vasoconstrictor and inhibits
turn stimulates the secretion of gastric juice. gastric juice secretion. Histamine
○ Stem cells: Undifferentiated cells which acts as a vasodilator and
differentiate periodically to replace damaged promotes gastric acid secretion.
cells.
⚫ Pyloric Glands: Present in the pyloric region of
the stomach. They are of two types:
○ Mucus secreting mucous neck cells or goblet
cells.
○ Gastrin secreting enteroendocrine cells or
argentaffin cells.

Composition of Gastric juice Previous Year’s Question

Digestion and Absorption

○ Daily secretion - 2-3 L

○ Water = 99.5%
Argentaffin cells are found in
○ HCl = 0.2 – 03%
(1) Pancreas
○ pH = 1.8 (in infants pH = 5)
(2) Internal ear
○ Rest is mucus, water and gastric enzyme
(3) Gastric glands
(Pepsinogen, Prorennin, Gastric lipase, Gastric
(4) Liver
amylase)

28.
 GASTRIC GLAND CELLS SUBSTANCE SECRETED

• Mucus (protects lining of gastric mucosa by

Mucous neck cell neutralising HCl)
• Bicarbonate

• Gastric acid (HCl)

Parietal cells
• Castle’s Intrinsic Factor (vitamin B12 absorption)

• Somatostatin (inhibits gastrin secretion)

Argentaffin cells • Histamine (stimulates acid)
• Serotonin (inhibits gastric juice secretion)

• Pepsinogen
Chief cells • Prorennin
• Gastric lipase

G cells • Gastrin (stimulates secretion of gastric juice)

Intestinal glands
The mucosal epithelium of small intestine
makes two types of intestinal glands— crypts of
Lieberkuhn and Brunner's gland.
⚫ Crypts of Lieberkuhn Gray Matter Alert!!!
○ Occur between the villi of small intestine.
They secrete mucus (goblet cells), water and The secretion of intestinal
electrolytes (enterocytes). glands is called intestinal juice
○ They contain Paneth cells and Argentaffin or succus entericus with a pH
cells. Paneth cells (particularly in the 7.8. About 2-3 litres of intestinal
duodenum) are phagocytic. They also release juice is secreted per day. It
antibacterial lysozymes. contains maltase, isomaltase,
○ Argentaffin cells synthesise secretin hormone sucrase, lactase, enterokinase,
and 5-hydroxytryptamine. aminopeptidase, dipeptidases,
Digestion and Absorption

⚫ Brunner’s glands nucleotidases, nucleosidases ti

○ They are present in the submucosal layer and intestinal lipase. o
of duodenum and opens into the crypts of n
Lieberkuhn.
○ They secrete mucus which protects the
duodenal lining from getting digested by the Absor
HCl coming from the stomach. and

29.
 DIGESTION OF FOOD
The process of digestion is accomplished by Note: Major carbohydrates in
mechanical and chemical processes. diet:
Digestion of Carbohydrates Sucrose or cane sugar
⚫ Digestion of Carbohydrates in Oral Cavity (disaccharide)
○ Digestion of starch and glycogen begins in Lactose or milk sugar
the oral cavity, where the food is mixed with (disaccharide)
the saliva while chewing. Starch and glycogen
○ Saliva contains salivary amylase ( amylase) (polysaccharide)
or ptyalin. It is functional at a nearly neutral
pH (pH 6.8). It causes hydrolysis of starch
into three types of substances i.e. small or Gray Matter Alert!!!
limit dextrins, maltose and isomaltose.
○ The sweet taste of some foods after chewing Herbivores and predatory
is due to maltose. carnivores lack salivary amylase
○ About 30% of the food starch is hydrolysed in in the saliva.
the oral cavity.

⚫ Digestion of Carbohydrates in the Stomach

○ Starch digestion continues in the stomach
because of the salivary amylase present
in the bolus till it is mixed with the gastric
secretion. Rack your Brain
○ The activity of salivary amylase and the small
amount of gastric amylase present in the Why do bread taste sweet after
gastric juice is blocked by the hydrochloric chewing?
acid secreted by the oxyntic cells of the
gastric mucosa.
⚫ Digestion of Carbohydrates in the Small Intestine
○ In the duodenum, the food mixes with
pancreatic juice. This juice contains amylase,
Gray Matter Alert!!!
also known as pancreatic amylase. Like
salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase acts on
Digestion and Absorption

Cellulosic cell wall of plant cells

starch and dextrins to produce limit dextrins,
does not allow quick action
maltose and isomaltose.
of ptyalin. Cooking helps in
○ The intestinal juice contains limit dextrinase,
breaching the cell wall of food
isomaltase and maltase enzymes for
from plant sources.
hydrolysing limit dextrins, isomaltose and

30.
 maltose (respectively) into glucose. Glucose
is absorbed in the small intestine. Rack your Brain
○ There are two more carbohydrate digesting
enzymes in the intestinal juice. They are Why do old people often
sucrase and lactase. Sucrase hydrolyses complain of intestinal cramps,
sucrose into glucose and fructose and flatulence and diarrhoea after
lactase breaks down lactose into glucose and consuming milk?
galactose. The same are absorbed.

Digestion of Proteins
⚫ The proteins consumed by human beings are
chemically long chains of amino acids bound Definition
by peptide bonds. Each protein has a unique
characteristic feature because of the type of Digestion: The process of
amino acids present in it. enzymatic conversion of complex
⚫ Digestion of Proteins in the Stomach organic substances to simpler
○ Since saliva does not have any protein- organic substances which can be
digesting enzyme, the initial steps for absorbed by the body.
hydrolysing proteins starts in the stomach.
○ Hydrochloric acid (HCl) secreted by the
oxyntic cells of gastric glands create a highly
Digestion and Absorption

favourable range of acidity (pH 2-3) for

activation of pepsinogen enzyme. Rack your Brain ti
○ Once inactive pepsinogen (secreted by the o
n
chief cells of gastric mucosa) gets converted Most important feature of pepsin
into active proteolytic pepsin, it digests is the ability to digest collagen.
proteins into proteoses, peptones and a few Why? Absor

and

31.
 polypeptides by breaking the peptide bonds
between their amino acids. Previous Year’s Question
○ Infant’s gastric mucosa also secretes inactive
prorennin which when activated by HCl (at Gastric juice of infants contains
pH 5), digests the milk protein casein into (1) Nuclease, pepsinogen,
paracasein that combines with calcium lipase
to form insoluble calcium paracaseinate. (2) Pepsinogen, lipase, rennin
Calcium paracaseinate is further broken (3) Amylase, rennin, pepsinogen
down by pepsin to form peptones. (4) Maltase, pepsinogen, rennin

⚫ Digestion of Proteins in the Small Intestine by

pancreatic secretions
○ The hepatopancreatic duct delivers bile from
liver and gall bladder and pancreatic juice (pH
8.4) from the pancreas.
○ Pancreatic juice contains four inactive
proteolytic enzymes namely trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase and
proelastase.
Rack your Brain
○ The enzyme enterokinase of intestinal juice
converts trypsinogen into active trypsin.
If pancreas is removed, which
○ On activation, trypsin itself catalyses
component of food will remain
the activation of chymotrypsinogen to
undigested?
active chymotrypsin, proelastase to active
Digestion and Absorption

elastase and procarboxypeptidase to active

carboxypeptidase.
○ Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase
and elastase hydrolyses proteins, peptones,
proteoses and elastin present in the chyme
into dipeptides and other small peptides.

32.
⚫ Digestion of Proteins in the Small Intestine by
Gray Matter Alert!!!
intestinal secretions
○ The enterocytes produce two types of
peptidases, aminopeptidases and several Enterokinase enzyme is also
dipeptidases. These enzymes finally break called ‘activator enzyme’ as it
down remaining peptides and dipeptides into converts trypsinogen into active
amino acids. trypsin.

Digestion of Fats
Most lipid digestion occurs in the small intestine Note:
by the action of pancreatic lipase although some Major fats in diet Neutral fats
(triglycerides) are mainly present
Digestion and Absorption

fat digestion also occurs in the stomach by

lingual lipase and gastric lipase. in the food from animal origin. ti
⚫ Digestion of Fats in the Stomach Small quantities of o
A very small amount of fats is digested in the phospholipids, cholesterol and n
stomach by gastric lipase and lingual lipase cholesterol esters are also
(swallowed with saliva) because of the absence present in food.
Absor
of any emulsifying agent.
and

33.
 ⚫ Digestion of Fats in the Small Intestine
Emulsification of fats Gray Matter Alert!!!
○ Lipases can act only in the region of water-
fat interface as they are soluble in water Triglycerides consist of three
whereas fats are insoluble in water. To molecules of fatty acids
increase the interface, fats must be broken chemically attached with a
down to fine droplets through a process molecule of glycerol.
called emulsification by bile salts.
○ Bile released in the duodenum consists of a
large amount of bile salts and phospholipid
lecithin.
○ Bile salts and lecithin are amphipathic
compounds (having both water-loving,
hydrophilic or polar part and water-repelling,
Definition
hydrophobic or non-polar part) and behave
as biological detergents.
Lipases: Fat digesting enzymes
○ The polar parts of bile salts and lecithin
are known as lipases or steapsin.
project out of the surface of fat lobules while
They are lingual lipase secreted
the fat-soluble, non-polar part dissolves in
by lingual glands in the mouth,
the surface layer of fat lobules.
gastric lipase which are present
○ On agitation in the lumen of duodenum,
in the gastric juice, pancreatic
the big fat lobules with reduced interfacial
lipase of pancreatic juice and
tension (because of the water-soluble polar
enteric lipase secreted by the
projections) are broken up into several minute
enterocytes.
particles very easily, and thus increase the
total surface area of the fats manyfold.
○ All this is important as the fat-digesting
lipase enzymes are water-soluble and thus
can hydrolyse the fat globules only on their
surfaces.
⚫ Action of Lipases:
○ In the small intestine both pancreatic lipase
(main fat-digesting enzyme) and intestinal
lipase become active after bile salts produce
a stable fine emulsion of fats (emulsified fat).
Digestion and Absorption

○ Lipases hydrolyse triglycerides to fatty acids

and diglycerides. The diglycerides are further
broken down into fatty acid molecules and
monoglycerides and finally monoglycerides
are hydrolysed to fatty acids and glycerol.

34.
 ○ Both cholesterol esters and phospholipids
contain fatty acids. These emulsified forms
are hydrolysed by cholesterol ester hydrolase
and phospholipase A2 respectively.

Digestion of Nucleic Acids

The major amount of food consumed by human
beings come from either plant or animal source.
Both plant and animal cells consist of large
quantities of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
⚫ Digestion of Nucleic acids in the Small Intestine Previous Year’s Question
○ Hydrolysis of DNA and RNA begins only in the
small intestine under the action of nucleases Fatty substances are emulsified
present in the pancreatic and intestinal juice. by
○ Pancreatic deoxyribonuclease (DNase) and (1) Lipase enzyme
ribonuclease (RNase) convert DNA and RNA (2) Bilirubin and biliverdin
into deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides (3) HCl
respectively. (4) Sodium salts of glycocholic
○ Further, the intestinal nucleotidases acid and taurocholic acid
hydrolyses nucleotides into nucleosides and
inorganic phosphate.
○ Intestinal nucleosidases then break down
nucleosides into nitrogenous bases and
pentose sugar.
Digestion and Absorption

ti
o
n

Absor

and

35.
 Note: The energy released by the digestion of a food component is measured by the
amount of heat generated during this process. On combustion of 1 g of food in a bomb
calorimeter, the amount of heat energy produced is its gross calorific value. Inside a
human body, when 1 g of food is completely oxidized with the help of enzymes, the
amount of heat energy released is called its physiological value. Human body is an
open system. So complete insulation is not possible. Thus, Physiological value of a food
component is lower than its calorific value.
Components of food Calorific Value (kcal/g) Physiological Value (kcal/g)
Carbohydrates 4.1 4.0
Proteins 5.65 4.0
Fats 9.45 9.0

GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES IN DIGESTION

⚫ Gastrin
○ It is secreted by the G-cells of the antrum of
the stomach (Pyloric stomach) on stimulation
by distension of stomach, products of
proteins and gastrin-releasing peptide, which
is released by vagus nerve stimulation.
○ Its main function is to stimulate the secretion Gray Matter Alert!!!
of gastric acid and to stimulate the growth of
gastric mucosa.
Secretin is the first hormone
⚫ Motilin
discovered by scientists.
○ It is secreted by upper duodenum during
fasting. It increases gastrointestinal motility.
⚫ Cholecystokinin (CCK)
○ It is secreted by ‘I’ cells present in the inner
lining of duodenum and jejunum as a result of
response to digestive products of fatty acids,
monoglycerides and fats in the contents of
intestinal lumen.
○ Its main function is to contract the gall bladder Previous Year’s Question
strongly to release bile into the intestine.
Pancreatic secretion and
⚫ Secretin
gall bladder contraction are
○ It is secreted by the ‘S’ cells of duodenal
Digestion and Absorption

stimulated by
mucosa because of acidic gastric juice
(1) Gastrin
entering in the duodenum.
(2) Enterocrinin
○ It mildly inhibits the gastrointestinal motility
(3) Enterogasterone
and promotes bicarbonate secretion from
(4) Cholecystokinin
pancreas to neutralize the acid of the chyme.
pancreozymine
Also promotes secretion of Brunner’s glands.

36.
⚫ Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide
○ Secreted by the small intestine and help in
inhibition of gastric acid secretion and dilation
of peripheral blood vessels of gut.
⚫ Duocrinin
○ It is also secreted by the duodenal mucosa
Definition
because of chyme. Its function is to activate
Brunner’s glands.
Absorption: It is the process by
⚫ Enterocrinin
which the products of digestion
○ The mucosa of duodenum and jejunum
pass through the intestinal
secretes enterocrinin in response to the
mucosal cells (enterocytes) into
chyme. It activates crypts of Lieberkuhn.
the blood or lymph.
⚫ Villikinin
○ Secreted by the Small intestine, villikinin
increases motility of villi.
⚫ Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) or Enterogastrone
○ It is secreted by the mucosa of Duodenum
in response to majorly fatty acid and amino
acids and minorly carbohydrates.
○ It causes slow gastric emptying and stimulates
insulin secretion.

ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD

⚫ Absorption of digested food is carried out Previous Year’s Question
via passive, active or facilitated transport
mechanisms. Which of the following hormone
⚫ Passive mechanisms include simple diffusion of helps in the secretion of HCl
some monosaccharides like glucose, amino acids from stomach?
and some electrolytes like chloride ions based (1) Secretin
on their concentration gradients. (2) Gastron
⚫ Some digestive products like fructose are (3) Cholecystokinin
absorbed with the help of the carrier proteins. This (4) Gastrin
mechanism is called the facilitated transport.
⚫ Active transport requires energy as it occurs
Digestion and Absorption

against the concentration gradient. Molecules

like glucose and galactose are absorbed into the ti
blood by this mechanism with the help of sodium o
pumps present in the cell membrane (glucose n
and galactose are absorbed along with Na+ ions
by active symport (Co-transportation) Absor

and

37.
 ⚫ Absorption in buccal cavity
○ Buccal cavity does not provide any major
contribution in absorption.
○ Only some chemicals/medicines and alcohol
are absorbed in buccal cavity.
⚫ Absorption in stomach
○ Due to lack of villi containing absorptive Gray Matter Alert!!!
surface and tight junctions between epithelial
cells, stomach is poor in absorption. Presence of folds of Kerckring,
○ However, some lipid-soluble materials like villi and microvilli increases the
alcohol, water, some monosaccharides absorptive area of the mucosa
(glucose), some salts and few drugs like of small intestine by about a
aspirin are absorbed in the stomach. thousand folds (more than 250
⚫ Absorption in small intestine square meters i.e. about the
○ 90% absorption of digested food occurs in surface area of a tennis court).
the small intestine.
○ From the chyme, water is absorbed by
osmosis.
○ About 25-35 grams of sodium is actively
absorbed by the intestine each day.
○ In the duodenum and jejunum, chloride
ions are readily absorbed by diffusion and
bicarbonates by active absorption.
○ Iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium,
phosphate and other ions are actively
absorbed through the intestinal mucosa.
○ Maximum absorption takes place in jejunum.
○ Most monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty Definition
acids, glycerol and vitamins are absorbed in
the small intestine. Chyle: Pale yellow fluid
○ Vitamin B12 is absorbed with Castle’s intrinsic containing absorbed fats taken
up by the lacteals.
factor by forming a complex.
⚫ Absorption in large intestine
○ In a day, about 5-8 litres of fluid and
electrolytes can be absorbed by the large
Digestion and Absorption

intestine.
○ Proximal one-half of the colon is mainly
involved in most of the absorption. Hence, it
called an absorbing colon. The distal colon
principally stores faeces.

38.
 ○ A large amount of sodium and chloride ions
are absorbed actively in the large intestine Gray Matter Alert!!!
whereas bicarbonate ions are secreted in
The formation of monoglycerides
exchange in the lumen of the colon. An
and free fatty acids is a highly
osmotic gradient is created across the
reversible process. Therefore,
large intestinal mucosal by the absorption
they should be removed quickly
of sodium and chloride ions which in turn
from the duodenum.
causes absorption of water.

⚫ Formation of Micelles
○ About 20-40 molecules of bile salts combine
to form micelles which are small, spherical,
globules of 3-6 nanometre in diameter. Each
bile salt molecule has a highly fat-soluble
sterol nucleus carrying the fat-digestate
(monoglycerides and free fatty acids) and a
highly water-soluble polar groups projecting
outwards.
○ The polar groups allow the micelles to be
diffused into the enterocytes where the fatty
Digestion and Absorption

acids and the monoglycerides are taken up

by the endoplasmic reticulum to form new ti
triglycerides. These triglycerides combine o
n
with proteins to form chylomicrons which
move into the lacteals of the villi.
Absor

and

39.
 ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS

Products of Site of Capillaries of

Mode of Absorption
Digestion Absorption Villi

Active transport
Stomach and Blood
Glucose with Na+ pump
jejunum capillaries
(cotransport)

Active transport
Stomach and Blood
Galactose with Na+ pump
jejunum capillaries
(cotransport)

Stomach and Facilitated Blood

Fructose
jejunum transport capillaries

Amino acid Duodenum Blood

Active transport
(majorly) and jejunum capillaries

Duodenum Facilitated Blood

Some amino acids
and jejunum diffusion capillaries

Fatty acids,
Lymphatic
glycerol,
Jejunum Simple diffusion capillaries
glycerides
(lacteals)
(micelles)

Some short chain Blood

Jejunum Simple diffusion
fatty acids capillaries
Digestion and Absorption

Lymphatic
Fat soluble
Jejunum Simple diffusion capillaries
vitamins
(lacteals)

40.
 Products of Site of Capillaries of
Mode of Absorption
Digestion Absorption Villi

Stomach,
small Blood
Water Osmosis
intestine, large capillaries
intestine

Water soluble Blood

Jejunum Simple diffusion
vitamins capillaries

Blood
Sodium ions Small intestine Active transport
capillaries

Blood
Calcium ions Duodenum Active transport
capillaries

Duodenum Simple diffusion Blood

Chloride ions
and jejunum or active transport capillaries

Duodenum,
Blood
Bicarbonate ions jejunum and Active transport
capillaries
large intestine

Blood
Iron Duodenum Active transport
capillaries

Blood
Bile salts Ileum Simple diffusion
capillaries
Digestion and Absorption

ti
o
n

Abs

and

41.
 ASSIMILATION
⚫ The absorbed substances finally reach the Gray Matter Alert!!!
tissues which utilise them for their activities.
This process is called assimilation.  Flatus: Gases in the
⚫ In the cells, amino acids are used for protein gastrointestinal tract are
synthesis. Excess amino acids are deaminated in collectively called flatus.
the liver. The detached amino groups from the Presence of flatus in the
amino acids form ammonia. digestive tract is due to
⚫ Ammonia is then converted into urea and swallowed air, gases because
excreted by the kidneys. of bacterial action in the large
⚫ Glucose is utilised by cells to produce energy intestine and gases diffused
during cellular respiration. Excess glucose, into the gastrointestinal tract
fructose and galactose are stored in muscle cells from the blood. Much of the
and liver as glycogen. swallowed air is released
⚫ Fats are stored in the adipocytes as a future by belching or eructation
energy reserve. (burping). The expulsion of
excess gases of the large
EGESTION (DEFECATION) intestine from the anus is
⚫ The elimination of faeces from the alimentary called flatulence or farting.
canal is called egestion or defecation.
⚫ Normally faeces consist of three-fourths water
and one-fourth solid matter.
⚫ The solid matter in the faeces is composed of
about 30 percent undigested roughage, 30
percent dead bacteria, 10-20 percent inorganic Definition
matter, 10-20 percent fat and 2-3 percent protein,
bile pigments and discarded epithelial cells. Assimilation: The process by
which tissues utilize absorbed
substances subtances for
DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
perfomrning their activities.
⚫ Jaundice (icterus)
○ It is yellowing of the skin and the whites of
the eye due to accumulation of bile pigment
bilirubin in the blood.
○ Bilirubin from the blood reaches the liver
Gray Matter Alert!!!
Digestion and Absorption

where it gets mixed with the bile and leaves

the body along with faeces.
○ During liver malfunctioning, excess The brown colour of the faeces is
bilirubin leaks into the tissues leading to due to the presence of stercobilin
hyperbilirubinemia which gives yellow colour and urobilin, derivatives of
to the skin and eyes. bilirubin.

42.
⚫ Vomiting (emesis)
○ It is the forceful ejection of gastrointestinal Definition
contents through the mouth. This reflex action
is controlled by two centres of vomiting in  Nausea: An unpleasant feeling
the medulla oblongata. to vomit.
○ Nausea and retching precede vomiting.  Retching: Strong involuntary
⚫ Diarrhoea contractions of diaphragm,
○ The abnormally rapid frequency of bowel abdominal muscles and
movement and increased liquidity of the thoracic wall without any
faecal content is known as diarrhoea. It expulsion of gastrointestinal
reduces the absorption of food. It is caused contents.
due to increased motility of the intestinal
wall due to:
○ Inflammation of the intestine (infectious
diarrhoea).
○ Extensive inflammation and ulceration of
Rack your Brain
colon walls (ulcerative colitis).
⚫ Constipation
○ In constipation, the faeces are retained Why do most people experience
within the colon and rectum as the bowel nausea and vomiting during
movements occur irregularly. travelling in the mountains?
○ Causes of constipation include a practice
of inhibition of normal defecation reflexes,
spasms of sigmoid colon, inadequate fibre
consumption, stress, lack of exercise, less
water intake, tumours, etc.
⚫ Indigestion Definitions
○ In this condition, the food is not properly
digested leading to a feeling of fullness.  Diarrhoea: Bacterial infection
○ The causes of indigestion are inadequate of the small intestine. It
enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, is characterised by watery
overeating, and spicy food. stool. The stool does not have
⚫ Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) much foul smell.
○ Malnutrition is an inadequate amount of  Dysentery: Amoebic infection
Digestion and Absorption

nutrients received by a body. Lack of protein of the large intestine. It is

and/or calories in diet is the main cause characterised by semi-solid ti
of PEM. Protein Energy Malnutrition can be stool. The stool has too much o
classified into two types: Kwashiorkor and n
foul smell.
Marasmus.
Absor

and

43.
 PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)

Kwashiorkor Marasmus

• Occur in children more than one

Occur in children below one year of age
year of age

• Deficiency of proteins only Deficiency of both protein and calories both

• Extensive peripheral oedema No oedema

• Subcutaneous fat reduced but is

Subcutaneous fat disappears
still present

• Wasting of muscles and thinning of Extreme emaciation of body and thinning of

limbs occur limbs occur

• Skin appears to be swollen Skin is dry and wrinkled

• Underweight children Severely emaciated

• Common occurrence of fatty liver Occurrence of fatty liver uncommon

• Sparse hair No change in hair

VITAMINS
Previous Year’s Question
⚫ Vitamins are organic molecules and essential
micronutrients that an organism needs in small Continuous bleeding from an
quantities for the proper functioning of its injured part of the body is due to
metabolism and growth. the deficiency of
⚫ Earliest extracted vitamin is Vitamin B1 from (1) Vitamin A
Digestion and Absorption

unpolished rice (1912). (2) Vitamin B

⚫ The term ‘Vitamin’ was given by Funk. (3) Vitamin K
(4) Vitamin E

44.
 MAJOR DIETARY VITAMINS

Common Deficiency
Vitamin Source Symptoms Functions
name disease

Synthesis of
Leafy
prothrombin which
vegetables,
Slow or is required for
Menadione/ soyabean oil Abnormally high
K delayed normal
Phylloquinone and bleeding
coagulation coagulation.
intestinal
Present in
bacteria
intestinal bacteria

Antioxidant and
plays an important
Tocopherol/ Leafy Macrocytic Destruction of
role in ETS,
Antisterility/ vegetables, anaemia, RBC
E metabolism of
Beauty cereals and muscular (haemolytic
selenium,
Vitamin vegetable oils dystrophy anaemia)
formation of RNA,
DNA and RBC

Fragile bones Promotes

Rickets in
contorted absorption of
Fish oil, liver, children and
D Calciferol skeleton and calcium and
egg yolk, milk osteomalacia in
poor muscular phosphorous in
adults
development intestine

Keratinisation
Yellow and of mucous in
Nightblindness
green membranes Growth, prevent
(nyctalopia)
A Retinol vegetables, e.g. respiratory keratinisation of
xerophthalmia,
fruits, milk tract, epithelia
dermatitis
and butter urinogenital
tract and skin

Vegetables Coenzyme in
Scaly skin,
Biotin/ and fresh synthesis of fatty
H Dermatitis Muscle pain
Vitamin B fruits, liver, acid convention of
and weakness
milk, eggs pyruvate into OAA

Helps in formation
Bleeding in of collagen, in
gums, loose adrenal gland’s
Digestion and Absorption

Amla, citrus Scurvy,

teeth, working as an
C Ascorbic Acid fruits, anaemia, joint
anaemia and antioxidant, in ti
tomatoes pain
swollen and erythropoiesis, o
painful joints absorption of Ca+2 n
and Fe+2

Absor

and

45.
 Common Deficiency
Vitamin Source Symptoms Functions
name disease

Loss of
appetite, Form coenzymes
Beri-Beri/
Wheat, gram, fatigue, in carbohydrate
Polyneuritis/
B1 Thiamine peanuts, muscular metabolism and
Cardio vascular
yeast, beans atrophy, help in pentose
atrophy
paralysis, metabolism
cardiomegaly

Yeast,
Riboflavin liver, milk,
Cheilosis, Inflammation Part of coenzymes
vitamin-G cheese, leafy
B2 glossitis, of eyes and lip (FMN and FAD) in
or yellow vegetables
keratitis sores ETS
enzyme and intestinal
bacteria

Part of coenzymes
NAD and NADP
Pellagra, that acts as H2
Yeast, gram, diarrhoea, Scaly skin, acceptors and
Niacin/Vitamin
B3 peanuts and dermatitis, dehydration, acts as donors
4-D/PP-Factor
meat dementia, death loss memory for functioning of
(4-D syndrome) nervous system
and gastro -
intestinal tract

Part of coenzyme A
in cell respiration,
Abnormal needed for neural
Pantothenic Yeast, peas,
Burning feet functioning tissue, formation
B5 acid, yeast liver, max. in
syndrome of adrenal of acetylcholine,
factor wheat, honey
degeneration required for normal
functioning of
adrenal gland

Part of coenzymes
Lesions over
pyridoxal
Meat, milk, skin, disorders
Nausea and phosphate needed
B6 Pyridoxine wheat, liver, of central
vomiting in the formation of
banana neural system,
amino acids and
convulsions
glycogen
Digestion and Absorption

Part of coenzymes
Malfunctioning in nucleic acid
of antibody (Purine and
Liver, green
Folic acid or synthesis pyrimidine)
vegetables, Macrocytic
B9 folacin or and stunted synthesis and
banana and anaemia
vitamin M growth, protein synthesis,
oranges
ulceration in erythropoiesis,
mouth cell division in
bone marrow

46.
 Common Deficiency
Vitamin Source Symptoms Functions
name disease

Abnormally
Pernicious large and
Coenzymes for
Cyanocobala- Liver and anaemia/ immature
B12 nucleic acid
mine eggs megaloblastic RBCs with
synthesis
anaemia Hb but lacks
nucleus

MINERALS Gray Matter Alert!!!

⚫ Minerals are classified as macrominerals and
microminerals based on thier requirement in the Nature’s most potent antioxidant
body. is vitamin E, which is maximum
⚫ Macrominerals are importanat in diet, whereas in liver. Vitamin B12 is absent
micronutrients are needed only in minute in plants. It is considered that
quantities. Spirulina (an alga) contains B12.

SOME IMPORTANT MINERALS, THEIR DEFICIENCY DISORDERS AND FUNCTIONS

Mineral Effect of Deficiency Functions

Element of bone and teeth; important

Rickets, muscular
for coagulation; needed for normal
Calcium spasm (Vitamin D is
functioning of muscle, nerve and
also required)
heart (vitamin D is also required).

Main anion of interstitial fluid;

Chlorine Anorexia, muscular
Important in the formation of HCl and
cramp
maintaining acid-base balance.

Enzyme activator, required in muscle

Muscular convulsion
Magnesium relaxation, ribosome binding and
Digestion and Absorption

in intestine
nerve function
ti
o
n
Main cation in the cytoplasm;
Rickets, risk of controls nerve excitability and muscle
Potassium
paralysis contraction, Dietary deficiency causes Absor
rickets among children.
and

47.
 Mineral Effect of Deficiency Functions

Main cation in interstitial fluid;

maintains fluid balance; important
Muscular cramps,
for conduction of nerve impulse.
Sodium hypotension and
Element of bile salt, promotes
anorexia
absorption of glucose, fructose and
few amino acids.

Important structural component of

Malformation of
bones, DNA and RNA; essential in
bone and teeth,
energy transfer, storage of energy
Phosphorus ceased body growth
(ATP) and other metabolic activities;
and physiological
maintains normal blood pH (buffer
function
action)

Components of hormones (e.g.

Skin patches, disturb insulin): needed for normal
Sulphur
metabolism metabolism and present in amino
acid like methionine, cysteine.

Trace Elements

Weak immunity and Part of at least 70 enzymes e.g.

Zinc fertility, Retarded carbonic anhydrase, and some
growth and Anorexia peptidases.

Part of enzymes for melanin

Anaemia and damage synthesis; Essential for haemoglobin
Copper
of CNS synthesis. Component of cyt-a3 in
ETS (Cytochrome oxidase).
Digestion and Absorption

Component of Vitamin B12 and

Cobalt Pernicious anaemia
erythropoiesis.

48.
 Mineral Effect of Deficiency Functions

Diabetes mellitus
Normal activity of insulin,
Chromium and irregular
carbohydrate and lipid metabolism
production of ATP

Infertility in male,
prostate gland Antioxidant, promotes sperm motility,
Selenium cancer, necrosis in therefore, it is required for male
liver and muscular fertility, synthesis of thyroid hormone
dystrophy

Dental fluorosis and Maintains enamel and prevents

Fluorine deformity in bones dental decay formation of
(Hunchback) flourapeptite, Antibacterial

Irregular growth Working of lipase enzyme, formation

of bone, cartilage, of urea, required for haemoglobin
Manganese
connective tissue, synthesis, releases insulin, lactation,
anaemia bone formation.

Irregular excretion of Co-factor in some enzyme, formation

Molybdenum
nitrogenous waste of ascorbic acid.

Goitre, abortion,
Iodine infant death, Component of thyroid hormone
cretinism

Components of respiratory pigments

Anaemia, weak (like haemoglobin and myoglobin),
Digestion and Absorption

Iron
immunity respiratory enzymes (like cytochromes)
ti
and oxygen transport enzymes.
o
n

Absor

and

49.
 Summary
Digestion and Absorption

Digestion and Absorption

50.
Summary
Digestion and Absorption
Alimentary Canal
51.
 Summary
Digestion and Absorption

Histology of Alimentary Canal

52.
Summary
Digestion and Absorption
Digestive Glands
53.
 Food Products of
Digestive Enzyme Source Site of Action
Component Digestion

Salivary
Limit dextrins,
Salivary amylase or juice
Oral Cavity Starch maltose and
ptyalin (salivary
isomaltose
glands)

Pepsinogen Gastric Peptones,

(inactive) juice Stomach Proteins proteoses and
Pepsin (active) (stomach) large peptides

Limit dextrins,
Pancreatic Small intestine
Starch maltose and
-amylase (duodenum)
isomaltose

Trypsinogen (inac-
Small intestine
tive) Proteins Dipeptides
(duodenum)
Trypsin (active)

Chymotrypsinogen
(inactive) Small intestine
Peptones Dipeptides
Chymotrypsin (duodenum)
(active)
Pancreatic
Proelastase
juice Small intestine
(inactive) Elastin Dipeptides
(pancreas) (duodenum)
Elastase (active)

Procarboxypepti-
dase
Small intestine
(inactive) Proteoses Dipeptides
(duodenum)
Carboxypeptidase
(active)

Small intestine Fatty acids

Pancreatic Lipase Triglycerides
(duodenum) and glycerol

Small intestine
Nucleases Nucleic acids Nucleotides
Digestion and Absorption

(duodenum)

54.
 Food Products of
Digestive Enzyme Source Site of Action
Component Digestion

Oligopeptides
Erepsin
Jejunum and Amino acids
(exopeptidases)
dipeptidases

Fats, Fatty acids

Intestinal lipase Jejunum
glycerides and glycerol

Polysaccha- Limit dextrins,

Intestinal amylase Jejunum
rides disaccharides

Limit dextrinase Jejunum Limit dextrins Glucose

Intestinal
juice (small Monosaccha-
Disaccharidases intestine) Jejunum Disaccharides
rides

Nucleosides
Nucleotidase Jejunum Nucleotides and phos-
phoric acid

Pentose sug-
ars, Nitrog-
Nucleosidase Jejunum Nucleosides enous bases
(purines and
pyrimidines)

Role of Enzymes in Alimentary Canal

Digestion and Absorption

ti
o
n

Absor

and

55.
 SOLVED EXERCISE

Q1 Which of the following substances is not absorbed in jejunum?

(1) Amino acids (2) Vitamin B12 (3) Fat soluble vitamins (4) Glucose

A1 (2)
Monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, water etc., are
absorbed in jejunum. Vitamin B12, bile salts, water are absorbed in ileum.

Q2 Which of the following does not produce any digestive enzyme?

(1) Acini of pancreas (2) Liver (3) Stomach (4) Duodenum

A2 (2)
Liver produces bile. There is no digestive enzyme secreted along with bile.

Q3 Select the correct statement regarding digestion of boiled potatoes by

humans.
(1) Cellulose will be digested by cellulase
(2) Starch will not be digested
(3) Lactase will digest carbohydrates
(4) DNA will be digested by pancreatic enzymes

A3 (4)
⚫ Cellulose in boiled potatoes is not digested by humans as their body is
devoid of enzyme cellulase.
⚫ Salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase will digest starch present in
boiled potatoes into maltose (in mouth) and glucose (in duodenum).
⚫ Lactose is milk sugar. Boiled potatoes do not contain lactose.
⚫ Pancreatic enzymes contain nucleases (RNase and DNase). They digest the
DNA present in the potato cells (plant cells).
Digestion and Absorption

56.
Q4 In human beings, which of the following pairs of teeth appear twice in life?
(1) Canines and First Molars (2) Third Molars and First Premolars
(3) First Premolars and Second Molars
(4) Second Incisors and Second Premolars

A4 (1)
In human beings, except the premolars and last molars all types of teeth
appear twice in life.

Q5 A person is passing whitish-gray faecal matter, what is not functioning

properly in the body?
(1) Kidney (2) Liver (3) Spleen (4) Pancreas

A5 (2)
Liver secretes bile in the duodenum. Bile contains bile salts (sodium
bicarbonate, sodium glycocholate, sodium taurocholate) and bile pigments
(bilirubin and biliverdin) due to which faeces has its usual colour. Whitish-
gray faecal matter usually means that these bile salts and pigments are
absent in the faeces. This could be caused by improper functioning of liver.

Q6 During prolonged fasting

(1) First, fats are used up followed by carbohydrates from liver and muscles,
and protein in the end.
(2) First, carbohydrates are used up followed by fats and proteins towards
the end.
(3) First, lipids are used up followed by proteins and carbohydrates towards
the end.
(4) None of the above.

A6 (4)
Digestion and Absorption

After prolonged fasting, firstly glucose and glycogen which are stored in the
ti
body are used up. The body then derives energy by burning stored fats in the o
adipocytes. When maximum fat storage is used up, then the body n
digests vital proteins.

Absor

and

57.
 Q7 The cells of pancreas are not autodigested by their enzymes as
(1) Cells are covered by mucous
(2) Enzymes are produced only when required
(3) Enzymes do not have coenzymes
(4) Enzymes are secreted in inactive form

A7 (4)
The enzymes secreted by pancreatic cells are inactive. They become active
in the duodenum.

Q8 Select the incorrect statement about gastrointestinal hormones?

(1) The growth of gastric mucosa is stimulated by gastrin hormone.
(2) Secretin hormone promotes the secretion of bicarbonates from the pan-
creatic cells.
(3) Brunner’s glands are activated by duocrinin hormone.
(4) Enterogastrone hormone increases the gastric emptying.

A8 (4)
Enterogastrone or Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) hormone inhibits the
gastric secretion and motility.

Q9 Which statement about nutrient absorption by the enterocytes is true?

(1) Carbohydrates are absorbed as disaccharides.
(2) Fats are absorbed passively as fatty acids and monoglycerides.
(3) Amino acids move across the plasma membrane only by diffusion.
(4) Fructose is absorbed by facilitated transport.

A9 (4)
⚫ All carbohydrates are absorbed as monosaccharides in stomach and
jejunum.
⚫ Fatty acid and glycerol are absorbed via simple diffusion.
Digestion and Absorption

⚫ Amino acids are absorbed by active transport and some amino acids are
absorbed by facilitated transport. It occurs mainly in the duodenum and
jejunum.
⚫ Fructose is absorbed by facilitated transport.

58.
Q10 The following are absent in the case of upper one-third part of oesophagus,
except
(1) Visceral peritoneum (Serosa) (2) Digestive gland
(3) Myenteric plexus (4) Skeletal muscles

(4)
A10 Since oesophagus lies outside the coelom, its outer wall is not covered by
peritoneum.
In upper one-third of the oesophagus both Auerbach and Meissner’s
plexuses are absent.
No digestion takes place in the oesophagus, as digestive glands are absent in
oesophagus.

Digestion and Absorption

ti
o
n

Absor

and

59.
Digestion and Absorption

60.