General Description of Recent Projects Involving Rockfill Dams

BRAZILIAN COMMITTEE ON DAMS
IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCKFILL DAMS - SIBE

BELO HORIZONTE – MG, MAY 17-18, 2017 BRAZIL
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General Report – Theme 1
General Description of Recent Projects Involving

Rockfill Dams
Manoel S. Freitas Jr. – Consulting Engineer
[email protected]
Humberto Marengo – Independent Consultant
(Professor of Civil Engineering, Universidad Nacional de México)
[email protected]
SUMMARY
The Report presents rockfill dams current design conception, construction features and
performance post- construction interventions, focus on three types of rockfill
impervious concept: Concrete Face Rockfill Dam(CFRD), Earth Core Rockfill
Dam(ECRD) and Asphalt Core rockfill dam (ACRD).
CFRD and ACRD dams have been emerged in the last four decades in several
countries as the most feasible alternatives for high dams in terms of construction time,
costs and safety issues, compared to the "classical" earth core rockfill (ECRD) one.
According to international experience, a rockfill dam alternative choice at a local river is

related to the best known engineering design, practice and precedents, site geological
conditions considering valley topographical conditions, and especially the availability of
significant volumes of rock material available from required excavations (spillway,
spillway approach channel, powerhouse, spillway stilling area, power house tailrace,
etc.).
1. INTRODUCTION
In this report, are summarized the design concepts, construction methodology aspects,
monitoring and post-construction observations and cases of interventions in rockfill
dams from the last decades . Seepage control concepts related rockfill dams design
and construction issues from Brazilian and international literature are presented and
discussed. Cases of upstream PVC membrane are mentioned as a current and
important alternative for rockfill dams impervious concept.
Dumped rockfill material in high dams was a common practice in the past construction
dams such as Salt Springs (100m) in 1931; Cogswell (85m) in 1934; Lower Bear Nr.1
(71m) in 1952; Courtright (98m) in 1958; Wishon (82m) in 1958; New Exchequer
(150m) in 1966 in the United States and Paradela (112m) in 1956, in Portugal.
The construction of rockfill dams had a great technological progress mainly since
1960, when it passed from dumped rockfill methodology for compaction technology
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IV International Symposium on Rockfill Dams – SIBE
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with thickness layer and number of passes control. The development of more efficient
types of equipment, for rock drilling, excavation and transport and vibratory rollers in the
last decades have contributed to this advancement techniques on dam construction.
The rockfill dam alternative choice is associated with the site geological conditions,
valley topographical characteristics and especially the availability of significant volumes
of rock material available from required excavations. Rockfill stockpiles should always
be minimized or avoided in view costs addition and time construction increases.
From the 60's and 70's, concrete face rockfill dams (CFRD) and asphalt core (ACRD)
have emerged as the most feasible alternatives in terms of construction time and costs
comparatively with the "classical" earth core (ECRD) alternative. The cohesive earth
core material has sometimes limitations regarding to the transport distances to borrow
areas (over 2km) and/or in the construction schedule influence during rainy seasons.
Foundation treatment grouting curtain in the central areas (axis) remains a critical path
in the construction schedule, either for both impervious core alternatives - earth core or
asphalt core, in comparison to concrete face rockfill dams’ alternative. For high dams
(> 100 m) the asphalt sealing upstream face alternative has been less applied.
2. ROCKFILL DESIGN CONCEPTION

The traditional criteria to select a "proper rockfill", recommend a non-uniform grain size
material (Coefficient of Uniformity, D60/D10, Cu>10) and having a percentage of fines that
does not develop neutral or interstitial pressures during the construction [1] Penman et
al., [2], i.e. draining. The rockfill material should be a dense and interlocking structure
and being therefore important the specifications for compaction, vibratory roller type,
wetting facilities and layer thickness control. Well- graded materials (Cu> 10) have
higher deformability modules than "uniform" rockfill ones. The rockfill deformability is
directly proportional to the stresses state, i.e., the dam height and inversely proportional
to the compactness, a function of the grain size (Cu). Veiga Pinto [3], [4].
Alluvial materials such as gravels have deformability modules values above 200 MPa,
revealing themselves to be excellent materials for fill dams and no need for wetting
facilities during the launch and spreading operations. Rockfills differ from gravel
materials, because rockfills display fracturing and crushing at very low pressures.
Collapse and creeping effect are important for rockfill embankment long-term behavior.
[5] Maranha das Neves, [6] Cruz et al.
The Reporters understand that a non-cohesive material with fine percentages (of 40%
below # 1"), and some little cohesive characteristics, and developing low neutral
pressures even those classified as "random" may be used preferably on the central
portion and downstream for practical and construction purposes. One of the striking
features as rockfill material is the possibility of large daily releases above 40,000 m 3
production, regardless of the weather (rainy season), limited only by the conditions of
access and transport distances.
Soft Rocks: as a construction material, the use of "soft rocks" become a very attractive
alternative, when the soft material is available in site from the required excavations
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(power House, spillway, tunnels). Geologically, soft rocks are conceptualized as a low
resistance rock, high porosity, low cementation and very sensitive to changes in natural
weather, (weathering dependence), according to Kanji. 2014 [7], [8]. Types of natural
intact soft rocks are classified, such as :
 Sedimentary rocks: i) Clastic: mudstones, shales, siltstones, sandstones,
conglomerates, breccias, marl.; ii) Evaporites: salt rock, carnallite, etc. and iii)
Soluble: limestone, dolomite, gypsum ;
 Igneous rocks: volcanic conglomerates, breccias and lahar, pyroclastic deposits,
volcanic ash, tuff and ignimbrite. Basaltic breccia. Weathering products of crystalline
rocks;
 Metamorphic rocks: slate, Phyllite, Schists, Quartzite little cemented. Volcanic
deposits;
The boundaries limits between soft rock or soil, or hard rock are sometimes
questionable. To verify that all types of rock follow the concept of relationship between
porosity and density, it would be a gradual transition from hard rock to soft rock, and
earth.
In the Tianshengqiao 1(TSQ.1) CFRD, built in China ( 2000, 178m max. height) more
than 4,000,000 m3 of mudstone (30% of the material <# 1 1/5 " from limestone rock),
slope 1.4(H):1.0(V) at upstream part and 1.3(H):1.0(V) at downstream, was applied at
3C downstream inner zone, in view its susceptible to weathering. The mudstone
material come from the spillway (approach channel) required excavations with a very
significant optimization in cost and time. [9] Wu, Freitas et al. The deformability
modulus at the end of the construction estimated from settlement cells ranged between
41 and 48 MPa (upstream and center zones), and recorded values at downstream
zone up to 30 MPa. For the mudstone ( Zone 3C) an average value of in situ density
was of 22.3 kN/m3. The mudstone showed a good workability for use in the rockfill.
Nuozhadu ECRD (261.5m max. height, earth core) was another interesting experience
of soft rock using in large volumes ( 4,780,000 m3) at upstream shell zone, that
represents 14.0% of the total dam rockfill volume, 34 x 106 m3/s, from required
excavations and with huge benefit costs for the project. Upstream slope 1.9 (H):1.0 (V)
and 1.8 (H):1.0 (V) downstream slope were implemented according to design, in an
earthquake seismic area. Nuozhadu dam is operating since August 2012, and in a good
conditions and performance.
The recommendation for future use of rockfill soft rocks must concerning to follow a tight
specification construction such as, limitation of layers thickness at 100 cm, and minimum
6 passes of a vibratory roller of at least 12 tons. Wetting services during spreading and
compaction activities should be restricted in soft rock materials in the Reporter's opinion.
The current rockfill construction practice has shown that the use of soft rocks in future
high dams should fulfill and to seek quality practices and costs optimization and
construction schedule. Test fills performed at dam offset, prior to the construction works
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are important required practices for testing equipment, materials and specification
proceedings, when using soft rocks in high dams.
2.1 Rockfill Slopes & Stability
It was widely reported in the international literature the inherent safety conditions of
concrete face rockfill dams. The only case of CFRD rupture during filling was Gouhou
CFRD in China (1993).
The Brazilian experience of earth core rockfil dams in competent foundations,
recommends upstream slopes ranged from 1.5 (H) to 1.8 (H): 1.0(V) and 1.3H to
1.5(H): 1.0 (V) for the downstream part. The Irapé dam, the largest rockfill project with
clay core ( ECRD) in Brazil (CEMIG), 208m high, so far, was designed with upstream
slope gradient of 1:1.5 H: 1.0(V) up to the elevation 484.00 m, rising to 1: 1.3(H): 1.0(V)
up to the crest 515.50m. On the downstream slope, 1:1.3H: 1.0(V). [10] .
In current concrete face rockfill dams (CFRD) it has been adopted 1.4 (H): 1(V), and 1.3
(H): 1(V) for upstream and downstream slopes, respectively. In Shuibuya CFRD, in
China (233m max.height) has adopted these slope gradients.
When built with alluvial material, gravel, the current practice is to adopt slopes of 1.6
(H): 1.0(V) to 1.5 (H): 1.0( V) upstream, and 1.5 (H): 1.0( V) downstream part. In
competent rock foundations or residual soils there is no records of dam ruptures
through the foundation in the literature.
Chaglla CFRD, 210 high, located in Peru at a narrow valley with shape factor A/H2
round 1.50 and steep right abutment, with an average inclination of 70o, presents an
important design feature. In Chaglla, rockfill slopes 1.6( H) : 1,0 (V) upstream and 1.8 H
: 1,0 H downstream and natural granular materials were used at 3B upstream zone and
sound rockfill mixed with weathered rock at central zone ( T). [11], [12]
Regarding stability analysis in high rockfill dams on competent foundations, Cooke and
Sherard’s 1987) [13] have stated: “... rockfills cannot fail along plane or circular
surfaces, whenever dumped or compacted, if the external slopes are 1.3 (H): 1.0 (V) or 1.4
(H): 1,0 (V) which are the usual slopes in CFRDs, because the friction angle of the
rockfills are at least 45º, and this is already a guarantee of stability”.
2.2 Foundation Treatment

Current rockfill dams have been built on rock foundation or on a material with strength
and compressibility properties. Exceptionally, suitable solutions to local conditions
were implemented, such as: i) sound to medium weathered rock - natural aggregate
very compact of minerals, mineraloid or fragments of other rocks strongly bound by
chemical linkages or cements; ii) granular material, permeable, alluvial (gravels) - In
concrete face rockfill dams designing, foundations treatment are quite relevant,
especially at plinth structure for the grouting services.
According to the US Bureau of Reclamation (2010), the requirements for a rockfill dam
foundation are lesser criteria when compared to concrete gravity dams, but larger in
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relation to earth core rockfill dams, where competent foundations are desirable. Rockfill
dam foundation treatment consists basically in surface soils and soft materials
excavations foundation regularization up to the line of excavation design or according to
specifications. Among the materials considered unsuitable are the organic soil (top soil),
porous collapsible colluvium, sensitive and expansive clays, and soft and saturated
soils.
2.2.1 Sound rock or weathered foundation
Sound or weathered rock, gravel and compact sand are acceptable material for plinth
foundation, according to numerous cases of rockfill dams already built in different
countries. The plinth design concept in CFRDs must concern seepage and hydraulic
gradients foundation control, according to Cooke (2000) "the plinth, along with the
perimeter joint is the primary connection between the foundation and the
concrete face".
The plinth structure in most cases is founded on sound rock or competent and
injectable material. In several cases, on weathered rock or saprolite (treatment with
shotcrete and inverted filter on the downstream stretch) and alluvium (diaphragm wall
implementation). Currently, the plinth structures have an upstream slab (minimum 3 m
width) that is used for grouting services equipment assembly, and an inner slab
required to ensure the hydraulic gradients and excavation saving at abutment areas.
Plinth design should fulfill: i) Hydraulic gradients; ii) Geological foundation
characteristics; iii) Foundation line geometry or topography (top bathymetry);
2.2.2 Gravels and sand alluvium materials foundation
Compact gravel of alluvial nature with high permeability, makes the foundation
treatment more focused on tight flow control. Treatment stages criteria:
i) In the case of alluvial with permeable layers (gravel, sand) the alternatives are deep
excavation to reach more impermeable substrate or sizing a diaphragm wall or other
device to seal the flow through articulated foundation with the plinth;
ii) Flows and gradients analysis by the plinth foundation ;
iii) Deep excavation or implementation of flow control device such as diaphragm walls
or articulated diaphragm wall with the plinth structure.
2.2.3 Grouting treatment
The following criteria are recommended for grouting services summarily: [6] Cruz et al:
 Two consolidation lines with depths ranging between 8 m and 15 m depending on
the rock foundation characteristics. The distance between these perforations is
usually 3 m between holes.
 A central line grouting , depths ranging from 1/3H to 2/3H, where H is the reservoir
head , with a minimum depth of 20 - 30 m.
 The primary injections are located at 12 m, with secondary at 6m and tertiary at 3
m. In very fragmented permeable areas quaternary injections can be scheduled at
1.50 m center to center.
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 In places of erodible materials, the foundation treatment extends beyond the

plinth by 10m downstream, excavating the material and filling the excavation with
mortar or shotcrete, to perform the injection.
 In very fragmented and permeable shoulders, the number of curtain lines can be
increased. In Alto Anchicayá, Colombia, where the plinth was placed on
sedimentary rock, 5 injection lines were established instead of the conventional .
The GIN (Grout Intensity Number) method is recommended for the treatment of
foundations, such as the case of the Aguamilpa, Mohale, Pichi Picún Leufú dams.
(Lombardi G.) [14], [ 15] . For ECRDs, CFRDs or ACRDs grouting treatments, the
selection of the GIN value depends on the geological conditions of the project. The
election of the injection method depends of course, on designers’ experience.
3. RELEVANT CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
Current and important rockfill dams specifications recommend using 12 – 25 ton
vibratory rollers, rockfill thickness layers ≤ 1.0m and wetting facilities ( > 150 liters/ m3)
during spreading activities stages from international practices. Some examples of
1,20m thickness layers at downstream zone are recorded too. In case of alluvial or
conglomerate materials, where a maximum grain size very often ranged from 0.10 m
to 0.80m, thickness layers of 0.80m are recommended. Wetting facilities are not
necessary in these cases.
Rockfill grain size issues related on the "amount of fines" has often concerned several
discussions among experts. An advantage of a high presence of fines (non-cohesive)
is to form a uniform surface and to seek reduction of the truck tires wearing during the
transit facilities, that means improve trucks trafficability.
An interesting case of use of moraine conglomerate (max diameter 600 mm) rockfill
dam construction from quarries areas (located 4 – 5 km from dam site), is
Jiangpinche CFRD ( 219 m –high, 1: 1.4 : US/ DS slopes). A 32 ton vibratory roller
was used and wetting supply of 15% of the amount rockfill volume. Thickness layers
of 80 cm and 10 ≈ 12 passes of vibratory roller were implemented. [16]
The rockfill premises of non-development of interstitial pressures and support for good
trafficability were stated by Cooke and Sherard (1987) [ 17] “When a rockfill contains
a fines content exceeding some limits, the final evaluation of suitability can be made
based on trafficability of the rockfill surface when the material is thoroughly wetted. A
stable construction surface under the travel of heavy trucks demonstrates that the
wheel loads are being carried by a rockfill skeleton.
3.1 Earth Core Rockfill

Earth core rockfill dams over 200m height were built in the 70s and 80s, such as:
Oroville Dam (244.0 m 1968) in the United States; Mica Dam (243 m, 1973), in
Canada; Chicoasen Dam - Manual Moreno Torres (260m, 1980) in Mexico; Nurek
Dam (304m, 1980) in Tajikistan (former USSR); Chivor dam - Esmeralda (237m,
1982) and Guavio dam (248m, 1989) both in Colombia; Tehri dam (260 m, 2006) in
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India; and Nuozhadu dam (261,5m, 2012) in China. Ituango earth core rockfill dam,
232 m height, in Colombia is currently in construction stage.
In Brazil, several projects were developed among alternatives of concrete face rockfill
dam, earth core, earth, and combinations of earth and gravity concrete, such as :
Emborcação ECRD (158m, 1981) ; Itaparica ECRD (105m, 1986) ; São Simão ECRD
(120m,1978); Itumbiara Earth/ ECRD (110m, 1980);Tucurui ECRD (106m,1983);Salto
Santiago ECRD (80m, 1980) ; Miranda ECRD (85m, 1988), Serra da Mesa ECRD
(154m, 1989) and Corumbá ECRD ( 90 m, 1997).
Viotti (1999) [18] analyzing the behavior of eight Brazilian dams: Emborcação (158m);
Foz do Areia (160m); Serra da Mesa (154m); Xingó (150m); Nova Ponte (142m);
Pedra do Cavalo (142m); Corumbá (90m); and Miranda (85m) present the primary
factors influencing the rockfill deformability moduli, such as lithology, shape of the
valley, design factures (cross section, upstream & downstream slopes), and layer
thickness and roller vibratory energy are listed in the reference.
An important project of rockfill dam completed in 2008, was the Irapé ECRD dam, 208
m high (CEMIG), located in a valley topographically in "canyon"; the largest rockfill
dam built in Brazil, so far. The work activities began in February 2002, with
construction difficulties as reported by [19] Pedro Marques et al., Alex et al. [20] The
dam site geology shows schist mica rock with good foundation. The authors report the
geological characteristics of the occurrence of sulphides in the rock, mainly pyrite and
pyrrhotite in relatively high percentages.
Figure 3.1 Main Cross section of Irapé ECRD [20]

Table 3.1 Irapé ECRD Construction Materials
3.2 Concrete Face rockfill dam - CFRDs

Current CFRDs construction practices adopted since 2006, aims as design concept to
achieve deformability modules Ec at the end of construction in the range of 90 to 120
MPa. In case of gravels, Ec modules reaches values ranging 200 MPa to 300 MPa or
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even more. According to Marengo [21], low strength particles can still produce
acceptable rockfill if well grain size graded. Modulus ranged 70 MPa to 100 MPa can
be obtained even with weak (soft) rock particles. Hard rocks , such as column basalts,
is very difficult to obtain good gradation. Marulanda [ 22]
3.2.1 CFRD Zoning criteria ( Cooke’s & ICOLD's [13], [23], [24]
Zones 1A : low permeability materials, placed on the bottom portion of the concrete
face, aiming to cover the perimeter joint and the slab on the lower elevations. The
material should be fine. 1B: Disposal area Materials - or originated from required
excavations, placed upstream of zone 1A.
Zones 2A and 2B (cushion zone): both zone materials are processed from sound
rocks consisting of well graded sands, clean, semi-impervious, as a seepage control
zone. Alternatively, they may be obtained by mixing processed materials. In the
Zoning . Table 3.2 Grain size ranges of Zones 2A and 2B. Xingó Dam (CHESF)
vibrating grizzly to obtain this material. Figure 3.2 CFRDs zoning criteria is presented.
Zone 2B, must be compacted in layers of 40 to 50 cm, with six passes of the 9-ton
vibratory roller. Care should be taken to prevent damage at the extruded concrete
curb.
Figure 3. 2.: CFRDs Zoning [ 24]

The zone 2A material grain size and percentage of fines that minimize specified
should avoid segregation during spreading activities and permeability values in the
range 10-2 cm/s. The fraction D15 of the material should vary in the range 0.15 to
0.6mm. Zone 2B crushed material (< 3 ") has been specified, produced, and used
in different CFRDs, processed from sound of granite, basalt, coherent sandstones,
limestones, with maximum fine portion (<0.0074mm) from 8% - 12%, and 10%
and 25% passing through the Nr. 4 (5 mm) sieve.
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Table 3.2 Grain size ranges of Zones 2A and 2B
* ICOLD Modified bulletin 70 (1989) [25]

Zone 3A - "Coarse" transition materials between 2B and 3B zones. If the material
3B is alluvium, the transition 3A may not be required. The material 3A should be
obtained directly from excavations, without processing, Dmax 30 cm is recommended.
The thickness of the 3A material layers should be the same fine transition (2B), 40 to
50 cm, preferably. The maximum diameter would be limited to the layer thickness. The
thickness of the layer 3A should be no greater than 0.40 m, limit of 0.50m.
Zone 3B - Well graded material from required excavations (or from quarry areas
occasionally) with a maximum diameter equal to or smaller than the thickness of the
layer; with maximum size between 600- 800 mm for alluvial gravel materials or
achieving 100cm in rockfill case. Vibratory rollers ranges 12 to 25 ton used is
recorded by international literature, mainly in Chinese CFRDs. Wetting facilities
during rockfill layers spreading services are mandatory ( > 150 liter/ m 3).
Zone 3C – Well graded, higher amount of fines is allowed and a maximum diameter
equal to or smaller than the thickness of the layer. This thickness is greater than the
one in the zone 3B and can be up to 1m. In same cases up to 1.20m.
The design criteria regarding "excess of fines" in zone 3C can be based on their
trafficability on the surface of the rockfill. Wetting services are mandatory, however
less than the upstream zone 3B. In current CFRDs, the rockfill layers of zone 3C
should be released with thicknesses ranging from 0.80 m to 1.0 m or 1.20 m. The
thickness of the layer of zone 3C depends on the quality and properties of the
material to be released. A tight compaction control is mandatory to avoid future
unexpected settlements in Zone 3C.
Zone T - Lower quality material (Soft rock) placed at the center of the dam. The angle
depends on the available volume of this material. In general, it is compacted with
thickness layers smaller than the one in zone 3B. Thickness layers specification is
the same to the zone 3B, that means, between 0.60 and 0.80 m.
Zone 4 - Material oversized, placed on the downstream slope for aesthetic and finish
purposes. During construction, "oversized" blocks obtained from required excavations
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to be released in the zones 3B, T or 3C can be launched in stocks piles and then used
in the implementation of zone 4. The material is transported by "off road" trucks and
after released their position on the slope is "adjusted" with excavators or manually with
steel bars to obtain the final aesthetic.
3.2.2 Concrete slab (CFRDs) - Premises for designing
The slab thickness designing and the specifications have been empirically established
in the last three (3) decades, based on experiences presented by Barry J. Cooke and
James L. Sherard and ASCE - 1985 and 1987[13]
Face slab fissures (opening: <0.3mm) and cracks even ruptures recorded in many
CFRDs cases ( Tianshengqiao 1, Barra Grande, Campos Novos, Mohale) exceeding
the fissure and cracks limits of tolerance and acceptance, and providing an
unexpected seepage increasing readings besides face slab armature corrosion ,
especially at the region of reservoir level variation during operation.
The aspect of durability must be concerned by engineers, in view repairing services to
be implement and additional costs. The designer must estimated as a design criteria,
a maximum dam seepage flow allowable. Above this value, the causes of the
unexpected percolation should be investigated. If detect any anomaly, face slab
remedial treatment must be implemented, by dumping silty sand material from dam
crest to reduce the seepage flow to the tolerate range values ( < 300 liter/s).
3.2.3 Concrete slab (CFRDs) construction practice
In practice, high rockfill construction requires such planning that, after the closure or
diversion river, the dam construction occurs at least during one or more humid
periods, before to concrete the upstream face slab, and reach the crest elevation.
In case of cofferdams overlapping and if the slab has not been concreted or in case
of earth core, some waterproofing protection must be implemented to prevent the free
percolation through the rockfill. Shotcrete has been an alternative used to prevent
percolation through the rockfill in the case of CFRDs or protection with rockfill in the
case of earth core.
Rockfill overtopping during flood seasons in construction stages are recorded in the
international literature [26]. Serra da Mesa ECRD and Tianshengqiao I CFRD, are
two success examples of design and construction practices of rockfill protection by
large blocks, gabions and steel bars and meshes as overtopping erosion protection
and flow instability.
Compaction control and wetting: During the launch operations, the rockfill or
alluvial material should be spread over an approximately horizontal surface,
minimizing the segregation. During the compaction activities , it is important to release
wetting facilities with a "monitors or water cannon" system, a current practice in most
rockfill dams. The recommended volume > 150 liters/m³ of rock fill. The purpose of
wetting facilities is to minimize the post-construction settlements, to increase the
"breaking" of the rocky points. In some dams (Shuibuya, China) it was a current
practice to wet the rockfill still on the off-road truck.
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In case of alluvial material like gravel, wetting proceedings may be excluded.
Upstream face extruded concrete: the CFRD Itá (Brasil) Method [27] Materon,
Resende, an important methodology was introduced to implement in which a
extruded concrete was employed between the slab and the 2B transition. The
extruded concrete layer thickness is the same of transition 2B zone layer ( 40cm).
Figure .3.3 ( a. and b). shows the stages of the implementation of extruded concrete
elements.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3: (a and b) Extruder performing the curb concrete by a cement truck
"Bond Break": "bond break" concept, consisting of a plastic blanket or asphalt primer,
placed between the extruded concrete surface and the concrete face. The main
objective is to mitigate the transfer of stress between the extruded concrete and the
face slab, and to mitigate cracks occurrence and induced fissures ("restrain") due to
the phenomenon of thermal cracking and rockfill deformations (Pinto, 2001). [28] This
concept was applied in Itá, Machadinho, Itapebi, Quebra-Queixo dams in Brazil and
in the Antamina dam (Peru), and Kárahnjúkar dam (Iceland).
The Reporters believe that there is, so far, any analysis and in situ monitored
evidences of transfers of tensions between the two surfaces, extruded concrete and
the concrete face.
Upstream drainage during construction : Slabs bulking (swelling) movements
during construction has been recorded by international literature.[29]. Drainage
facilities at upstream rockfill lower areas have kept a key role during construction
phase. A drainage must be performed by implementing metal pipes through the slab
to reach the Zone 2B (cushion zone) to 3A (coarse transition). An upstream pumping
system, working 24 hs a day must remain operative throughout the construction
period, even after the face slab concreting works. Prior to the construction of the
upstream embankment (zones 1A and 1B), the drainage system (and piping) must be
grouting injected.
A New CFRDs zoning conception: In several CFRDs (Mazar 166m, Ecuador;
Reventazón 130m, Costa Rica; Porce III 150m, Colombia; Punta Negra 129m,
Argentina; Chaglla 210m, Peru), located in earthquake areas and built with non-
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competent , soft and weathered rock with excess of fines at zones T and 3C with good
cost savings were implemented currently. To prevent the saturation and an impervious
behavior of the downstream zones due rainy periods or an upstream to downstream
flow in case of face slab rupture during or after an earthquake, a new drainage design
has been introduced, incorporating a vertical drain in the center of the dam connected
to a horizontal drain (Zone 3D). The vertical drain will be built with selected rockfill,
minimizing the fines and can (not necessarily) have transition layers in contact with
zones 3B and 3C. Figure 3.4 presents the zoning conception recommended for
CFRDs at Seismic sites. [30]
Figure 3.4 Zoning conception recommended for CFRDs at Seismic sites

The recorded occurence during the Wenchuan earthquake in China in May 2008,
[31] near the Zipingpu (156m) CFRD, the one of Miyase Iwate in Japan in June
2008, near the Ishibuchi dam (53m), led many experts who analyzed the
phenomenon to take preventive measures to be incorporated in the design and
construction of CFRDs next to high seismic activity areas, as presents in Figure 3.4.
Slabs and Perimeter Joints
Traditionally, at the perimeter joint and the face slab vertical joints, a cooper
waterstops have been used at bottom and central slab and mastic on top of the
perimeter joint . A waterstop type Omega are used and placed directly on the joint or
fine materials (fly ash, coal, silt, fine sand). Other dams also use compressible
elements as mastic. Mastics must be made with such viscoelastic properties that
their viscosity is not affected by temperature, as they can flow, snapping the cover
which abuts them on the joint.
Copper joints are been used, manufactured directly at the construction site using
machines that allow configuring the waterstops with lengths in order to avoid joints
with silver welding. The implementation of Omega type placed on top of the slab has
the advantage of allowing reservoir pressure to act positively on the joint.
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An external corrugated waterstop, and Omega type waterstops could be placed

externally anchored with stainless screws as they were used in the Merowe dam in
Sudan. (Figure.3.5).
Figure 3.5 External corrugated waterstop used in the dam of Merowe, Sudan ( Cruz, Materon,
Freitas, 2016)
In high CFRD dams in China, at 1st stage slab and along the perimeter joint a
corrugated waterstop system have been applied, complemented with a mastic
cover. (Figure 3. 6) This waterstop type was successfully used in the Shuibuya
CFRD in China and Mazar CFRD right abutment, in Ecuador.
Figure 3.6 Corrugated waterstop in Shuibuya CFRD, China (Cruz et al, [6] )
At Chaglla, CFRD , 211m height , in Peru, located in a narrow valley very steep right
abutment it was necessary to install EPDM waterstops with capacity to absorb
differential movements of about 30 cm supported by an aramid fabric resistant to the
pressures from the reservoir more than 200 m high.[12] Figures 3.7 and 3.8.
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Figura 3.8. Chaglla dam waterstop

Figure 3.7. Chaglla dam waterstop concept before cover protection placement
3.2.4 Reservoir 1rst Filling

The first filling submits the entire upstream slab surface and along the perimeter joint
to the hydraulic head reservoir. Although a bibliography is not available with
systematic recording of cases in the international literature. Two-dimensional and
three-dimensional mathematical models should analyze the slab behavior as a
membrane, and check the tensile force, compression, and bending at different stages
of the hydrostatic reservoir head.
In Alto Anchicayá CFRD, reservoir filling progressed in 10.1 m/day, and seepage flow
rates above 1,800 liter/s were recorded. Sharp flow rates above 1,000 liter/s were also
recorded in the another dams, such as Itá, Itapebi, Barra Grande, and Campos
Novos, in the first filling. At Barra Grande, between July and September 2005, the
W.L. ( water level) reached El. 628.0 (163 m head) and heavy rainfall occurred in this
period: 83.2 mm, August 30, 2005; 34.0 mm, August 31; and 30.0 mm on September
01, which caused a variation of the reservoir W.L. of about 20 m in 3 days. On
September 19, 2005, the reservoir reached El. 630.3 (91% of the Normal Maximum
W.L.).
In Campos Novos, from October 10 to 24, 2005, the reservoir ranged from El. 489.0
to El. 640: 151 m in 14 days. The reservoir W.L. reached El. 652.78 on April 4, 2006
(infiltrations reached the value of 1,294 l/s).
In the case of Xingó CFRD, from June 10 to 16, 1994 the reservoir W.L. rose from El.
40 to El. 120m, and then to El. 134 on July 13, 1994, remaining stable until November
1994. On November 11, it reached the max W.L at 138m. Cracks in the left abutment
slabs were recorded.
Infernillo ECRD ( 148m high, Mexico) during first impounding (1964) reservoir level
rose rapidly and upstream rockfill movements were recorded, and caused the crest
upstream deflection during the early stages of the reservoir impounding.
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In the case of CFRD dams in closed valleys (A/H2<4), attention should be paid to the
stability of potentially unstable areas in the reservoir areas, slips and instabilities that
may generate risk of collapse of large masses of soil and rock. Is recommendable to
build an intermediate outlet in some of the banks of the site, in order to have control of
the reservoir in the 1st filling and during the future behavior; this was made in La Yesca
dam (Mexico).
In La Yesca Dam, was built an intermediate bottom discharge in order to control the 1st
filling and to go dawn with reservoir if it is necessary.
3.3 Asphalt Core Rockfill Dam (ACRD)
The asphaltic core rockfill dams started in Portugal in 1948, apparently, such as the
Vale do Gaio dam (45 m high and core with 20/10 cm wide), when a BMC -
(Bituminous Mastic Core) was used. In 1954, the Henne dam (58 m in height and core
width 100 cm) was built in Germany, using CMC - (Cyclopen Mortar Core), built by
placing the aggregate on a bituminous mortar using vibration. This methodology was
used, besides Germany and other countries such as Austria and France.
In principle, the asphalt core must have the characteristics: impervious, flexible,
resistant to erosion, workable and free of construction joints. In addition, presents
viscoelasticity and ductile properties a self-sealing ability if cracks occur in the core.
"Asphaltic cores are, therefore, recommended for dams built in areas subject to
earthquakes."
The first dam that used the DACC (Dense Asphaltic Concrete Core) method, was built
in Germany in 1962 (Kleine Dhuenn dam), and in that dam, a device for applying
asphalt concrete was also used.
About 100 ACRDs dams were built in different countries. Vahid Afsari Rad , [32]): In
addition, STRABAG Group's have been provide outstanding services also for
developing ASRDs since 1950s.
In Brazil the 1st asphalt core rockfill dam was built in 2010, Foz do Chapecó dam
(48m, 850 MW), and in 2012, Jirau ACRD dam (63m, 3700 MW).
3.3.1 ACRD design conception

The traditional criteria for a rockfill material selection recommended for CFRD or
ECRD alternatives remain virtually unchanged for asphalt core, such as : non-uniform
grain size (Cu> 10) and not developing neutral or interstitial pressures (permeability
above 1x 10-3 cm/sec.) and application of constructive methods to obtain higher
deformability modules Ec, at the end of construction. Alluvial materials, gravels have
been demonstrated to be excellent materials for rockfill , such as: Aguamilpa (3B
upstream zone), Alto Anchicaya, Golillas.
Rockfill Slopes & Stability
Storglomvatn Dam (125 m height accomplished in 1997 was designed as 1.5(H) :
1.0 (V) for both upstream and downstream slopes according to Figure 3.9.
Storglomvatn Dam (Norway, 125 m)
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591 6
588 m (Full level)
579
566
1 553
5
5
2 540
1.5 527
1 1.4
3 1
4b 510
4b
4a 4a
490
8 7
475
468
Figure 3.9 Section of the Storglomvatn Dam ( Norway) [32]

The ACRD design concept is based on successful procedent dams and previous experimental
researches. There are few technical publications on this subject (compared to CFRDs). It
should be noted the Bulletin Nr. 84 published by ICOLD (1992) and the book published by
Hoeg (1993), [33] and Vahid Afsari-Rad, 2015) [32].
China engineers have excelled expertizing in ACRDs and have recorded about 60
(sixty) dams already built or under construction. In table 3.3 is presented a list of
ACRDs on alluvial material foundation [34].
Table 3.3 high ACRDs on alluvial material foundation in China [34]
In Brazil, two ACRDs were already built so far, Foz do Chapecó and Jirau dams, and
both have fulfilled the international recommendations: [32], [35], [36]
In Table 3.4 ACRDs under construction or already accomplished in several countries
are listed.
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Table 3.4 ACRDs under construction and accomplished [32]
ACRDs Zoning - Transitions and rockfill

Transition zones close to asphalt core should be compacted and performed
simultaneously with the core compaction, using smooth vibratory rollers with static
weight of the drum from 2.0 to 4.0 tons. The implementation of the remaining zones of
the dam should follow the usual compression procedures and control of granular
materials. ((Figure 3.10)
Figure 3.10 : Fine transitions close to the asphalt core [32]

The implementation of the remaining dam zones (coarse rockfill) should follow the usual
compression procedures and granular materials control.
The downstream transition horizontal width ranges between 1.20 and 2.00m, with well-
graded granular material (2.00 and 75.00 mm). In addition to the transition zones in
contact with the asphalt core, a second transition zones from 2.0 to 3.0 in width,
consisting of materials with a particle size up 150.0mm. The thickness layers must be
twice of the "thin" transition thickness . The upstream transition zone has the double
role of: i) Homogeneous side containment of the asphaltic concrete core; ii) Fine
particles capable of being carried through incidental cracks in the asphaltic core; iii)
The upstream transition width in contact with the asphaltic core ranges from 1.20m to
2.00m.
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Characteristics of granular materials at the transition zones

The fine transitions adjacent to the asphalt core act as "molds" during the asphalt core
compaction (as the same thickness, 0.20m to 0.30m), and must also act as filters
zone. The practice shows that the grain sizes sand between 0-60 to 75 mm meet this
requirement. The first transition zone next to the core has variable width between 1.20
and 2.0 m (depending on the dam height).Next, comes the second transition (0 ~
150mm) compacted in thickness layers twice the previous layer. The second
horizontal layers width varies between 2.0 and 3.0m. Next comes a rockfill fine zone
(0-500 m) and the main coarse rockfill (0-1000 m). Figure 3.11 shows the several
transition zones and coarse rockfill main zone.
Figure 3.11 Asphalt core and transitions (fine and coarse)

– ( Foz do Chapecó Energia ,Cortesie)
The downstream draining transition zone has the double role such as :i) Homogeneous
side containment of the asphaltic concrete core; ii) Chimney drain
Foundation Plinth treatment

The asphalt core should be laid on the plinth implemented on "rock" or competent
foundation material with proper characteristics of resistance, compressibility, and
permeability. The grouting injections, must be completed before the asphalt core
completion. Similarly to CFRDs, the plinth purpose is to serve as a support slab for
the grouting injections activities. ACRDs foundation grouting treatments follow the
same criteria as the CFRDs and the application of the GIN method. [12[, [13]
Plinth Preparation: Mastic application
Prior to the application of mastic, the cleaning services of the concrete plinth surface
should be performed with air jet. (Figure 3.12).
Asphaltic concrete temperature during compaction

 Asphalt mixture at a temperature between 170 and 110 degrees;
 Compaction operations to be completed before the surface of the layer reaches
a temperature of 80 to 90 degrees.
Several ACRDs have been built in most different climates, severe winters and high
summers season without recorded any in accidents.
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Figure 3.12 - Plinth Preparation and Mastic Application [32] ( Foz do Chapecó Dam)
Asphalt core construction & progress ( Brazil)

Typically, the "optimal" vibrating roller depends on the properties of the asphaltic
concrete mixture and the core width. The number of passes should be adjusted at site,
because it depends on the properties of the landfilling material. Different of CFRDs, in
ACRDs the reservoir head is normally applied to asphalt core at center part and
transmitted to all zones of the dam, including the downstream zone. The asphalt core is
subjected to a hydraulic gradient of 100 (or near 100) cannot have faults. . In summary,
there are three items to consider in the asphaltic core: i) density which results in void
ratios smaller or equal to 3%; ii) permeability of 10-11cm / s, and iii) a percentage of
bitumen between 6.0 and 8.0%. Figure 3.13 shows relationship void content x
permeability
Figure 3.13 Asphalt core - Void content x Figure 3.14 undisturbed Samples drilling in
Permeability Apud Vahid [32] the core
As usual, the asphalt core compaction is 2 (two) overlapping layers of 0.20m to 0.30
per daily shift. In particular cases, one can reach 3 layers per day. The Foz do
Chapecó dam was built in 4.5 months, with a monthly average of 10,5m / month. The
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Jirau dam was built in seven months with 2 (two) shifts and 2 (two) equipment for the
core implementation. The monthly average was 14m / month. [32] [35].
In view, asphalt core thickness (80 to 120cm) and the importance as waterstop ( at
plinth) element, the technological control of the construction is of the highest
importance.
Quality Control - Asphalt Concrete
Vahid [32]) describes properly the requirements of the asphaltic core quality control.
Drilling samples are systematically extracted from the core and brought to the lab (at
the site) to determine the asphalt characteristics, such as: the asphalt content, particle
size, density, temperature, porosity and the visco-plastic nature with self-sealing
capacity. Triaxial lab tests with large samples have been performed at dams in
undisturbed samples of 625 mm (diameter) and height of 1250mm, Figure 3.14.
4. SUMMARY COMPARISON CFRDs X ACRDs ALTERNATIVES
From rockfill construction view, ACRD dams have a construction schedule similar of
CFRD and ECRD dams. In countries with high seismicity, ACRD downstream slopes
should be more conservative than CFRD type dams. ACRD dams have the advantage
of being able to incorporate the cofferdams ( as the ECRD dams).
The main section construction allows to build of access in both, upstream and
downstream slopes. In addition, ACRD types reduce substantially the waterstop
joints using as well as eliminates the concrete slab required by concrete face rockfill
dams. Both dams are safety and stable in seismic zones, and allow the filling of the
reservoir in advance of their final completion.
ACRDs construction technology is currently competitive according to international
literature when one has the appropriate equipment for core and transitions
construction. Upstream and downstream zones can be releasing simultaneously.
ACRDs and ECRDs have the inconvenience of the foundation treatment (grouting
curtain) at the center of the dam, and must be implemented in advance, to facilitate
the construction of the core continuously, affecting sometimes the constructive
schedule (critical path). In CFRDs, the construction of the plinth and its foundation
treatment are implemented almost independently of the main dam rockfill construction.
Concrete face rockfill dams allow to start the rockfill layers placement activities at the
abutment areas in advance, in large valley areas.
ACRD dams require the installation of an asphalt plant and a more skilled laboratory
for the control of the asphalt concrete with a consequent cost increase.
5. ROCKFILL SEEPAGE CONTROL
The technical literature recorded high flow rates above 1,800 liter/s up to 9,800 liter/s
(Turimiquire) in the first filling in CFRDs. The cases of New Exchequer (1966) 14,000
liter/s and Paradela (1956), 1,760 liter/s are examples of dumped rockfill dams and
escape the scope of this Report.
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In most cases, after treatment, these infiltrations decreased significantly, without dam
safety being under further concern . Even in after a earthquake critical situation, as at
ZipingPu CFRD dam (156 m), located in the Sichuan Province in PR of China,
subjected to an of 8.0 on the Richter scale seismic activity in May 2008,
(acceleration of 0.26 g and epicenter 17 km far from the dam), the dam showed safety
conditions, despite the slabs rupture and the parapet [ Zeping, 31], even no leakage
data increasing.
In the last decade, high concrete face rockfill dams were completed and recorded low
infiltration flows, below <180 liters/s, such as: El Cajon (Mexico), Kárahnjúkar
(Iceland), Bakun (Malaysia), Shuibuya, and Hongjiadu (both in China) setting good
examples a good construction practices.
Advances in vertical joints design, at central areas and abutment zones and along
the perimeter joint have implemented important contributions in current CFRDs
performance. High flow rates above 500 liter/s, with a tendency to increase with time,
indicate some abnormality, such as openings of joints or cracks or rupture in slabs,
and must be investigated and remedial treatments.
A current and successful experience for seepage flow control is (CARPI) PVC
membrane to guarantee seepage control ( impermeability) resistance, flexibility
property and in addition absorbing movements and rockfill differential settlements,
including seismic effects of high intensity. [37] [38].
6. DEFORMABILITY MODULI & CREEPING EFFECT

Dam deformations recorded in settlement hydraulic cells inner dam zones and dam
crest milestones represent important information of rockfill performance after first
filling, and further behavior ( long term). The deformability modulus, Ec, estimated at
end of construction values ≥ 90 MPa are recommended for rockfills zones ( CFRDs,
ACRDs and ECRDs).
Marengo et al. [21] stated the relevant factors affecting the characteristics of CFRDs,
compressibility such as: grain size distribution, grain shape, mineralogy or interlocking,
the state of confining stresses, etc. Compaction process during construction is a key
hole for modulus of deformability values and rockfill embankment behavior.
Nelson Pinto and Marques Filho (1998) [28] present an interesting ratio for empirical
calculation of the normal maximum deformation (D) to the slab and the cross module,
estimated by the formula ET = 0.003 H2/D (MPa) H = dam height under the pressure of
the reservoir water. According to the authors, ET generally ranges from 1.5 to 5 times
the vertical module Ev, significantly influenced by the factor A/H2 (Valley Shape
Factor).
Rockfill collapse phenomenon in ECRDs is basically the result of the of the rock
breakage contact after wetting by the reservoir filling and progressive change in grain
size due fracturing effect. In Emborcação ECRD reservoir W.L. fluctuations have been
influenced upstream dam settlements and cracks at dam crest.
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In long term monitoring program, drying and wetting process and rockfill weathering
acceleration can induce creeping effect. After 28 years operation, cracks at dam crest
areas are continuously been monitored and progressing with reservoir level oscillation.
Divino et al. [39] in Emborcação dam.
Silveira and Bandeira [40] present a percentage of the total settlement in relation to
dam height ( maximum section) for 13 thirteen CFRDs in Brazil, China and Mexico at
the end of construction . The authors show that Aguamilpa, El Cajón and La Yesca
CFRDs ( in Mexico) settlement percentage rate ranged from 0.40 % to 0.90 % related
to dam height. Nevertheless, Foz do Areia (2.24%) , Itá (1.64%), Barra Grande
(1.82%), Xingó (1.93%) and Tianshengqiao I (1.87%) present much more crest
settlement at the end of construction.
Nuozhadu ECRD (261.5 m max. height) located in Yunnan Province, China, where
4,780,000 m3 of soft rock material were used in rockfill shells (total 34 x 106 m3 of dam
rockfill volume). Nuozhadu is in operation since August 2012, has been performed
insafety conditions [ 41], [42] with a maximum 0.826m settlement at dam crest, (total
settlement in relation to dam height of 0.3 %) in December 2016, and total seepage
of the measuring weirs 11. 6 liters/s.
Xingó (left abutment), Itapebi and Campos Novos CFRDs, settlement variations , in
average, of 1. 8 cm/year, [40] which an expectation of round 18 cm total settlement
every 10 years, in center section of the dam crest. According to the authors [40],
Brazilian CFRDs are recorded settlements along several decades, due to slow wetting
of downstream zones, during the rainy season, every year.
7. OBSERVED PERFORMANCE AND POST-CONSTRUCTION

INTERVENTIONS
7.1 Performance of rockfill dams

According to the ICOLD (World Register on Dams); today there are 418 dams of
CFRDs over 30m height; approximately 185 in China, 11 (eleven) in Brazil. If
performance of rockfill dams were reviewed only by focusing on the accidents that led
the failure cases, according to a research of Qian (2008) [43] and presented by (Cruz,
Materon, Freitas, 2009), [6] since 1860 only two failures of CFRDs would be
registered from 48 dams. In fact the first failure recorded occurred in 1993 at Gouhou
dam (71m, China) built with sandy gravel. It was caused by internal flow, six years
after its completion. The second failures recorded occurred in 2005 at Taum Sauk
dam (29m, USA) due to overtopping that happened 42 years after his construction.
7.2 Evolution of rockfill dams. Problem unexpected and its causes

Between 1975 and 1990 were built in Colombia and Mexico rockfill dams with clay
core in narrow valleys that have had an excellent behavior. They were followed the
postulates of Raul Marsal (Mexico, 1971) [44] who stated that the resistance of the
rockfill depends on the hardness of the particles, but the compressibility depends on
the compaction process; so, materials with reduced resistances, can have less
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compressibility if they are placed with adequate gradation and with a high compaction
degree. The dams of Chicoasen (262 m), La Angostura (162m), Infiernillo (157m), and
Malpaso (148 m), were built making tests with a giant triaxial camera and having a
careful design and construction process. The Figure 7.1 show some grading curves of
several Mexican dams builds with this criteria. In Colombia, were built the dams of
Guavio (248), Chivor (237m), having also an excellent behavior.
7.3 Rockfill dams with compaction.
While the rockfill dams with core clay were constructed in several countries of the
world, the concept of building a rockfill with an external impervious face has proved
itself to be a “safe economically efficient” alternative when it compares to other dam
structures.
Figure 7.1 Grading curves of Mexican dams used for its construction.
There are several examples in Spain, Brazil, Sweeden and other countries of the
construction of this kind of dams and in the USA between 1850 and 1870, with the
purpose of storing water all the while exploring gold mines in the Sierra Nevada
Mountains in the state of California, the upstream face sealing of those dams was
initially made of wooden boards and later, it replaced by concrete.
The idea of compaction the rockfill, began properly in the dams of the 60´s with
Paradela Dam in Portugal (110m, 1955) and after came Cethana in Australia (110m,
1969) and others like is shown in Figure 7.2.
It was built Alto Anchicaya in Colombia, that was the tallest dam of CFRD between
1974 and 1980, after Foz do Areia in Brazil (160m, 1980), the highest between 1980
and 1993, Aguamilpa in Mexico (187, 1994) the highest between 1994 to 2006 and
showed that it was possible to build this kind of dams with 200m high with no problems
of behavior.
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In Brazil, were built Segredo (145m, 1992), Xingó (150m, 1993), Itá (125m, 1999),
Machadinho (125m, 2006), Itapebi (120m, 2003), Quebra-Queixo (75m, 2003), Barra
Grande (185m) and Campos Novos (202m), both in 2006. In this time was built
Thianshengiao 1 (178m, 2000) in China, who is the leader in the world having a great
number of important projects in terms of quantity and dimensions. In 2008 was
finished Shibuya with 233m, that is actually the highest in the world.
In other countries were built Mohale (145m, 2006) in Lesotho, Mazar (166m, 2005) in
Ecuador, Bakún (203m, 2008) in Malaysia, Chaglla (211m, 2015) in Peru, and in
Mexico were built El Cajón (189m, 2006) and La Yesca (210m, 2012).The evolution is
shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2 Evolution of CFRDs in the world between 1960-2015.
However, some dams in the world have had some problems on his behavior and it is
necessary to discuss in this kind of meetings, in order to avoid problems in the future.
In many recently completed ultra-high concrete face rockfill dams (CFRDs), incidents
have been reported of slab rupture along the vertical joints of the face slabs, horizontal
bending, and tension cracks developing in the upper portion of the face slabs. Some
features are here commented in order to see the future of the Ultra High Concrete
Faced Rockfill Dams. Aguamilpa Dam (187 m) (Fig. 7.3) was built in Mexico in 1994,
and for more than 15 years was the tallest CFRD dam in the world.
Figure 7.3 Aguamilpa dam Cross Section.
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The gradation of this dam is shown in Fig. 7.4a and 7.4b, where it is appreciated the
difference in the graduation curves of the materials.
Figure 7.4a. Graduation curve 3B material Fig.7.4.b. Graduation curve 3C material
The shell upstream reached a deformation modulus of 310 MPa in the zone of the
dam built with gravels (3B material), 130 MPa in transition material, but the 3C
material downstream, had a greater compressibility of the rockfill (48 MPa) in
comparison with the used upstream rockfill, generating a crack in the upper part of the
concrete slab (Figures, 7.5 and 7.6).
Figure 7.5. Settlement of Aguamilpa dam.
Fig. 7.6. Cracks in the concrete face slab.
Figure 7.6. Cracks in the concrete face slab.
After Aguamilpa construction in Mexico, and despite the cracking in the upper part of
the concrete face at the beginning of this century, there was the confidence of the
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engineers, that the CFRDs dams could be built with 200m high or tallest, without any
transcendental change in the design and construction principles.
The CFRDs were considered the ideal dam, and that with some small adjustments, it
was recognized to be possible to build this kind of dams without limit in is height,
reaching even 300m or more. In fact, in the International Symposium on CFRD-
honoring to J. Barry Cooke- held in Beijing, China (2000) , it was stablished that: i)
There is a great reliability in the CFRDs dams against the shear force in the rockfill; ii)
There is a great resistance seismic of the rockfill; iii) The rockfill zone is stable against
floods.
In the symposium was stablished that: “The CFRD dam is the properly in the future
of large dams with increase high and it is possible to predict the adequate
behavior for dams even of 300m high, in almost all kind of rocks, doing a
reasonable extrapolation of measurements of existing dams”.
Incidents in rockfill dams.
When were finished Tianshengqiao I, Mohale, Barra Grande and Campos Novos
dams (2007), there were incidents that worried up the CFRDs’ engineers. The
leakage downstream in Mohale, Barra Grande and Campos Novos dams suddenly
increased and there were cracking’s in the dam body. (Figure 7.7)
Particularly Campos Novos, was built in a narrow valley making use of a basaltic
rockfill which was an uniform grading. Compression modulus was within 50-60 MPa,
and the leakage reached values of 1,500 liters/s, when the reservoir was 93% of its
height, the concrete face cracked. The incidents have been reported as slab crushing
along the vertical joints of the face slabs, horizontal bending, and tension cracks
developing in the upper portion of the face slabs.
When the two serious dams incidents in Brazil and Lesotho took place, two very high
dams were being built, one in Mexico (El Cajón, 189m) and one in Island
(Kárahnjúkar) the rockfill materials used in these dams were different from the ones
used in the problematic cases.
Concept of obtaining required modulus between certain limits and with good gradation
depending on compaction effort like was made in rockfill dams with clay core (ECRD).
Low strength particles can still produce an acceptable rockfill if well graded, like it was
demonstrated in EL Cajón. The deformability modulus obtained in El Cajón, was 125
MPa for 3B material, 110 MPa for transition and 75 MPa for 3C material, obtained
even with weak particles. The dam has an elastic behavior, and deformations (84 cm
of settlement) at the end of construction was low; the final leakage in the dam was
reduced (147 liters/s).
For Kárahnjúkar dam, also the rockfill process of placement was carefully made and
is possible to stablish in general that when a CFRD dam is building, compaction effort
in terms of number of passes, thickness of layers and weight of vibrating roller control
with water sluicing is a must for all rockfill dams in the future, despite these
recommendations were not had been used before. Obtaining good gradation with hard
rocks is very difficult and expensive. In basalts is even more difficult if they are
columnar basalts.
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Tianshengqiao I Barra Grande
Mohale Campos Novos
Figure 7.7. Incidents in Tianshengqiao I, Barra Grande, Mohale, Campos Novos
The most difficult aspect to evaluate is the effect in the compaction characteristics,
in the case of El Cajón. A very carefully program of testing rock placement was
carried out before bidding stage, proving river materials and different sizes of rock
making blasting tests, until was defined desired gradation, the correct number of
passes and the exact amount of water to place, in order get desirable deformation
modulus.
Compaction parameters can be evaluated using odometers and plate load tests not
to obtain final modulus but the differences among them. Fill design must be
optimized based on available materials hailing distances should be optimized. This
is standard practice even for dams in narrow canyons where variable rock
conditions are expected in quarries. For the final design is required to develop a
three-dimensional model, construction sequence, modeling the structural elements,
constitutive models for geomaterials, incorporation of interface behavior between
different elements of the structure.
7.4 Measurements of the quality of Rockfill dams
Usually, in order to know about the behavior, safety and performance of rockfill
dams, is usual to use seven types of information; (1) settlement, (2) horizontal
displacements,(3) vertical deformability modulus computed using actual
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settlements, (4) slab deflections measured on the normal direction to the slab, (5),
deformability modulus related to slab deformations, usually called transversal
deformability modulus, (6) long term displacements or creep and (7) leakage.
One way to accomplish the measurement of the behavior of the dams is to

calculate the correlation between settlements, dam height and valley shape. Pinto
and Marques Filho (1998) [28] proposed that the valley shape could be expressed
through the ratio A/H2 (A= face slab area, H= height of the dam) and Pinto (2007)
[45] calls attention to the importance of measuring the displacements which acts
especially in narrow valleys, doing a graph E/ƔH versus A/H2. In table 7.1, Marengo
[46] are shown the main data about several dams, the country, year, area of the
concrete face, height, valley shape, settlement after construction, and the ratio
between settlement and the height of the dam.
Table 7. 1. Settlement, valley shape and area of several CFRDs
7.5 Problem unexpected and its causes

So far, more than ten 200m-high CFRDs have been built around the world, such as
Tianshengqiao dam (178m high, as built in 2000), Hongjiadu dam (179.5m, 2005),
Sanbanxi dam (185.5m, 2006), Shuibuya dam (233m, 2008) in China; Barra Grande
dam (185m, 2005), Campos Novos dam (202m, 2006) in Brazil; Aguamilpa dam
(187m, 1994), El Cajon dam(189m, 2007), La Yesca dam(207m, 2012) in Mexico;
Karahnjukar dam(198m, 2008) in Iceland and Bakun dam(202m, 2010) in Malaysia.
Other way to measure the behavior of the dams, is to graph normalized deflections
(transversal deformability modulus) against the shape factor like it is shown in Fig. 7.8,
where the dams located in the upper part of red line, have had some problems and
those under the line, had a good behavior.
The dams located in the upper part of the graph, have had problems in his behavior,
and those located in the down part have a good behavior.
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Figure 7.8. Transversal deformability modulus against shape factor.
After the incidents before mentioned, there are serious efforts to improve what
happened. In China, for Shibuya dam, the construction process was careful and the
results obtained was that final leakage after construction very reduced and very good
performance.
7.6 POS CONSTRUCTION INTERVENTIONS

Face slab cracks, fissures and dam leakages, ranged 1,800 liters/s up to 9,800
liters/s (Turimiquire) were recorded during the first filling. In Itá (125 m), Aguamilpa
(187 m), Xingó (130m), Barra Grande (185m), Campos Novos (202 m) and Mohale
(145m), CFRDs high leakage were recorded after open cracks after the reservoir
filling. In Alto Anchicaya CFRD high leakage (1,800 liters/s) were consequence for
waterstops problems, no slabs cracks or rupture have occurred.
In most of cases after remedial interventions by dumping silty sand material from dam
crest over damaged areas, leakage values decrease significantly. In all cases dam
safety was not always concerning.
Face slabs underwater inspections by a ROV - Remote Operated Vehicles are
recommended to detect the collapse areas or joints opening and to register any
abnormal situations in case high leakage records.
Itá, Itapebi, and Xingó CFRDs are examples where after dropping fine sand material
from dam crest, leakage values have reduced significantly.
In Tianshengqiao 1 face slab (spalling) rupture along a vertical joint L3/L4 it was
limited to third face slab upper stage and occurred on 17 September 2003.
Fortunately, the bottom layer slab remained intact and no leakage increased was
recorded. Dam leakage readings at downstream weirs, were not been affected. The
remedial work according the original design was carried out from 17 August to 10
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October in 2003. The accident has no affected on the normal operation of reservoir.
The another spalling accident along the same vertical joint occurred on 29 May 2004.
The vertical joint was reformed into expansion joint and a 2cm thick rubber plate was
introduced in the joint detailed in the second remedial work. Other four vertical joints
closed to L3/L4 were rebuilt into expansion joint simultaneously and no any spalling
has occurred since then. The second remedial work finished before flood season of
2005. The maximum reservoir level reached on 12 October 2005, with maximum
leakage of 70 liters/ s. [ 47]
In Barra Grande, repairing works at center slab areas consisted on replacing the
bottom copper waterstop; placement of “anti-spalling” reinforcement; rebuilt the
collapsed (slabs # 19 and #20 ), and placement of a rubber joint. In addition, a mastic
material was placed along all horizontal construction joint (2nd and 3rd stages) at El.
640.
For the cracking of the concrete face slab of the Aguamilpa Project, the intervention
was to put fly ash in the cracks, looking reduce the leakage. At elevation 180 m, the
deformation of hydraulic piezometers are showed in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9. Leakage versus reservoir water elevation of Aguamilpa dam.
In this figure, can be seen, that leakage reduced from 220 liter/s to 81.57 liter/s up to
December 2011, the treatment with fly ash has been effective. For Aguamilpa dam, is
possible to conclude:
1. The materials deformation of the dam body caused displacements of 30 cm in
the central concrete face slab, 3cm in the perimetric joint, and 1.5 cm in the
tensile joints.
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2. In the dam body, the displacements developed toward the center of the river
with downstream direction, the maximum were measured in the 3C material on
the maximum transverse section.
In El Cajón dam despite the rock material had more deformability than Aguamilpa and
La Yesca dams, the behavior has been very good with reduced settlements and
deformations and the leakage (Figure 7.10) has reduced with time; having at the
begining (first filling) values of almost 147 liter/s, after reached 250 liter/s and on
January 15th 2015, the value was 116.93 liter/s.
Figure 7.10. Leakage versus reservoir water elevation of El Cajon dam.
For El Cajon dam Pos construction experience, we can conclude:

1. Maximum displacements registered in the face slab were 20 cm, and in the
perimetric joint was 2 cm. The dam body reached values of 15 cm and 7cm in
the longitudinal direction (toward the center of the river).
2. In the last two years, the maximum leakage reached was 116.93 liter/s with the
maximum capacity of the reservoir.
La Yesca dam (210m, 2012) was built carefully, following the principles that had been
applied to El Cajon, result of the behavior of the dam was that; the settlement after
construction was 84 cm and deformation modulus were 264 MPa for 3B material, 176
MPa for transition and 131 MPa for 3C material. Characteristics of the rockfill during
construction like placed volume, volumetric dry weight and void ratio obtained are
showed in Table 7.2 .
At the end of 2010, a sliding of almost 5 Million of cubic meters of rock, moved
suddenly in the left abutment of the dam (Marengo, 2013). [21]
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Material Placed Volumetric Void
dry weigth
Ratio (℮ )
Type Volume (m³)
(kN/m3)
2 280,188 22.61 0.16
3B Aluvión 2,651,381 22.04 0.18
3B Enroc. (El. 500) 716,487 20.24 0.27
T 3,794,640 20.08 0.28
3C 3,879,261 19.78 0.29
Table 7.2. Leakage obtained in several rockfill dams.
Among actions taken to stablish sliding were; to excavate the upper part of the
abutment retiring dead weight, build a monolithic block of concrete at the entrance of
diversion tunnels, build six long vertical shafts (110m length) constructed with simple
concrete (with fibers), build in the diversion tunnels a structure working to shear-
friction in order resist the rock movements, and twist the general longitudinal axis of
the dam 120, leaving fix the vertical axis of the right bank. With all these
measurements, the movement of left abutment stopped.
First filling was made on July 2012, the water head crew very fast but the leakage in
the dam reached values of 90 l/s until July-2013. Three months later (Sep 2013), there
was a suddenly increase of the leakage to 520 l/s, and on November 2013 the value
was of 590 liter/s (Figure 7.10).
The main concern was if the cause of this situation had happened in the dam body, or
in the abutments of the dam; but the precedence of water was detected on right
abutment. The explanation of these situation, was that the head of the galleries
excavated on the right abutment of the dam, staid with the twist very close to the
plinth, and the rock material around them had loose the grouting made during
construction and had been washed downstream during the first filling.
Figure 7.10. Leakage versus reservoir water elevation of La Yesca dam.
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The post-construction intervention was made during 2013 until 2017, we made several
rock treatments, basically: (1) build a small new gallery inside the galleries
constructed, and from there (2) to do again the grouting with a thick mix around them.
These actions were made under water with divers, collocating the grout form surface
and looking the seal of the grouting around the galleries; at the end were made field
tests of percolation, on July 15th of 2015, registered values of leakage were 50 l/s,
actual value is 66.7 liter/s. The iterative process is shown in Figure 7.11.
Figure 7.11. Leakage versus reservoir water elevation of La Yesca dam during
treatments.
The main conclusion remarks in La Yesca dam are:
1. The concrete face slab, had a deformation of 20 cm, and the aperture of the
perimetric joint had a maximum of 2 cm; being 1cm in tensile joint.
2. The maximum displacement in the dam body were 20cm toward the center
of the river and 4cm downstream.
3. The strong leakage happened, was because the grout mix in right abutment
was loosed after first filling. There was a carefully work to recovery the
impervious in the zone. Actual leakage is 66.7 liter/s.
In some very extreme high leakages a geomembrane placement alternative should be
adopted by Owners in view its high strength, flexibility and impervious characteristics,
including à safety protection in case of high earthquake occurrence.
In several dams, the remedial slabs treatment to control leakage recorded by
literature, there was no necessity of emptying the reservoir for post interventions.
8. FINAL REMARKS
As a final remarks the Reporters could pointed out:
 Rockfills are construction materials which the mechanic of deformation follows

particular rules or processes that include breakage, weathering process or
33
RESERVED TO CBDB
crushing of particles due to the high pressures that occur in the few contacts rock
to rock.
 Collapses occur due to loss of strength of rock-to-rock contacts, caused for wetting
process during impounding.
 The controversial issue of the "presence of fines" (non cohesive) in the rockfills is
motivated by the presence of weathering and faults of the source rock (required
excavations and quarries) and even after detonation and handling with excavation
equipment. An advantage of a high presence of fines (non-cohesive) is to form a
uniform surface and to seek reduction of the truck tires wearing during the transit
facilities, that means improve trucks trafficability. A stable construction surface under
the travel of heavy trucks demonstrates that the wheel loads are being carried by a rockfill
skeleton ( Cooke B.).
 Based on the observed behavior, it can be concluded that the main problem in the
dams that have behaved adversely, was the characteristics of the rockfill, which
confirmed that a “good” rockfill is not defined by the existence of hard fill particles
but by its gradation.
 The key in obtaining a less deformable rockfill issue was well recognized
several decades ago by Marsal however is likely, that given the pressure to
further reduce costs and time for this already economical dam, this
fundamental knowledge on rockfill behavior was somehow overlooked.
 The adequate processing of a rockfill, including gradation, spread and layers

tickness control and compaction are essential to obtain an adequate behavior of a
rockfill dam. The adition of water is fundamental.
 The physical mechanisms involved in the interaction of the CFRD dam are very
complex to model; however, with the current computational capabilities available,
the development of very sophisticated analysis can aid considerabily to the design
process of the CFRD dams.
 The analysis are quite useful to evaluate their efectiveness of diferent mitigation
mesures to know the stress in the concrete face of the dam, nevertheless the
results of current numerical analysis cannot be taken as absolutes and precise
values. The analyses should point up tendencies and estimates of stress-strain
behavior of the different components of the dam, so the engineers with good
judgment can make further decisions.
 There are 50 years of experience with around 120 dams of asphalt core, ACRDS,
actually there several dams under construction, and there will be more.
Recent research and field studies, have documented that asphalt concrete is very
resistant to seismic loads, that acids agregates like granitic rocks can be used to
produce asphalt and that the core can be rised rapidily with out compromise the
34
RESERVED TO CBDB
quality and the structural behavior; the asphalt is a material that realese the stress
and satisfy special requeriments of design.
 The ACRDs construction procedure is very simple and many asphalt core rockfill
dam may be constructed with low rock quality. This kind of dams can be construted
over depth aluvial deposites that in many cases are compresibles.
 Recent studies of several projects, have showed that asphalt core ACRDs,
comparative of with CFRDs dams, are very competitive in terms of safety and
economy.
 Geomembranes are very useful in rockfill dams for minimize the leakage, avoiding
maintenance, reducing construction costs and time, and are resistant to
earthquake. They can be applied to the whole upstream face or only to critical
areas.
Key words : CFDR, ECRD, ACRD, compaction, deformability modulus, creeping

effect, leakage.
9. REFERENCES
[1] PENMAN. A.D.M.,CHARLES J.A., ( 1976) – The Quality and Suitability of rockfill
used in dam construction – 12th International Congress on Large Dams, Mexico
City, Mexico.
[2] PENMAN. A.D.M.,CHARLES J.A.,HUMPHREYS,J.D. (1982), Sandstone Rockfill in

Two Dams, 14th International Congress on Large Dams, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
[3] VEIGA PINTO (1979), Características de Resistência e Deformabilidade dos

Materiais de Enrocamento (Portuguese) , Geotecnia No. 27, Lisboa, Portugal.
[4] VEIGA PINTO A., F. GUEDES DE MELO, C. MATIAS RAMOS (1988), Design
Criteria of Upstream concrete facing rockfill dams, 16th International Congress on
Large Dams, San Francisco, USA
[5] MARANHA DAS NEVES, E. J. ( 2002) Algumas Considerações sobre a Mecânica

dos Enrocamentos – Solos e Rochas (Portuguese) Revista Latino Americana de
Geotecnia.
[6] CRUZ, P.T., MATERÓN, B., FREITAS JR., M.S., (2009, 2014) – Concrete
FaceRockfill Dams, Oficina de Textos.
[7] KANJI, M. A.2014 Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering ,Vol.,
6, Issue 3, June 2014).
[8] KANJI, M.A., (2014) Rock Mechanics for Natural Resources and Infrastructure,
SBMR 2014, -ISRM Specialized Conference , Engineering Works Affected by
SoftRocks, September , Goiania, Brazil.
35
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[9] WU, G. Y., FREITAS , M.S. Jr et al, Planning & Construction of Tianshengqiao 1
CFRD, 2000, ICOLD, 20th Congress, Beijing).
[10] BARHOUCH A. D., MACHADO, R.A.( 2007) AHE IRAPÉ: A Segurança de

Barragens nos períodos Construtivos e de Enchimento , CBDB, XXVII Seminário
Nacional de Grandes Barragens, BELÉM – PA, 03 A07 DE JUNHO DE 2007
[11]ALEX CALCINA et AL. (2013) Chaglla CFRd – Main Design Features,
3rdInternational Symposium on Rock fill Dams, Kunming , China.
[12] MARCELA WEIS, CALCINA A., et Al. ( 2015) Barragem de Chaglla – Principais
Aspectos , XXX SNGB, Foz do Iguaçu , PR, Brazil
[13] COOKE J.B. ;SHERARD J. .L. ( 1987) Concrete Face Rockfill Dam : I.
Assessment. ; II . Design . Journal of Geotechnical Engineering ASCE, v.
113,1987.
[14] LOMBARDI, G. ( 2002) “Grouting of rock masses” 3RD International Conference

on Grouting and Grout Treatment. Minusio.2002.
[15] LOMBARDI, G. ( 2011) Concrete Face rockfill dams, Use of Gin Critieria for
Consolidation and Impermeabilization of the foundation rock, 2nd International
Symposium on Rockfill dams, Rio de Janeiro,
[16] WANG XIAOLIANG etAL Study on Characteristics of Moraine Conglomerate

inbuilding Jiangpinche CFRD, 2013, 3rd International Symposim on Rockfill dams,
Kunming.
[17] COOKE B., SHERARDJ. ( 1987)- ASCE – Proceedings , Concrete Face rockfill
dams – Design, construction, Performance. Detroit, USA .
[18] VIOTTI, C.B., (1999) “Discussion on behavior of Brazilian Rockfill dams“, Second
Symposium on CFRD, Florianopolis, Brazil, October).
[19] PEDRO L. MARQUES FILHO et Al, 2009 , IRAPÉ POWER PLANT – Design and
Construction measures required by Sulfide Rich Rockmass XXIII ICOLD, Brasília,
2009.
[20[ ALEX M. C., JÂNDER F. L., REGINALDO A.M., ( 2009) 1st International
Symposium on Rockfill Dams, Modern Rockfill Dams, Chengdu, China.
[21] MARENGO- MOGOLLON, H. ET AL, (2013) Some Relevant aspects of

Geotechnical design for “La Yesca”: Description for its behavior during the
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construction stage and First on year of built” Studies on Modern Technology of

Rock-fill Dam. Kunming, China, p. 693-718.
[22] MARULANDA, C. (2016), Presas de Enrocado, International Symposium

onSafety dams, ICOLD-INCA, October 26 – 28, Mexico City, Mexico.
[23]ICOLD 2004, Guidelines for Design High Concrete Face Rockfill Dam.
[24]ICOLD Modified bulletin 70 (1989)
[25] CBDB (2009) Diversion of Large Brazilian Rivers, Brazilian Committee on Large
dams.
[26] FREITAS, M.S. JR. (2016) – Earth- Rockfill dam Practices Overtopping cases
during diversion stage and Flood Season, International Symposium on Safety
dams, ICOLD-INCA, October 26 – 28, Mexico City, Mexico.
[27] MATERON B., RESENDE F.” (2001) Construction Innovations for the Itapebi
CFRD”, International Journal on Hydropower & Dams, 2001.
[28] PINTO N. L.S. , MARQUES FILHO, P.L., (1998) – Estimating the maximum face
deflection in CFRDs . Journal on Hydropower Dams ,No. 6.
[29]COSTA,. M. G.;FREITAS, M.S..JR et al. ( 2009) – Mazar CFRD : Main Features

on Design and Construction, 1st International Symposium on Rockfil Dams,
Chengdu, China.
[30] MATERON B.,FERNANDEZ , G. (2011) Considerations on the Seismic Design of

high concrete face rockfill dams ( CFRDs) 2nd Symposium International on rockfill
dams, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil.
[31] ZEPING X., (2009) Performance of the Zipingpu CFRD during the Wenchuan
Earthquake , Journal on Hydropower & Dams, Issue Three.
[32] VAHID AFSARI-RAD ( 2015) , 2nd International Dam World Conference, Lisbon,
Portugal.
[33] HÖEG, K. (1993) “Asphaltic Concrete Cores for Embankment Dams: Experience
and Practice”. Noruega: Stikka Press, Norway. 88 p. ISBN 82-546-0163-1.
[34] JUTAO, H. “Application of Asphalt Concrete Core in China” 3º International

Symposium on Rockfill Dams, China, 2013
[35] BAYARDO, MATERON, 2013, 3rd International Symposium on Rockfill Dams,

Kunming, China.
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[36] BORDEAUX, G. “Evolução da barragem brasileira-barragens de enrocamento

com núcleo asfáltico” São Paulo 2011.
[37] SCUERO A., SEMBENELLI P., VASCHETTI G., (2009) – Construction of Rockfill
dams with membrane face: Boville and Sar Cheshmeh – 1rst International
Symposium on Rockfill Dams, Chengdu, China.
[38] SCUERO A., VASCHETTI G., (2013) – Underwater Rehabilitation of a 113m High
CFRD : Experiences from Turimique, 3rd International Symposium on rockfill
Dams, Kunming, China.
[39] DIVINO P., SAULO R., GUTEMBERG S. (2013) – Emborcação Dam Stress-
Strain Behavior in 28 Years of Operation – 3rd International Symposium on
Rockfill Dams, Kunming, China.
[40] SILVEIRA J.F.A., BANDEIRA O.M., (2017) – Analysis of the CFRD behavior
related to rockfill deformability and its leakage consequences after reservoir
filling.4thInternational Symposium on Rockfill Dams, May 15 – 18thBelo Horizonte,
Brazil.
[41] YUAN X., AI Y., CHI F., CHEN H., Research and Practice of Key Technologies for
Nuozhaduhigh Earth-rockfill Dam. 4th International Symposium on Rockfill Dams,
May 15 – 18thBelo Horizonte, Brazil.
[42] ZHANG Z., LIU X., FENG Y. LI S., WU S., SHAO G., Main Technical innovation
and practice in Nuozhadu Hydropower Station Engineering, 3rd International
Symposium on Rockfill Dams, Kunming, China.
[43] QIAN, CHEN (2008) Immediate development and future of 300m high CFRD.
CFRD World Journal of CFRD International Society, V.2, n.1.
[44] MARSAL, R. J. (1971) Resistencia y Compresibilidad de enrocamientos y

gravas. Mexico D.F.: Instituto de Ingeniería, UNAM.
[45] PINTO, N.L.S.; (2007) Very High CFRD dams -Behavior and design features. In
III Symposium on CFRD-dams Honoring Barry Cooke, 2007, Florianopolis.
Proceedings, 2007.
[46] MARENGO, H., RIVERA,R. HERNÁNDEZ, E., MENA ,E. (2015) N- “Behavior of
Hydropower Plant “La Yesca” Mexico, after Two Years of Built”, XXX National
Seminar on Large Dams, May 11 – 15, Rio de Janeiro.
[47] CAO KEMING1 et Al. ( 2007) Crush accident of face slab (spalling) along a
vertical joint, Workshop on China, Yichang, China.
38

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BRAZILIAN COMMITTEE ON DAMS

IV INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCKFILL DAMS - SIBE

General Report – Theme 1

General Description of Recent Projects Involving

According to international experience, a rockfill dam alternative choice at a local river is

2. ROCKFILL DESIGN CONCEPTION

2.2 Foundation Treatment

 In places of erodible materials, the foundation treatment extends beyond the

3.1 Earth Core Rockfill

Figure 3.1 Main Cross section of Irapé ECRD [20]

3.2 Concrete Face rockfill dam - CFRDs

Figure 3. 2.: CFRDs Zoning [ 24]

Table 3.2 Grain size ranges of Zones 2A and 2B

* ICOLD Modified bulletin 70 (1989) [25]

In case of alluvial material like gravel, wetting proceedings may be excluded.

Figure 3.4 Zoning conception recommended for CFRDs at Seismic sites

An external corrugated waterstop, and Omega type waterstops could be placed

Figura 3.8. Chaglla dam waterstop

3.2.4 Reservoir 1rst Filling

3.3.1 ACRD design conception

Figure 3.9 Section of the Storglomvatn Dam ( Norway) [32]

Table 3.3 high ACRDs on alluvial material foundation in China [34]

ACRDs Zoning - Transitions and rockfill

Figure 3.10 : Fine transitions close to the asphalt core [32]

Characteristics of granular materials at the transition zones

Figure 3.11 Asphalt core and transitions (fine and coarse)

Foundation Plinth treatment

Asphaltic concrete temperature during compaction

Asphalt core construction & progress ( Brazil)

4. SUMMARY COMPARISON CFRDs X ACRDs ALTERNATIVES

6. DEFORMABILITY MODULI & CREEPING EFFECT

7. OBSERVED PERFORMANCE AND POST-CONSTRUCTION

7.1 Performance of rockfill dams

7.2 Evolution of rockfill dams. Problem unexpected and its causes

Figure 7.2 Evolution of CFRDs in the world between 1960-2015.

Figure 7.3 Aguamilpa dam Cross Section.

Figure 7.4a. Graduation curve 3B material Fig.7.4.b. Graduation curve 3C material

Figure 7.5. Settlement of Aguamilpa dam.

Fig. 7.6. Cracks in the concrete face slab.

Figure 7.6. Cracks in the concrete face slab.

Tianshengqiao I Barra Grande

Mohale Campos Novos

Figure 7.7. Incidents in Tianshengqiao I, Barra Grande, Mohale, Campos Novos

7.4 Measurements of the quality of Rockfill dams

One way to accomplish the measurement of the behavior of the dams is to

Table 7. 1. Settlement, valley shape and area of several CFRDs

7.5 Problem unexpected and its causes

Figure 7.8. Transversal deformability modulus against shape factor.

7.6 POS CONSTRUCTION INTERVENTIONS

Figure 7.9. Leakage versus reservoir water elevation of Aguamilpa dam.

Figure 7.10. Leakage versus reservoir water elevation of El Cajon dam.

For El Cajon dam Pos construction experience, we can conclude:

Figure 7.10. Leakage versus reservoir water elevation of La Yesca dam.

 Rockfills are construction materials which the mechanic of deformation follows

 The adequate processing of a rockfill, including gradation, spread and layers

Key words : CFDR, ECRD, ACRD, compaction, deformability modulus, creeping

[2] PENMAN. A.D.M.,CHARLES J.A.,HUMPHREYS,J.D. (1982), Sandstone Rockfill in

[3] VEIGA PINTO (1979), Características de Resistência e Deformabilidade dos

[5] MARANHA DAS NEVES, E. J. ( 2002) Algumas Considerações sobre a Mecânica