The Pragmatic Dragon

The Pragmatic Dragon
Contemporary Chinese Studies
This series provides new scholarship and perspectives on modern and

contemporary China, including China’s contested borderlands and minority
peoples; ongoing social, cultural, and political changes; and the varied
histories that animate China today.
A list of titles in this series appears at the end of this book.

The Pragmatic Dragon
China’s Grand Strategy and
Boundary Settlements
Eric Hyer
© UBC Press 2015
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior written
permission of the publisher.
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Hyer, Eric, author
The pragmatic dragon : China’s grand strategy and boundary settlements /
Eric Hyer.
(Contemporary Chinese studies)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-0-7748-2635-8 (bound). – ISBN 978-0-7748-2637-2 (pdf). –
ISBN 978-0-7748-2638-9 (epub)
1. China – Boundaries – History – 20th century I. Title II. Series: Contemporary
Chinese studies
DS737.H93 2015 951 C2014-905841-1
C2014-905842-X
UBC Press gratefully acknowledges the financial support for our publishing
program of the Government of Canada (through the Canada Book Fund) and
the British Columbia Arts Council. Funding was also provided by the David M.
Kennedy Center for International Studies and the College of Family, Home, and
Social Sciences, Brigham Young University. Financial support from the Chiang
Ching-kuo Foundation is also greatly appreciated.
Printed and bound in Canada by Friesens
Set in Museo and Warnock by Artegraphica Design Co. Ltd.
Copy editor and proofreader: Frank Chow
Indexer: Marnie Lamb
Cartographer: Eric Leinberger
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www.ubcpress.ca
To the memory of my mother
Harriet Catherine Johns Hyer (1926-90)
and for my father

Paul Van Hyer
Contents
List of Maps / ix
Acknowledgments / xi
Part 1: The Strategic and Historical Context

Introduction: Grand Strategy and Boundary Settlements / 3
1 The Historical Legacy / 22
Part 2: The Sino-Indian Dimension

2 Sino-Indian Relations and Boundary Disputes / 39
3 The Sino-Burmese Boundary Settlement / 67
4 Boundary Settlements with Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan / 84
5 The Sino-Pakistani Boundary Settlement / 106
6 The Sino-Afghan Boundary Settlement / 120
Part 3: The Sino-Soviet/Russian Dimension

7 Sino-Soviet/Russian Relations and the Boundary Settlement / 131
8 The Sino-Mongolian Boundary Settlement / 161
9 The Sino-Japanese Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands Dispute / 180
10 The Sino-Vietnamese Territorial and Boundary Settlements / 197
Part 4: Contemporary Settlements and Disputes

11 Boundary Settlements with Eurasian States / 217
12 The South China Sea Territorial Disputes / 236
Conclusion / 263
Notes / 272
Bibliography / 317
Index / 338
List of Maps
1 China / 2
2 “Lost” Territory / 24
3 India / 43
4 Burma / 68
5 Nepal / 85
6 Bhutan / 98
7 Pakistan / 110
8 Afghanistan / 122
9 Russia / 132
10 Heixiazi and Yinlong Islands / 147
11 Korea / 155
12 Mongolia / 172
13 Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands / 181
14 Vietnam / 200
15 Laos / 212
16 Central Eurasia / 218
17 South China Sea / 237
18 South China Sea 1947 map / 241
Acknowledgments
I was mentored by a group of excellent sinologists who adhered to what I

call the exotica sinica school of China studies, but belong to the next genera-
tion of scholars committed to the rigorous application of social science theory
and methods to the study of Chinese politics and foreign relations. In this
book, I have attempted to strike a balance between the rich tradition of
sinology and the rigorous analysis of China’s foreign policy within a theor-
etical framework, by placing Chinese policy toward territorial issues and
boundary disputes within the context of China’s strategic imperatives.
This book is the culmination of research and writing over a good portion
of my academic career. For many years I researched China’s boundary dis-
putes and settlements, but the major disputes with the Soviet Union and
India seemed to have reached a stasis rooted in ideological and historical
differences. The dramatic end of the Cold War with the collapse of the Soviet
Union in December 1991 brought about a sea change in China’s strategic
environment. Relations with Russia began to improve, while at the same
time tensions with the United States increased. At the time, I set aside this
research project to wait for the dust to settle and Beijing to make its next
move. Negotiations with the new Russian Federation eventually resolved
their remaining boundary disputes, and Beijing also negotiated boundaries
with its new Eurasian neighbours. This dramatic shift in the structure of the
international system stimulated renewed efforts to resolve the Sino-Indian
boundary as well. Although the Sino-Indian dispute remains unresolved, a
stable status quo exists along the Line of Actual Control and negotiations
continue. This will remain the case until a larger strategic imperative sets
the context for a final resolution. China’s growing military power and as-
sertiveness has recently focused attention on the South China Sea disputes.
In light of these developments, I renewed work on the manuscript to include
analysis of China’s post–Cold War settlements, the pending settlement of
the Sino-Indian dispute, and the ongoing South China Sea disputes.
xii Acknowledgments
During the years this manuscript sat on the shelf, other scholars took up
research on China’s boundary disputes and settlement. This book is my
response to alternative arguments other scholars have advanced seeking to
explain China’s approach to boundary disputes and settlement from different
perspectives, and includes my analysis of China’s post–Cold War boundary
settlements and the ongoing disputes.
Over the years of working on this book, I have been supported and assisted
by family members, colleagues, students, friends, and other scholars too
numerous to list. Columbia University’s East Asian Institute provided an
intellectually stimulating environment and generous funding during my
graduate student days. Brigham Young University’s College of Family,
Home and Social Sciences, the David M. Kennedy Center for International
Studies, and the Political Science Department have offered collegial support
and generous research funding. As a Fulbright Scholar at China’s Foreign
Affairs College, I formed enduring friendships that have resulted in scholarly
collaboration. A generous grant from the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for
International Scholarly Exchange supported the publication of this book.
I’m grateful to the reviewers (anonymous and known to me) who read and
commented on multiple drafts of the manuscript. I’ve incorporated many
of your suggestions. The work of many other scholars has informed and
enriched my analysis, and the numerous citations in this book are a testa-
ment to their contributions. The staff at UBC Press has been most helpful in
guiding this project to publication. Senior editor Emily Andrew coached me
through the external review process and negotiations with the UBC Press
Publications Board. My editor, Megan Brand, orchestrated the production
process and was patient with me when my responses to her requests were
delayed. Francis Chow’s meticulous editing made the text more readable.
Eric Leinberger’s maps illustrate what would otherwise have been only ab-
stract descriptions of complex terrain along China’s borders. As with all
scholarly work, however, I alone am responsible for any shortcomings that
remain.
PART 1
The Strategic and Historical Context
Map 1 China
Introduction
Grand Strategy and Boundary Settlements
Boundary disputes are a “primary cause of rivalry between states” and have
long been a fundamental cause of war. Territorial disputes persist in many
regions of the world, with the potential to erupt into armed conflict.1 The
likelihood of war is high because territorial differences are “intractable” and
“tend to give rise … to the foreign policy practices of power politics.” On the
bright side, however, “if claims over contiguous territory are settled amicably
… it is highly unlikely that … war will break out between the two neighbors
regardless of issues that may arise in the future.”2 These observations seem
especially relevant to China, a country that has settled land boundaries with
twelve of its neighbours but continues to have a major boundary dispute
with India and maritime boundary disputes involving numerous islands in
the East China Sea and the South China Sea (see Map 1). To date, however,
there has been no comprehensive and systematic study of China’s boundary
disputes and settlements.
There have been numerous studies of various disputes but only recently
have more systematic ones been published. Earlier studies of China’s bound-
ary disputes and settlements made little use of the theories and methodology
of international relations to enhance our understanding of China’s behaviour,
whereas more recent studies have adopted theoretical frameworks for an-
alysis.3 This study adds to this new literature by explaining the significance
of the boundary settlements within the larger context of the shifting balance
of power and China’s strategic imperatives. It thus highlights Beijing’s
changing policy toward boundary disputes and settlements in response to
international systemic constraints.
The central question of this book is how the strategic environment of the
People’s Republic of China (PRC) influences its policy on boundary disputes.
There are several related questions: When seeking to settle disputes, how is
China motivated or constrained by strategic considerations? Under what
4 The Strategic and Historical Context
circumstances do territorial issues become part of Beijing’s foreign policy

“agenda”? What factors determine Beijing’s willingness to compromise? For
example, one distinguishing characteristic of the PRC’s boundary settlements
is that only some compensating strategic gain appears to motivate China to
seek a settlement.4
When confronted by an external threat, states adopt policies designed to
reduce the threat. Resolving a territorial dispute may help a state avoid war,
and in many cases may even pave the way for an alliance or a non-aggression
treaty.5 To enhance its security, China sought to reduce tensions in bilateral
relations and facilitate alliances with neighbouring states by concluding
boundary settlements in the early 1960s, the 1970s, and after 1990.6 Although
states may have many reasons for particular policies on specific issues, I
argue, based on the evidence, that Beijing’s primary motivation was the
shifting balance of power, and that its objective was to enhance China’s
security vis-à-vis its primary adversaries.
This book analyzes China’s approach to its boundary disputes in the context
of international systemic forces. One of the major obstacles to achieving
settlements has been Beijing’s far-reaching historical claims, which, under-
standably, have alarmed China’s neighbours despite Beijing’s professed
willingness to conclude boundary treaties based on realistic historical,
geographic, and security considerations. In the end, China has proved to be
very pragmatic and willing to compromise in order to establish legitimate
boundaries through peaceful negotiations, even ceding territory believed by
both parties to belong to China historically. Knowledge of China’s approach
toward boundary and territorial settlements will increase our understanding
of China’s foreign policy, an important result for scholars of international
relations and China studies given that country’s growing importance in world
politics and the concerns that it has given rise to.
Other studies analyze China’s boundary disputes and settlements from
different theoretical paradigms by adopting constructivist and domestic
politics perspectives. Allen Carlson examines the Chinese concept of sover-
eignty in order to determine whether China’s internalization of evolving
international norms has effected a change in its attitude toward settling its
borders. He argues that, despite China’s “historically conditioned sovereignty-
centric values, rational cost-benefit calculations, and external pressures …
brought to bear on China by reform and opening” have resulted in a shifting
stance on sovereignty. As Beijing has become more confident and has come
Introduction 5
to place greater value on international acceptance, it has become more

willing to compromise and has sought territorial settlements, resulting in
an unprecedented relaxation of tensions along China’s borders. Neverthe
less, although it has not pushed revanchist claims, Beijing has insisted on
“maintaining and reinscribing conventional boundaries,” which, Carlson
concludes, “reflects the strict limits on its willingness to cooperate and
compromise with its continental and maritime neighbors.” 7
Chien-peng Chung analyzes Beijing’s behaviour by tracing the influence
of “bargaining space in the presence or absence of certain domestic, insti-
tutional and leadership factors.” This approach assumes that domestic politics
is the major determinant of Beijing’s policy toward boundary disputes. Chung
admits, however, that such an approach “cannot explain when or why a
disagreement, dispute or conflict arose … or for that matter its duration, let
alone predict future occurrence of such disputes or conflicts,” and therefore
cannot explain or predict the circumstances under which China seeks settle-
ments of such disputes.8 Chung’s analysis based on “culture” and the so-called
moral basis of China’s foreign policy ignores the systemic determinants of
Chinese foreign policy, relying instead on ideological and Sinocentric vari-
ables to explain Beijing’s behaviour. Thus, while the analysis of each individual
dispute may ring true in the context of an overarching cultural explanation,
it offers no generalizable explanation of China’s behaviour.
M. Taylor Fravel’s analysis sees Beijing’s concerns over regime insecurity
as motivating China to seek compromise settlements, arguing that Beijing
is “willing to cooperate with other states in exchange for assistance in coun-
tering [its] domestic sources of insecurity” and has made “territorial conces-
sions [in exchange] for assistance from neighboring states” to quell domestic
unrest. He concludes that once domestic unrest has threatened the regime’s
control over border regions, Beijing has compromised in order to facilitate
a settlement and cooperation with neighbouring states to dampen ethnic
unrest.9 However, the fact that there has not been local ethnic unrest in all
cases raises questions about such a conclusion.
This book offers an alternative to these explanations by drawing on con-
temporary realist balance-of-power theories. According to Quincy Wright,
“changes in the political map have always been disturbing to the balance of
power. Such changes and demands for them have been the main problem
with which power politics has dealt.”10 The survival of states and the mainten-
ance of their boundaries require constant vigilance and self-strengthening.
When a nation’s power is inadequate vis-à-vis that of an opponent, adroit

use of alliances and other means becomes necessary, and Beijing has adopted
such strategies.11
Systemic Constraints and China’s Boundary Settlements

China’s policy toward boundary disputes cannot be understood by studying
a particular boundary dispute in an idiosyncratic way. A systemic approach
requires consideration of the impact of the structure of the international
system on China’s behaviour. Such a deductive explanation assumes that a
state’s “decisions are shaped by the very presence of other states as well as
by interactions with them.”12 One sinologist has concluded that “the whole
development of modern China … has been circumscribed by its external
environment, and … this wider setting has continued to preoccupy the
Chinese leadership” since 1949.13 The international structure conditions
China’s calculations and approach. “Singular Sinocentrism has no place in
analysis” and the “important impact of the international system … justifies
linking theory with sinology in the analytic scheme.”14 I therefore adopt a
structural realist explanation of China’s approach to boundary disputes and
settlements, while remaining sensitive to the impact of China’s historical
legacy on its foreign policy.
The structure of the international system and the balance of power deter-
mine China’s behaviour, and ideology does not seem to affect Chinese per-
ceptions in any concrete way. Despite some idiosyncrasies, Beijing’s foreign
policy follows certain predictable patterns because of general strategic
constraints and limits imposed by the “regularities” of the international
system. Beijing is sensitive to the constantly shifting balance of power and
responds to these changes by seeking to improve relations with its neigh-
bours despite ideological differences.15 Careful study of China’s foreign policy
shows that Mao Zedong’s “policies reflected … strategic balance of power
maneuvers.”16
Because of Chinese hypersensitivity to territorial issues, leaders may have
rationalized territorial settlements by invoking Mao’s “united front” doc-
trine, which justified cooperation with less threatening and even ideologic-
ally shunned states, but this appeal to Maoist doctrines obscured the
strategic calculations behind the historically painful compromises that made
settlement possible. In some cases, the government did not publicize settle-
ments for fear of undermining the Communist Party’s role as an uncompro-
mising defender of Chinese sovereignty against imperialist encroachment.
Introduction 7
Externally, China presented these settlements as examples of its reasonable-

ness or magnanimity.
In this book, I present a systematic explanation focusing on the influence
of Beijing’s strategic concerns on boundary settlements. In the early 1960s,
with China confronted by a hostile United States, Soviet Union, and India,
Mao sought improved relations with many smaller neighbouring states as a
means of breaking China’s isolation and tilting the balance of power in China’s
direction. The potential cost of continued confrontation “implies that leaders
will think … in terms of what the security implications will be of worsening
relations” with neighbouring states, and this “provides incentives to … reduce
the levels of diplomatic and military conflict in a dispute in order to secure
the continued support” of these potential allies.17 This deeper strategic
rationale for the settlements or attempted settlements is clear from a careful
study of the boundary settlements concluded in the early 1960s. The same
strategic analysis is used to explain China’s behaviour in the late 1970s, as
the Soviet threat to China escalated, and during a third period of boundary
settlement following the Cold War, which changed the international dynamic
and Beijing’s strategic calculations, especially along China’s western bound-
ary and in Southeast Asia.
As the position of various states in the regional balance of power shifted,
China adjusted its foreign policy tactics and alliances accordingly, and these
adaptations were reflected in its changing attitude toward the settlement of
specific boundary questions. In a sense, then, this study encompasses not
only China’s boundary disputes and settlements but also its evolving inter-
actions with neighbouring states, with the boundary disputes and settlements
providing a lens through which to analyze China’s strategic behaviour, how
it is influenced by relations with other states, and how China has used bound-
ary settlements to further larger strategic goals.
Despite the fact that irredentist views were common among China’s com-
munist elite, there is clear evidence of a correlation between the dynamics
of the international system and China’s adoption of a conciliatory boundary
policy. This book demonstrates that Beijing has been much more pragmatic
in approaching territorial and boundary disputes than many had assumed.
In fact, China obtained less than 30 percent of the territory it claimed in the
already concluded settlements, and is seeking only 25 percent of the disputed
territory in its outstanding disputes with India and Bhutan.18 These claims
and settlements exclude the vast territories that Chinese believe were his-
torically part of imperial China before being carved off by imperialist powers,
and Beijing has not insisted on the far-reaching historical claims it initially
asserted. It is clear that a “chauvinistic nationalist” posture did not get in
the way of a pragmatic approach in the already concluded settlements, and
there is no sign that such pragmatism will be missing in the future.
Methodology
Although each case is unique, they are comparable when placed within a
larger strategic framework. Using a detailed historical comparative mode of
analysis for each case, I identify the “causal nexus” between the structural
constraints of the international system and Beijing’s policy toward specific
disputes and settlements. The scope of analysis is restricted to the key vari-
ables of comparable cases, making it possible to “bound the domain of our
concern, to organize it, to simplify the materials we deal with, to concentrate
on central tendencies, and to single out the strongest propelling forces.”19
The structural realist assumptions and comparable‑cases approach enable
us to focus on Beijing’s larger strategic concerns and how these influenced
policy toward boundary disputes and settlements. In turn, the comparative
analysis of individual cases makes generalizations possible, and we can
engage the larger debates in the field of international relations.
I am aware that domestic politics and individual levels of analysis are
important to a complete analysis, but this is beyond the scope of this book.
Foreign policy was closely controlled by Mao and a small circle of foreign
policy elite, so domestic politics in the sense of “bureaucratic politics” and
“public opinion” did not constrain decision-making in any significant way.
A. Doak Barnett observes that “Mao was totally dominant and made all of
the ‘big decisions.’”20 Although China’s foreign policy bureaucracy became
more complex in the post-Mao era, Chinese foreign policy scholar Zhang
Qingmin argues that “Deng [Xiaoping] also enjoyed similar authority in
foreign policy” and he “retained the final say on any details of … policy.”21
The consensus among scholars and practitioners of Chinese foreign policy
is that in the post-Deng era, Beijing’s policy remains “based on practical rather
than ideological considerations,” and that decision making characterized by
“oligarchical consensus” is “highly centralized in the hands of a few or even
one top leader, with very little delegation of decision power.” As in the Mao
and Deng eras, decisions on major issues, such as boundary disputes, are
“decided at the very top by party leaders or the elders who command real
power behind the scenes.” The foreign policy bureaucracy can deploy research
and analysis to exercise “recommending power” on issues such as boundary
Introduction 9
disputes, but a high level of control makes “subversion of a decision” difficult.22

As Zhang points out, “so long as the Chinese hierarchical decision-making
structure remains along with its authoritarian political system, the role of
the core leader will continue to be the center to understand Chinese foreign
policy.”23
A new layer of domestic politics that complicates post-Deng foreign policy
is the growing role of social media and publically expressed opinion. Even
some People’s Liberation Army (PLA) generals speak more freely to the
press, especially the press that caters to popular opinion, and this can inflame
nationalistic sentiments among the public, supported by conservative and
nationalistic scholars. The impact of this relatively new phenomenon on the
foreign policy process is hotly debated among Chinese and Western scholars
of Chinese foreign policy. Statements attributed to outspoken PLA officers
and published in “commercial” outlets, such as the Global Times, that cater
to public opinion, have become common in the post-Deng era, but such
extreme statements do not appear in the “official press,” such as the Party’s
flagship paper, the People’s Daily. Many scholars conclude that this is a
key indicator that although public expressions of foreign policy views are
now more common, the official Party-controlled media carefully represents
the central leadership’s measured views on foreign policy.24 In addition, recent
research has concluded that over the past fifteen years, the PLA’s influence
on foreign policy has waned as the PLA has become a more professional
organization with clear defence duties – the result of a “deliberate decision
to remove the military from elite politics and the most powerful decision-
making councils.” This could be one reason why the Party now tolerates
more public expressions of opinion by PLA officers than was the case a decade
ago. However, on “fundamental” national security issues the influence of
the PLA has diminished because “the PLA today wields far less political
power than it did during the Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping eras. More
over, ultimate decision-making authority regarding fundamental foreign
relations … resides in the CCP Politburo Standing Committee.”25
Popular expressions on foreign policy issues are also more common and
tolerated than in the past. Boundary issues, such as the unsettled territorial
dispute with Japan over the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands and the South China
Sea disputes, are especially likely to inflame public sentiment. Recent schol-
arship has concluded that public opinion does influence China’s foreign
policy, but there is no “general framework for understanding the interactive
effects between popular sentiments and foreign policy in China,” and very
little research that “critically assesses the Chinese state’s capacity to shape
public opinion on foreign policy issues.”26 One new careful study concludes
that, whereas China’s foreign policy leaders respond to short-lived public
outcry over highly emotional issues, they will not allow “popular activism”
to “threaten core foreign policy interests” and have quickly adopted policies
of “moderation and engagement once public mobilization levels died down.”27
Public activism does affect negotiations, however, and can slow progress
toward a resolution. According to one Chinese scholar, the attentive public
reduces the “space and flexibility to implement policy … from a long-term,
reasonable, strategic perspective … even though Chinese leaders needed
to take a stance on the basis of China’s national interests [they] could not
ignore the strong feelings of this part of the population.”28
However, while keeping in the background this “second-level” influence
on Chinese foreign policy toward boundary disputes and settlements, adopt-
ing a rational actor model makes it possible to focus on the general pattern
of China’s behaviour and the role of Beijing’s strategic calculations when
resolving boundary disputes. Structural realist explanations of Chinese
foreign policy have proven to be robust. Allen S. Whiting, doyen of Chinese
foreign policy studies, observes that “motivational analysis is necessarily
tentative, especially when the event is long past, the evidence is partial, and
the actors are unavailable”; moreover, “reading the mind of Mao Zedong is
contentious under the best of circumstances.” However, studying China’s
foreign policy is possible using “inferential analysis of published material
[that] can provide valuable clues to strategy and tactics.” And “parsimony in
theory, if enriched with area study and cultural knowledge, can illuminate
… systemic and national actor levels of realpolitik analysis.”29
China’s Grand Strategy and Boundary Disputes

The analytical thread that ties together Beijing’s consistent behaviour in
different boundary disputes is the larger strategic context of such behaviour.
Understanding China’s grand strategy facilitates the analysis of how China’s
changing strategic environment influences Beijing’s boundary settlements.
An axiom of international politics is that a fundamental objective of states
is to maintain their borders. When the communists took power in 1949, they
extended central control to China’s border regions for the first time in over
a century. In Beijing’s eyes, China’s boundaries were either historically es-
tablished “traditional customary” boundaries or boundaries imposed on
China by unequal treaties.30 Beijing disputed most every boundary, rejecting
Introduction 11
the current location of the boundary line with its neighbours or arguing
that no treaty or historical documents had established a boundary.31
To understand the approach of the People’s Republic of China to boundary
disputes, one must first place these disputes in the context of China’s
fundamental strategic concerns, such as the balance of power. Many scholars
conclude that Beijing is preoccupied with the “constant change in inter-
national relations and [shows] acute sensitivity to situational change” as well
as “balance-of-power politics” and “geopolitical struggle.” It follows that
Chinese leaders have an “appreciation of … the use of pragmatic balance-
of-power politics.”32 Their perceptions of threats do not “correspond with
any permanent moral quality” of a state but are determined by shifts in
the balance of power that affect their view of the character and behaviour
of other states.33
According to John Mearsheimer, “if a great power confronts two or more
aggressors at the same time, but has neither the resources to check all of
them nor an ally to which it can pass the buck, the besieged state probably
should prioritize between its threats … so as to free up resources to deal with
the primary threat.”34 Despite Mearsheimer’s avowal of “offensive realist”
arguments, this statement is more an expression of “defensive realism,”
which is exhibited by China’s foreign policy behaviour. 35 Mao’s “united
front” doctrine, adopted during the communists’ protracted struggle for
power, explicitly defined primary and secondary threats and called for the
subordination of minor threats in order to form a united front against per-
ceived primary threats to China’s national security – a strategy of external
balancing. This doctrine continues to influence China’s foreign policy cal-
culations; whenever strategic imperatives have dictated, Beijing has sub
ordinated a secondary goal (such as revolution in Burma in the early 1960s)
to a primary national security goal, such as a more favourable balance of
power vis-à-vis other threatening states (for example, Sino-Japanese rap-
prochement in the 1970s to balance the threat from the Soviet Union), and
Beijing has generally signalled its intentions rather clearly to its adversaries
and potential allies.36
A fundamental shift in the East Asian regional balance of power took
place during the early 1960s, which saw the Sino-Soviet split, improved
Soviet-Indian relations, and the escalating involvement of the United States
in Southeast Asia. There is a correlation between this shift in the strategic
environment and Beijing’s efforts to settle boundary disputes during this
period. At the time of a second major shift in the 1970s, the dispute with
Vietnam escalated into violence; at the same time, Beijing sidestepped

territorial disputes with Japan and the Philippines, which it considered
potential allies against the Soviet Union. With the end of the Cold War, a
third major shift in the strategic environment in the early 1990s prompted
the settlement of the Sino-Russian boundary, settlements with Central
Eurasian states, as well as agreements with Vietnam on the land boundary
and the Gulf of Tonkin.
Although China was unable to resolve its disputes with India and the Soviet
Union, during the 1960s it negotiated a compromise settlement with most
of the other neighbouring states, which permitted bilateral relations to de-
velop unhindered. This pattern can be explained by the hypothesis that
Beijing’s perception of strategic imperatives and corresponding foreign policy
determine its policy in a specific dispute; thus, Beijing prioritized threats
and adjusted its policy accordingly to deal with the primary threat from the
Soviet Union, India, and, to a lesser extent, the United States. The boundary
settlements with Burma, Nepal, Mongolia, Pakistan, and Afghanistan illus-
trate this pattern. China certainly had the military capability to seize the
disputed territories, but did not resort to the use of force because control of
the disputed territories was not, on balance, strategically important, whereas
settlement of the disputes served larger important strategic objectives.
Beijing showed great flexibility in its approach to boundary disputes in
order to reach a compromise settlement and bolster amicable relations
with a particular state, thereby maintaining a favourable balance of power
and achieving its strategic objectives. It expected at most only tacit recog-
nition of China’s victimization by imperialism, and was more interested in
stable and legitimate boundaries than in asserting historical claims. Borders
that were a legacy of China’s humiliation at the hands of imperialist powers
left China frustrated and its neighbours apprehensive over the possibility
that Beijing would behave expansively in order to satisfy irredentist aspira-
tions. However, Beijing was willing to cede territory in order to achieve larger
strategic goals, as long as this did not diminish China’s boundary security
or hamper its ability to defend the heartland.37
At the 1955 non-aligned conference in Bandung, Indonesia, Zhou Enlai
stated that China was prepared to move forward and peacefully negotiate
new boundary treaties.38 Progress toward settlement of boundary disputes
did not gain much momentum until the 1960s, however. Despite the radical
tone of Chinese domestic politics at the time, China’s domestic economic
crisis and the perception of a heightened foreign threat (neiluan waihuan)
Introduction 13
necessitated adjustments in foreign policy. In the face of deteriorating

relations with India, a growing threat from the Soviet Union after 1960, and
increasing US involvement in Southeast Asia, Beijing moved quickly to ne-
gotiate boundary settlements (unsuccessfully in the case of India) in order
to strengthen relations with its neighbours and offset the threat posed by
the two superpowers. China was facing a possible Soviet‑Indian alliance with
an anti‑China raison d’être; moreover, beginning in the late 1950s, its radical
policies had led to strained relations with most of its other neighbours. Seen
in the context of Beijing’s larger strategic concerns at the time, boundary
settlements were a way for Beijing to balance power and enhance its national
security.
Despite China’s radical domestic policies, international realities necessi-
tated better relations with its neighbours. To offset the growing confrontation
with the Soviet Union, India, and the United States, Beijing moved to settle
boundaries with all of its neighbours, concluding treaties with Burma,
Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Mongolia during the 1960s, and attempt-
ing to reach some agreement with India too. As early as 1959, when the
Sino-Indian boundary dispute began causing friction between the two
countries, Beijing clearly expressed its alarm over the increasingly hostile
international environment in a diplomatic note to India: “China will not
be so foolish as to antagonize the United States in the east and again antag-
onize India in the west … We cannot have two centers of attention, nor can
we take friend for foe.”39 To prevent further deterioration in Sino-Indian
relations, Zhou Enlai initiated negotiations to settle the boundary dispute.40
In February 1963, at a state banquet honouring Cambodian Prince Norodom
Sihanouk, Liu Shaoqi, the president of the PRC and ranking Politburo
Standing Committee member, stated that “it has always been the sincere
desire of the Chinese Government to live in peace and friendship with the
countries of the world, settle complicated questions left over by history
through negotiations with its Asian neighbors and strive for a peaceful inter-
national environment favorable to socialist construction.”41 PLA documents
also attest to the fact that China adopted a conciliatory policy toward India.42
The series of boundary settlements between 1960 and 1964 suggest a causal
relationship between such settlements and larger strategic concerns. China,
however, failed to settle its boundaries with India, the Soviet Union, and
Vietnam, resulting in war in these cases.
At the peak of the Cultural Revolution in 1969, the Sino‑Soviet confronta-
tion over Zhenbao Island in March made it clear that China and the Soviet
Union were on the brink of a larger war, although a summit in mid-September

initiated Sino-Soviet negotiations on boundary issues. This confrontation
also resulted in renewed flexibility on China’s part in territorial settlements
with neighbouring states in order to counterbalance the growing Soviet
threat. Most notable were China’s willingness to shelve the Senkaku/Diaoyu
Islands dispute with Japan to facilitate normalization of relations in 1972
and the Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1978, and China’s readiness
to sidestep its dispute with the Philippines in the South China Sea in order
to facilitate improved relations. It became clear that Beijing would not allow
festering territorial differences to derail a higher foreign policy objective:
allying with less threatening neighbours in order to strengthen China’s
developing anti-Soviet alliances.
By the early 1980s, China adopted an “independent foreign policy” and
distanced itself from the United States due to continuing differences over
the Taiwan issue. “New thinking” in Soviet foreign policy led to a rapid
improvement in US-Soviet relations in the late 1980s. China could not afford
to have a boundary dispute get in the way of better Sino-Soviet relations, not
if it did not want to again become the odd man out in the three-way rela-
tionship. The Soviet Union responded to China’s initiatives and relations
between the two countries improved significantly. Boundary negotiations
gained momentum in 1989 when Mikhail Gorbachev travelled to Beijing
to normalize relations after three decades of hostility.
The dramatic end of the Cold War with the collapse of the Soviet Union
in December 1991 brought about a sea change in China’s strategic environ-
ment. Although China and Russia concluded a boundary agreement in 1991,
it was not as critical as it would have been in the early 1960s or in the 1970s.
The end of the Cold War prompted Beijing to renew boundary negotiations
with Hanoi even as Hanoi’s relations with Washington began to improve.
China also moved quickly to develop relations with its Eurasian neighbours
following the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Boundary settlements with
these newly independent states were an important way for China to remain
a key player in a region where US and European pressure was increasing
on its western frontier. Relations with India have improved in recent years,
although progress on a boundary settlement has been limited to a tacit
agreement on the Tibet-Sikkim boundary reached in 2003. These develop-
ments demonstrate Beijing’s efforts to maintain a favourable balance of power
in the post–Cold War world.
Introduction 15
The complicated disputes in the South China Sea remain unsettled, but
bilateral and multilateral talks have achieved some degree of accommoda-
tion. In November 2002, China signed the Declaration on the Conduct of
Parties in the South China Sea, pledging to “promote a peaceful and har-
monious environment in the South China Sea between ASEAN [Association
of Southeast Asian Nations] and China for the enhancement of peace, stabil-
ity, economic growth and prosperity in the region” in order to “enhance
favorable conditions for a peaceful and durable solution of differences and
disputes among countries concerned.”43 Nonetheless, the complex multilateral
dispute over territory potentially rich in natural resources has all parties
continuing to dance a complex minuet of military and diplomatic moves.
Although possible, future military confrontations over boundary disputes
with India, Bhutan, and Japan as well as in the South China Sea are unlikely
despite the recent spike in tensions because negotiations have been ongoing
for several decades and the parties have concluded interim agreements call-
ing for the peaceful settlement of these disputes.44
Overview of the Case Studies

Boundary settlements reached in the early 1960s and the manner in which
the dispute with Japan over the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands was handled in
the 1970s show remarkable similarities in terms of Beijing’s strategic object-
ives and response to shifts in the balance of power. Settlement of the Sino-
Russian border and renewed Sino-Vietnamese boundary negotiations in
the early 1990s also came at a time of significant change in the international
system. This presents an interesting parallel: although separated by more
than a decade in each instance, the cases are comparable in that boundary
settlements coincided with important shifts in Beijing’s strategic assessment
and its corresponding efforts to resolve boundary disputes. These systemic
changes, I argue, were a decisive factor influencing Beijing’s policy toward
its territorial disputes and boundary settlements.
Although the political dynamics of the outstanding territorial and bound-
ary disputes – with India, Bhutan, and Japan as well as in the South China
Sea – have been significantly transformed with the end of the Cold War,
historical legacies and growing nationalistic sentiments still make the resolu-
tion of these disputes very problematic; in some instances, they are flashpoints
of potential military confrontation. Beginning in the latter 1990s, however,
in an effort to counterbalance the United States’ dominant position in Asia,
China has actively sought to improve relations with its regional neighbours.
Under a “New Security Concept,” Beijing has fostered a “strategic partnership”
with Russia, and through the Shanghai Cooperation Organization it has
established a security partnership with its Eurasian neighbours. Efforts to
improve relations have made significant progress, symbolized by the ASEAN
Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia that China signed in 2003,
renouncing the use of force and committing to settle disputes peacefully.
The shifting balance of power and strategic concerns were decisive factors
in China’s conclusion of boundary settlements in the 1960s and sidestepping
of disputes in the 1970s. The settlements concluded in the 1990s exhibit a
similar pattern to earlier settlements despite the significant change in the
international system with the end of the Cold War. Even the Sino-Indian
dispute, which resulted in a border war in 1962 and is still unresolved, is
comparable to the others because of the strikingly similar pattern in China’s
behaviour and approach. The improvement in US-Indian relations in recent
years has given China greater incentive to improve relations with India, but
a boundary settlement is necessary before this can happen. The 2003 tacit
agreement on the Tibet-Sikkim boundary is a clear example of China’s will-
ingness to make concessions in order to build momentum toward a compre-
hensive resolution. These examples support the conclusion that China’s
behaviour is not idiosyncratic but rather follows a predictable pattern dictated
by fundamental strategic imperatives that have impelled Beijing to engage
in balancing behaviour.
Because of the relationship between China’s behaviour in each of the vari-
ous boundary disputes and settlements and these fundamental strategic
imperatives, the cases discussed here are grouped according to the larger
strategic context, the logic of Beijing’s grand strategy, and China’s primary
security concerns at the time: deteriorating relations with India in the early
1960s, trepidation over US involvement in Southeast Asia and ongoing
concerns about the Soviet threat in the 1960s and 1970s, and the post–Cold
War strategic environment after 1990.
In Part 2, I consider boundary disputes settled with South Asian countries
in the early 1960s (Chapters 2 to 6) in the context of Sino-Indian relations
and the larger context of escalating tensions with the Soviet Union – a key
factor throughout the 1960s – and China’s overall concern with the growing
presence of the United States in South and Southeast Asia. In other words,
Sino-Indian negotiations in the late 1950s and early 1960s were not merely
Introduction 17
a function of the bilateral relationship, and China’s handling of boundary

disputes with other South Asian countries was not solely a function of the
Sino-Indian boundary dispute, as other scholars have argued; rather, China’s
larger security concerns and strategic imperatives were paramount.
During the Cold War, the Soviet Union considered India geopolitically
important as a non-aligned South Asian power. In the mid-1950s, Moscow
began nurturing closer ties with India, providing India with significant
economic assistance and political support. Soviet and Indian interests were
complementary: Moscow supplied India with much-needed military and
technical assistance, while India formed a bulwark against Chinese and
American expansion into South Asia. Sino-Indian relations were exacer-
bated as the Soviets cultivated India as a counterweight to the United States
and China by enlisting Indian military strength as a deterrent force and
encouraging India to exclude US and Chinese influence from the region.45
The deterioration of Sino-Soviet relations during the late 1950s was ac-
companied by Chinese alarm at the growing warmth of Soviet-Indian rela-
tions. “One of Beijing’s overriding strategic objectives” was “to prevent the
greater threat emanating from the … north from linking up with a threat to
the PRC’s southern borders.” China sought to prevent further decline in its
relations with India by attempting to settle the boundary dispute that had
been a significant cause of conflict between the two countries. By the late
1950s, however, Sino-Indian relations had fallen to such a point that the
dispute proved intractable.46 China then sought to bolster relations with other
South Asian states, using boundary settlements as a primary means of
accomplishing this.
Many scholars have hypothesized that China’s approach to these bound-
ary disputes was a function of the Sino-Indian dispute, arguing that China
“had incentives to avoid confrontation with some states and thereby convince
those states to support [its] claims in a dispute with another adversary,” in
this case India. China, the thinking goes, “pursued accommodative policies
in disputes with some states in order to foster an image of reasonableness
and peaceful intentions, so as to build greater international support for [its]
territorial claims” against India and, in other cases, the Soviet Union.47 A
more satisfactory explanation of China’s behaviour can be found, however,
by placing China’s relations with its South Asian neighbours in the broader
context of the challenges confronting Beijing as a result of growing US influ-
ence and deteriorating Sino-Soviet relations.
As Beijing worried about worsening relations with India, China suffered

one of its greatest domestic economic disasters as a result of the Great Leap
Forward. At the same time, it faced a growing Soviet threat along its northern
border; increasing US involvement in Vietnam along its southern border as
well as the US-supported Tibetan resistance based in Nepal; and the
Nationalist Chinese government’s desire to “retake the mainland” from its
base on Taiwan as well as the Guomindang army’s continued operations in
Burma. This combination of internal political and economic challenges and
growing external threats to China’s security set the stage for a quick succes-
sion of boundary settlements in the early 1960s. The glaring exception is
China’s failure to achieve a compromise settlement with India, which pre-
cipitated the brief 1962 border war. Since the analysis of these disputes and
settlements is placed within the broader framework of Sino-Indian relations,
I will begin with a discussion of the Sino-Indian boundary dispute and the
failure to achieve a settlement, then consider the cases settled in the early
1960s with China’s other South Asian neighbours.
The next group of boundary disputes and settlements (Part 3, Chapters 7
to 10) fall along the Sino-Soviet/Russian dimension and are therefore ana-
lyzed in the larger context of this bilateral relationship. Although the Sino-
Soviet boundary dispute became public only after China had negotiated
settlements with several other states and the dispute with India had flared
into a border war, relations with Moscow had already deteriorated over the
previous several years. The crescendo in Sino-Soviet tensions necessitated a
new tack in China’s foreign policy and altered Beijing’s approach toward
boundary disputes and settlements with Mongolia, Japan, and Vietnam dur-
ing the 1960s and 1970s.
As Sino-Soviet relations deteriorated in the late 1950s and the balance of
power in East Asia began to shift, China attempted to counter the growing
Soviet threat by developing better relations with other states in the region
and with the United States.48 A 1962 boundary settlement with the Mongolian
People’s Republic, like settlements with Burma and other neighbouring states,
was part of Beijing’s strategy to surround itself with friendly, or at least
neutral, states. A decade after the Sino-Soviet boundary dispute became
public, the dispute with Japan over the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands erupted.
China’s national security concerns and strategies as well as its behaviour in
this dispute paralleled those in the early 1960s. The Sino-Vietnamese dispute
initially flared up in the 1970s and culminated in a border war in 1979. A
Introduction 19
final settlement on the land boundary was negotiated in December 1999 and
the two countries agreed to a boundary in the Gulf of Tonkin a year later,
after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War; neverthe-
less, this case also shows how Beijing’s concern over growing Soviet influence
in the region drove China’s initial efforts to settle the boundary dispute.
Since the analysis of these disputes and negotiations is placed within the
broader framework of Sino-Soviet/Russian relations, I will begin with a
discussion of the Sino-Soviet boundary dispute and the settlement that was
negotiated with Russia during the 1990s and finalized in 2005. The Sino-
Korean boundary settlement is quite mysterious for lack of significant
documentation, but is discussed briefly with the Sino-Russian boundary
settlement. I then turn to the settlement negotiated with Mongolia in the
early 1960s. This is followed by analysis of the unsettled disputes with Japan
because the timing of the initial negotiations relates China’s behaviour to
larger strategic concerns with the Soviet Union. The final chapter in Part 3
considers the settlement with Vietnam in the latter 1990s. The situation
along the boundary with Laos is also inscrutable for lack of significant docu-
mentation, but is discussed briefly with the Sino-Vietnamese boundary
settlement.
In Part 4, I analyze the contemporary settlements with China’s Eurasian
neighbours (Chapter 11) and the South China Sea disputes (Chapter 12).
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Beijing moved deftly to establish
close security and economic relations with the newly independent Eurasian
states. Uppermost in China’s mind was the post–Cold War strategic environ-
ment in the region and security along its Eurasian frontier. A primary concern
was the security vacuum left by the collapse of the Soviet Union and the
subsequent increase in US influence in the region. An editorial critical of
NATO expansion into Eurasia highlights China’s threat perception: “NATO
is actively expanding itself … [and] constitutes a new threat.” Explicitly
identifying the United States, the editorial concluded that “instead of re-
straining its power politics and hegemonism, the superpower is intensifying
its efforts to continue to pursue them.”49 The fluid security environment in
the region threatened China’s western frontier, and it became Beijing’s
goal to establish a security perimeter in Eurasia by improving relations and
establishing closer security cooperation with these newly independent
neighbours.50 Key to enhancing relations with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and
Tajikistan were boundary settlements to reassure them that China was
not planning to lay claim to territories that it believed Russia had taken by
force or “unequal treaties” over the past century. Eliminating the Eurasian
countries’ concerns over Chinese irredentism was the first step in strength-
ening China’s role as a major player in regional security, and in building
the economic relations necessary for China’s development and meeting its
growing energy needs.
The South China Sea disputes involve hundreds of uninhabitable small
islets, coral atolls, reefs, shoals, and submerged rocks scattered across
the South China Sea; China’s total maritime claims cover approximately
3.5 million square kilometres. When analyzing these disputes, it is important
to distinguish two separate issues: the Sino-Vietnamese dispute over the
Paracel Islands, about 150 miles southwest of Hainan Island, and the multi-
lateral dispute over the Spratly Islands. The issue of sovereignty over the
Spratlys is unique and more complex because it involves claims by the People’s
Republic of China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei, com-
plicated by the claim by Taiwan, the Republic of China. Placing these disputes
in a larger strategic context illustrates how China’s behaviour has paralleled
its behaviour in earlier cases. Finally, the concluding chapter highlights
the correlation of China’s behaviour in all of these disputes and settlements
with its broader strategic concerns that forms the main analytical thread
running through this book.
Before we turn to the case studies, Chapter 1 will establish a historical
vantage point. State boundaries have fundamental historical significance
because they affirm a state’s power. Boundary lines are “not a product of
nature but a product of histories and struggle between competing author-
ities over power to organize, occupy, and administer political space,” and
imperial China “exercised [its] power through [its] ability to impose order
and meaning upon space.”51 According to Henry Kissinger:
Any international settlement represents a stage in a process by which a na-

tion reconciles its vision of itself with the vision of it by other powers … But
an exact balance is impossible … because while powers may appear to out-
siders as factors in a security arrangement, they appear domestically as
expressions of a historical existence. No power will submit to a settlement,
however well-balanced and however “secure,” which seems totally to deny its
vision of itself.52
Introduction 21
This observation seems especially relevant to China since its past wields
an imposing power over the present. An understanding of contemporary
boundary disputes and settlements is impossible without some understand-
ing of the historical legacy inherited by the People’s Republic of China.
1 The Historical Legacy
The understandable alarm on the part of China’s neighbours over Beijing’s

historical claims to territory far beyond the borders it actually controlled
has been one of the major obstacles to the achievement of boundary settle-
ments, despite Beijing’s apparent willingness to conclude treaties based on
realistic historical, geographic, and security considerations. The People’s
Republic of China inherited a dual legacy of pre-nineteenth-century regional
hegemony followed by colonial domination by the West. The former had
lasted for millennia, whereas the latter, characterized by the “one hundred
years of humiliation” beginning with the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing following
the First Opium War, lasted until 1943, when the major Western powers
renounced the unequal treaties. Throughout its history, China’s geographical
dimensions expanded and contracted as the power of the ruling dynasty
waxed or waned and peripheral regions slipped from control, or China ceded
territory to imperialist powers. The residual effects of this dual legacy con-
tinue to the present. Like other post-colonial nations, the People’s Republic
of China is hypersensitive to issues concerning sovereignty and territorial
integrity, and harbours irredentist sentiments. These underlying historical
and nationalistic obsessions have complicated the negotiation of boundary
settlements. Despite the ideological commitment and irredentist views com-
mon among Chinese leaders, however, Beijing, acutely aware of strategic
imperatives, has shown pragmatism and compromised on boundary issues
in order to achieve more fundamental security objectives. What is the
PRC’s vision of the geographical bounds of “China” and how has this changed
over time? What is Beijing’s policy regarding the recovery of “lost” territory?
This chapter analyzes the historical legacy inherited by the PRC, focusing
on the influence of both the ideological aspects of this legacy and the im
pact of international politics on Beijing’s contemporary territorial and
boundary policy.
The Historical Legacy 23
The Introduction concluded with the assertion that history is one deter-
mining factor in any country’s foreign policy. In China’s case, understanding
this historical legacy is perhaps even more important because this legacy is
“one of the most impressive instances” of the power of the past over the
present.1 According to historian John K. Fairbank, to disregard China’s his-
tory and “especially the tradition in foreign policy, is truly to be flying blind.”2
What is commonly referred to as the traditional “Chinese world order” has,
despite centuries of interaction with the outside world, “persisted as a symbol
of the world as the Chinese elite imagined it should be,” even after any sem-
blance of this Sinocentric “world order” has ceased to exist.3 Thus, when
studying China’s boundary disputes and settlements, we must distinguish
historical “myth” from political “reality” while recognizing that both influ-
ence China’s behaviour.4
The political elites of China retain the “distilled essence” of China’s Sino
centric world order; a notion of the geographical realm and the historical
setting based primarily on the Qing Empire forms their mindset.5 Although
this cultural and psychological mindset may provide the substance of a
unique Chinese world view that is an important variable in foreign policy,
it is only one factor influencing Beijing’s foreign policy and is constrained
by the dynamics and structure of the international system – the political
reality that “conditions their calculations, their behavior, and their inter-
actions.”6 These systemic factors and the boundaries inherited from the
Qing Empire that China feels obligated to defend, along with an acute con-
sciousness of past colonial infringement on its sovereignty, have a signifi-
cant impact on China’s foreign policy and together determine its policy on
specific boundary disputes and settlements.7 The Chinese, however, have
demonstrated a remarkable “capacity to compromise” when necessary, in
order to strike a balance between, on the one hand, controlling peripheral
areas believed to have belonged to China historically and culturally and, on
the other hand, consolidating borders to facilitate alliances and ensure the
security of the heartland.8
Tu Wei-ming, the renowned Chinese historian, argues that Chinese “know
reflexively what China proper refers to,” and the “impression that geopolit-
ical China evolved through a long process centering around a definable
core remains deeply rooted.” 9 Even before taking power in 1949, Mao
Zedong identified foreign-controlled territory that he believed was histor-
ically China’s. On the heels of the “one hundred years of humiliation,” the
Map 2 “Lost” Territory. Source: Adapted from the original published in Liu Peihua, Zhongguo jindaishi (Beijing: Yichang shuju, 1954).
communists came to power harbouring a hypersensitivity about “lost terri-

tory.” Li Jijun, a former lieutenant general and vice president of the People’s
Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences, explains that “this was a
period of humiliation that the Chinese people can never forget. This is why
the people of China show such strong emotions in matters concerning our
… integrity of territory, and sovereignty. This is also why the Chinese are so
determined to safeguard them under any circumstances and at all costs.”10
This strong sense of territoriality, buttressed by an image of the past glory
of a “united” empire and often bellicose and extensive territorial claims,
alarmed the PRC’s neighbours (see Map 2). Beijing, however, has shown
sensitivity to the realities of international politics. When engaging with
neighbouring countries, officials have intuitively assumed the legitimacy
of Beijing’s territorial claims but, cognizant of strategic imperatives, have
adopted pragmatic policies to resolve boundary disputes.
China’s Territorial Legacy

China’s nationalistic historiography adopts an “essentialist view” of the con
temporary Chinese state, which Chinese believe evolved historically, with-
out any “fundamental alteration”; they also assume that the Qing Empire’s
boundaries should constitute the modern state.11 This nationalist myth is
embraced by the PRC, but historically China did conclude boundary treaties
defining the territorial extent of China. As early as the Tang Dynasty (618-
907), treaties delineated China’s boundaries. These treaties constituted
“clearly demarcated borderlines” and stipulated how boundary disputes
were to be handled, demonstrating that China did “think in terms of owner-
ship of territory” and was “concerned about precise border designations
and apprehensive about military maneuvers and the construction of new
military facilities along these borders.”12
By the late eighteenth century, China had developed an inclusive “territorial
ideology” that was crucial in the formation of the modern Chinese national
identity, even if its validation was based on self-serving historical evidence.13
Ho Ping-ti concludes that the Manchu were of the “greatest importance to
the formation of modern China as a geographic entity,” asserting that “the
Ch’ing [Qing] is without doubt the most successful dynasty of conquest in
Chinese history.”14 During the Simla Conference held in 1914 to negotiate a
boundary between China and British India, the Republic of China resisted
any compromise, arguing that “the Republic has no right to alienate any part
of the territory which she has inherited from the Manchu dynasty, and she
must maintain the extent of her territory the same as before.”15
Published in 1925, Zhongguo sangdi shi (History of China’s Lost Territory)
is an example of grandiose Chinese claims regarding “lost” territory.16 Al
though the author cites the great expanse of the Mongol Empire, he argues
that China should claim only territory included in the Manchu Empire,
for two reasons:
First, the territory inherited by the Republic [of China] comes directly from
what was controlled by the Qing during its final days … and secondly, all
areas inhabited by the Han, Manchu, Mongols, Muslims and Tibetans are
in fact unified, which was completed during the Qing.17
The PRC expressed similar views on China’s historical frontiers in a

lengthy Renmin ribao (People’s Daily) article:
During the reign of the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong Emperors … the
government of the Qing Dynasty … consolidated its rule over the North
Desert [Mongolia], Xizang [Tibet] and Xinjiang. All of these constituted
indelible historical contributions to safeguarding the vast territory of China.
The same article emphasized that the territorial integrity of China was
key to national security:
Only national unification can effectively resist the invasions of foreign coun-
tries and safeguard the independence of the motherland … During the reigns
of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, colonists from the West and expansionists
of Tsarist Russia all stretched their claws of aggression into China. If China
at that time had not been a powerful unified country, it could hardly have
resisted their nibbling.18
Furthermore:
Patriotism is a kind of profound feeling towards the motherland shaped and

cultivated over hundreds of years. The people in our country have patriotic
traditions, and this is closely related to the fact that China has been a con-
stantly developed and consolidated unified country since ancient times.19
In the words of one sinologist, therefore, the PRC is “clinging to the

ways of empire” because it believes in the notion of “China as old, unchanging,
united, and consistent,” not unlike classical Chinese cartography, which
“tended to depict the world not so much in terms of how it ‘actually’ was,
but rather in terms of how they wanted it to be.”20 The power of this historical
identity is clear from the fact that the PRC embraces a normative vision of
a China with boundaries that correspond to the borders of the Qing Empire.
The persistence of this territorial ideology in the minds of Chinese and
the trepidation this engenders among China’s neighbours was articulated
by the former prime minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew: “As China’s de-
velopment nears the point when it will have enough weight to elbow its way
into the region … all countries in Asia, medium and small, have this concern:
will China seek to re-establish its traditional pattern on international rela-
tions of vassal states in a tributary relationship with the Middle Kingdom?”21
Evolution of the Communists’ Territorial Policy

The PRC embraced the view that the boundaries of China were the “out-
growth of the historical development of the past several thousand years.”22
This territorial vision of China is in fact the fusion of the historical legacy
of a traditional Sinocentric worldview and modern nationalism inherited
by the communists.23 Before it came to power in 1949, the Chinese Com
munist Party (CCP) supported the right of self-determination and, at least
publicly, accepted the possibility that certain regions would seek independ-
ent statehood. However, Mao Zedong harboured a deep obsession with
the inclusion of the vast territories of the Qing Empire within the boundaries
of modern China, and although he initially supported national self-
determination and a Chinese federation, the historical unity of China became
paramount after 1949.
The Manifesto of the Second National Congress, held in July 1922, spelled
out the CCP’s vision of the eventual territorial boundaries of China: “The
unification of China proper (including Manchuria) into a genuine demo-
cratic republic … The establishment of a Chinese Federated Republic by
the unification of China proper, Mongolia, Tibet, and Sinkiang into a free
federation.”24 In 1928, the Sixth National Congress called for the unity of
China but supported the right of national self-determination.25 At the First
All-China Congress of Soviets, held in November 1931, a resolution on the
“Question of National Minorities” declared:
In the Fundamental Law (constitution) of the Chinese Soviet Republic it shall

be clearly stated that all national minorities within the confines of China
shall have the right to national self‑determination, including secession from
China and the formation of independent states, and that the Chinese Soviet
Republic fully and unconditionally recognizes the independence of the Outer
Mongolian People’s Republic.26
Despite his initial support for the right of independence and national self-
determination, Mao revealed his views on the future territorial dimensions
of China in an interview with Edgar Snow in July 1936:
It is the immediate task of China to regain all our lost territories, not merely
to defend our sovereignty below the great wall [sic]. This means that Manchu
ria must be regained … As for Inner Mongolia, we will struggle to drive Japan
from there and help Inner Mongolia to establish an autonomous state.
But Mao believed that:
When the people’s revolution has been victorious in China, the Outer
Mongolian republic will automatically become a part of the Chinese federa-
tion, at its own will. The Mohammedan and Tibetan peoples, likewise, will
form autonomous republics attached to the Chinese federation.27
In a 1944 interview with Gunther Stein, Mao excluded Manchuria and

Taiwan from areas that should be granted autonomy:
Outer Mongolia is part of China. But it is a nation … China must first recog-
nize Outer Mongolia as a national entity. Then organize a sort of United States
of China to meet their aspirations. We believe they will come to join.
The same is true concerning Tibet … The Mohammedans should also
be given a chance to form their state. Manchurians are no longer a separate
nationality. Nor are Formosans.28
Mao clearly believed that territory included in the Qing Empire belonged to
China.
The CCP’s more nationalistic and inclusive view of China is evident in the
textbook The Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Communist Party. Origin
ally published in 1939, the book describes China’s territorial boundaries:
The present boundaries of China are: Bordering on the Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics in the northeast, northwest and a portion of the west. In
a portion of the west and the southwest bordering on India, Bhutan and
Nepal. In the south bordering on Siam, Burma, Annam and close to Taiwan.
In the east close to Japan and bordering Korea.
This paragraph was revised in the 1952 edition:
The present boundaries of China are: Bordering on the Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics in the northeast, northwest and a portion of the west.
Bordering on the Mongolian People’s Republic in the north. In a portion of
the west and the southwest bordering on Afghanistan, India, Bhutan and
Nepal. In the south bordering on Burma and Vietnam. In the east bordering
on Korea and close to Japan and the Philippines.
The earlier edition classified several neighbouring states as “vassal states”

(fan):
After defeating China in war, the imperialist states then stole several of China’s
vassal states and a portion of her territory. Japan occupied Korea, Taiwan,
the Ryukyus, Penghu islands and Port Arthur; England occupied Burma,
Bhutan, Nepal and Hong Kong; France occupied Annam; and a tiny state like
Portugal even occupied Macao.
The revised edition changed this to:
After defeating China in war, the imperialist states not only occupied several
surrounding states that originally received the protection of China, but also
stole or “leased” a portion of China. For example, Japan occupied Taiwan and
the Penghu islands and “leased” Port Arthur; England occupied Hong Kong;
and France “leased” Guangzhouwan.29
In 1949, the establishment of a centralized state of multiple nationalities

was the culmination of the dual forces of the myth of a historically united
centralized state and modern nationalism. The constitution of the People’s
Republic of China characterized the new nation as a “big fraternal and
co‑operative family composed of all nationalities,” and prohibited “splitting
of the unity of the various nationalities.”30 Secession was no longer considered
a legitimate right and autonomous regions were considered “inalienable

parts of the People’s Republic of China.”31 The following rationalization
was given:
Led and instructed by the Chinese Communist Party, the people of each
nationality had already greatly heightened their … patriotic consciousness,
greatly changed and transcended their original situation of mutual antag-
onism, and gradually formed bonds of equality, unity, mutual help, and
cooperation as a basis for realizing common political aims and interests.
Therefore, the establishment of a united, multinational state was the desire
of the great bulk of the people of all nationalities in our country. 32
Ho Ping-ti concludes that because of the historical legacy of foreign en-

croachment, “every party had learned from Realpolitik that the true status
of any of China’s peripheral areas depended on China’s ability to exert ef-
fective control. It is this rude historical lesson that prompted the People’s
Republic of China to seize the earliest possible opportunities to rush its
army into Sinkiang and Tibet.”33
Development of the PRC’s Boundary Policy

The PRC’s expansive territorial vision of China alarmed its neighbours. In
the early 1950s, the PRC continued to publish books describing “lost” ter-
ritories far beyond the borders of the Qing Empire. A 1954 textbook on
modern Chinese history recounted the British and French invasions of
Southeast Asia that ended those countries’ tributary relations with the
Qing court, and concluded: “From this, China completely lost its south
western line of defense.”34 The territories “lost” by China are “the vassal states
of Ryukyu, Vietnam, Burma and Thailand, which originally belonged with
the territory of China, but were all lost as colonies to the aggressors.”35 A
Renmin ribao article illustrated China’s sensitivity toward boundary issues:
“Everybody knows that India used the first opportunity, when at the early
establishment of the People’s Republic of China, [we] had no time to pay
attention to the … border question, to do things which not even British
imperialism dared to do … to cut off part of the territory of China.”36
As in the past, however, the PRC’s territorial policy was necessarily tem-
pered by the “rude historical lessons” of realpolitik and the dynamics of the
international system. While in Moscow negotiating the Sino-Soviet treaty in
1950, Mao was obliged to recognize the independence of the Mongolian
People’s Republic – a “bitter pill to swallow for a man who had been obsessed
since his earliest boyhood with the disintegration of the Chinese empire, and
who had always defined the empire in the broadest possible terms.”37 Accepting
Mongolia’s independence is difficult for any Chinese government because of
the dissonance caused in the normative image of what should constitute
China’s territoriality. A contemporary Chinese scholar underlines this point:
Such unbridled annexation of territory is rare in history. Moreover, people

… in today’s China still remember how China’s map was turned from a
“mulberry leaf,” as the school textbooks described it before 1945, into a
“rooster,” as current Chinese geographers characterize it, due to the nibbling
away of Outer Mongolia by the Soviet worm.38
Yet this is a clear example of how the PRC’s territorial claims are tempered
by larger strategic imperatives.
Beijing’s position regarding other “lost” territories became clear through
a process of “denial” and “affirmation.” After 1949, Beijing readily recognized
several states considered former “vassals” of imperial China. This denial of
suzerainty “established an important discontinuity with its imperial past.”39
The PRC also affirmed its claim to other areas:
Some people inquire: “Since we recognized Mongolia’s independence, in the

future shouldn’t we recognize the independence of Inner Mongolia, Tibet,
etc.?” We respond by saying … Mongolia gained independence under these
historical conditions … Therefore, our position is to continue to recognize
and guarantee their independence, and [we] do not need them to be reunified
with China as one country … What of Inner Mongolia, Tibet and other
nationalities presently within China? We were liberated at about the same
time. The present problem is to join forces to build a strong new China
together, not to be divided and independent … Only in this way will the best
interests of all nationalities presently within China be served. We must not
forget that specific historical conditions derive from the basic interests of the
people. This should be the basis upon which we view issues.40
Thus, Beijing’s vision of China’s boundaries came into sharper focus, and
in the ensuing decade China demonstrated its willingness to use military
force to assert its claims but also to negotiate boundary treaties with its
neighbours based on “historical customary” boundaries.
Any consideration of Beijing’s boundary policy must include a discussion

of “unequal treaties” because of the pivotal role they play in nearly all of
China’s boundary disputes and settlements. The PRC’s definition of an un-
equal treaty is neither clear nor consistent; Beijing has never spelled out the
principles of an unequal treaty, merely listing treaties it considers unequal,
and even this list has changed according to political expediency.41 According
to one Chinese scholar, however:
The Unequal Treaties have become a symbol invested with a host of meanings
extended well beyond the implications of the first treaty encounter between
China and Britain in 1842 … The question of the Unequal Treaties is con-
sequently a matter not only of historical, academic, and diplomatic debate,
but also of current political and cultural interest.42
General Li Jijun expressed China’s sensitivity over this historical legacy:
Before 1949, when the People’s Republic of China was established, more than
1000 treaties and agreements, most of which were unequal in their terms,
were forced on China by the Western powers. As many as 1.8 million square
kilometers were also taken away from Chinese territory. This was a period of
humiliation that the Chinese people can never forget.43
During the pre-modern period, China did negotiate boundary treaties

determined by the balance of power and based on “equality or diplomatic
parity.”44 In modern times, China initiated the practice of establishing
boundaries by treaty when it signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia in
1689, establishing the boundary between the Manchu Empire and the Russian
Empire. This treaty and several Sino‑Russian boundary treaties that followed
were, in the view of some Chinese writers, all equal treaties, but other Chinese
scholars consider them unequal based on modern international law.45 China
established treaty relations with other Western nations in the mid-nineteenth
century. The 1842 Treaty of Nanjing concluded with Great Britain at the
end of the First Opium War was the first quintessential unequal treaty forced
on China.
The PRC’s position on the question of the legitimacy of the boundary
treaties signed by previous governments was initially left in limbo. On the
eve of the establishment of the PRC, the CCP declared that it would recon-
sider previous treaties concluded with foreign powers, especially those
concluded by the Nationalist government, but did not clearly specify which
treaties it would reconsider. Addressing the Bandung Conference in 1955,
Zhou Enlai stated: “With some … countries we have not yet finally fixed our
border line and we are ready to do so … But before doing so, we are willing
to maintain the present situation by acknowledging that those parts of our
border are parts which are undetermined.”46 This rejection of older boundary
treaties fuelled speculation about Chinese irredentism and set the stage for
future boundary disputes with virtually every neighbouring state by making
it clear that China did not accept the earlier boundary treaties as legitimate
treaties.
Other actions compounded the apprehension felt by China’s neighbours.
A week following the Bandung Conference, during which Sino‑Indian
cooperation appeared unshakable, Indian trade union representatives cut
short their attendance at May Day celebrations in Beijing to protest map
displays that included Aksai Chin within China. China’s World Knowledge
Handbook published in 1957 enumerated countries neighbouring China,
but did not list Bhutan and Sikkim. A Renmin ribao article even clouded
the PRC’s view of Korea when it listed the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki, in
which China recognized the independence of Korea, as an unequal treaty.47
In an 8 March 1963 Renmin ribao editorial, the 1957 statement was revived
and the editorial included the boundary treaties signed with Czarist Russia
as unequal treaties.48 Mao’s famous 1964 statement about presenting a “bill”
to the Soviet Union for vast regions of Siberia once included in the Manchu
Empire alarmed Moscow.49
Beijing never enunciated a clear position on the recovery of “lost” territory.
Although the above statements and intimations caused apprehension among
its neighbours, Beijing clearly did not claim sovereignty over all regions
that China’s ancien régime may have considered suzerain territories. And in
practice Beijing has never insisted on the return of this territory, only the
recognition that in many cases it was taken from China by “unequal treaty”
or imperialist force. Nevertheless, this obsession with “lost” territory under-
scores the deep sensitivity of Chinese over China’s territorial legacy and
historical “injustices,” complicated further by nationalism as a potent force
in contemporary China.
In the late 1950s, as Beijing moved to solve boundary problems “left over
by history,” China first placed the disputes in a larger context taking “politics,
strategies, diplomacy and the nation’s security into account.”50 It then adopted
four principles to guide boundary negotiations: (1) recognizing that boundary
disputes were the result of imperialism and unequal treaties; (2) not assert-
ing claims to traditional tributary areas or older historical claims; (3) nego-
tiating new boundaries based on earlier boundary treaties (despite the fact
that imperialist powers forced these unequal treaties on a weak China); and
(4) maintaining China’s “national stand” in negotiations, but at the same
time avoiding “big nation chauvinism.”51 Beijing advocated adopting mod-
ern techniques to delimit the boundaries precisely in order to maintain
“distinct and stable” boundary lines, believing that this would “promote
understanding and deepen friendship” with its neighbours because they
would “recognize China’s consistent policy of respect for sovereignty and
territorial integrity, mutual equality, mutual understanding and mutual
compromise, and solving boundary disputes peacefully through friendly
consultations.”52 Therefore, “even though parts of Chinese territory are still
occupied by its neighbors, China has shown great restraint and patience
as it calls for peaceful solutions to the territorial disputes left by history.”53
Conclusion
The leaders of the People’s Republic of China are slaves to their image of
the past grandeur of the Chinese empire. The CCP’s territorial policy initially
supported self-determination and secession, but was abandoned as the com-
munists faced possible loss of territory. The forces of hypernationalism and
China’s imperial legacy influenced the communists’ policy toward boundary
disputes and settlements, but this was tempered by international systemic
constraints and the strategic imperatives they faced once in power.
The boundaries the PRC inherited were reminders of the “century of
humiliation” China had suffered. After 1949, when the PRC asserted trad-
itional historical claims conflict with neighbouring states became inevitable.
How the PRC would approach the settlement of these disputes was not clear
at the time, and rejection of the boundary treaties signed by previous gov-
ernments fuelled apprehensions that the PRC was revanchist and would
attempt to recover “lost” territories. Although Beijing never insisted that it
should regain these “lost” territories, historical pride in the former imperial
greatness of China, and mention of this in textbooks or other publications,
caused understandable apprehension among China’s neighbours, a feeling
that persists among some today.
The boundary disputes between China and its neighbours are one legacy
of the age of imperialism: imposed boundaries that may ignore “historical
customary” divisions or boundaries that were never clearly delimited and
often never demarcated. When the PRC emerged as a strong, united nation
in 1949, its leaders faced the task of negotiating its boundaries, often with
states that had also recently emerged from a colonial past. Under such cir-
cumstances, acute sensitivity to issues of sovereignty and territorial integrity
made boundary settlements even more difficult.
An understanding of the influence of China’s historical legacy on the
PRC’s contemporary boundary policy is fundamental. An obsession with
the historical dimensions of China made the resolution of historical bound-
ary disputes difficult, but international factors compelled Beijing to make
territorial compromises in order to meet strategic imperatives. Despite
unique national characteristics due to this historical legacy, the PRC, like
all other states in the international system, responds to fundamental sys-
temic structural constraints that dictate its policy toward boundary disputes
and settlements. The case studies in the following chapters are analyzed in
the larger context of international systemic forces and Beijing’s strategic
considerations.
PART 2
The Sino-Indian Dimension
2 Sino-Indian Relations and
Boundary Disputes
The Sino‑Indian boundary dispute has received more attention than any of
China’s other boundary disputes, with the possible exception of the dispute
with Russia. Certainly more official government documents are available on
the Sino‑Indian dispute than on any other. The 1962 border war with India
was only the second sizable military engagement involving troops of the
People’s Republic of China, and the first ostensibly undertaken to defend
China’s “sovereignty and territorial integrity.” This chapter analyzes the
development of the Sino-Indian boundary dispute, focusing primarily on
the larger strategic context of the dispute’s genesis and evolution but also
considering domestic political factors.
Historical Background
Throughout history, India and China have shared an ill-defined frontier.
China extended its control into South and Central Asia during periods of
dynastic expansion, only to withdraw as central power declined. Before the
British colonization of India, various Chinese dynasties united parts of the
subcontinent but never exercised control to the same extent as the British
Raj, which extended its control over the Himalayan states and secured special
privileges in Tibet. With few exceptions, attempts to delimit the boundary
between China and British India were unsuccessful.
Kashmiri and Tibetan officials delimited the frontier between Ladakh and
Tibet as early as 1684, and again in 1842. The fact that these agreements
contain no detailed descriptions of the boundary and mention only general
landmarks suggests the clear recognition of a traditional customary bound-
ary. Whereas India claims that these are legitimate treaties, China contends
that no authentic texts of these treaties exist and that they are therefore not
valid. Chinese sources cite volume 12 of Aitchison’s Treaties, compiled by
British authorities, which concludes: “The northern and eastern borders of
the State of Jammu and Kashmir have not been delimited.”1 In any case, these
40 The Sino-Indian Dimension
early agreements are so vague that they are not helpful in delimiting the
boundary and have only muddied the historical waters, adding to the intract-
able nature of the present boundary dispute.
Chinese authority in Tibet grew following the 1911 revolution establishing
the Republic of China. Concerned about securing the northeastern boundary
of the Raj, British authorities began to push beyond Britain’s so-called outer
line of control into the tribal areas along the foothills of the Himalayas
where neither British authorities nor Tibetan officials exercised effective
control. This was truly a frontier area that formed a buffer between the
Chinese empire and British-controlled India, and there were no clear bound-
aries. The historically complex religious authority exercised by Tibet over
some localities in the area further complicates contemporary Chinese and
Indian claims.
The 1913-14 Simla Conference was Great Britain’s final attempt to delimit
the eastern sector of the boundary between India and China. British, Tibetan,
and Chinese representatives considered establishing the boundary along
the Himalayan watershed, known as the McMahon Line after Sir Henry
McMahon, the British representative at the conference. This attempt failed,
however, because China’s representative refused to sign the convention and
the Chinese government did not recognize the authority of the Tibetan ne-
gotiator. After several subsequent attempts by Britain to gain China’s approval
of the Simla Convention were firmly rebuffed, Britain unilaterally published
the agreement in 1934. Tibetan leaders were also unhappy with the conven-
tion, and after the British departure from India, they requested that the
Indian government return areas that the British had occupied, such as
Ladakh, Bhutan, Sikkim, and even Darjeeling. The Indian response was
equivocal.2 Even after fleeing to India in 1959, the Dalai Lama chided the
Indians for claiming that the McMahon Line was the legitimate boundary
between China and India: “If you deny sovereign status to Tibet, you deny
the validity of the Simla Convention, and therefore you deny the validity of
the McMahon Line.”3
China-India Rivalry
The British exit from India in 1947 and the communists’ rise to power in
China two years later set the stage for confrontation between two newly
independent and hypernationalistic nations. In the words of one Indian
scholar, this was the legacy left to these two young nation-states “because
neither of the two past governments really got to grips with the question.
Sino-Indian Relations and Boundary Disputes 41
The question of a definitive map was left suspended, only to become a bone
of contention between the two succeeding national governments.”4 The result
was tragic conflict as both states sought to establish national boundaries
based on historical occupation or control couched in competing national
myths. Despite attempts to establish amicable relations, India and China
appeared destined to become opposing regional powers. This broader political
context is critical to understanding the contemporary boundary dispute.
Although India and China established diplomatic relations, Beijing’s at-
titude toward India remained somewhat tentative and skeptical for several
years. Outwardly, relations were good, but Chinese leaders viewed Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as a national bourgeois “running dog” of imper-
ialism. Beijing supported the Indian communists, predicting that a socialist
revolution would eventually succeed in India. Nehru believed that, culturally
and politically, the “basic challenge in South Asia is between India and
China.”5 K.M. Panikkar, the last Indian ambassador to the Nationalist gov-
ernment, returned to Beijing as his country’s ambassador to the People’s
Republic of China. Aware of the tendency toward “rivalry” and “misunder-
standing” between China and India, he believed that “cordial and intimate
relations” between the two states would be all but impossible.6 Krishna
Menon, a leading figure in India’s foreign policy establishment, was also
pessimistic about Sino-Indian relations. Writing in 1947, several years before
the communists came to power and seized control of Tibet, he concluded:
“Kautiliya, known as the Indian Machiavelli, defined an enemy 2,200 years
ago as ‘that state which is situated on the border of one’s own state.’ In other
words, what constitutes a state an enemy actual or potential, is not its conduct
but its proximity. A brutal definition … borne out by history … [T]he realism
of Kautiliya is a useful corrective to our idealism in international politics.” 7
Cultural rivalry and geographical propinquity impelled the two countries
toward misunderstanding and conflict. An immediate cause of friction
between New Delhi and Beijing in the early 1950s was China’s assertion of
control over Tibet. India had assumed Britain’s treaty privileges in Tibet
after 1947, and Nehru himself advocated the independence of Tibet during
the Chinese civil war; New Delhi also cooperated with Britain and the United
States to support a fledgling Tibetan independence movement.8 Following
China’s assertion of control over Tibet in 1950, Nehru’s sympathies lay with
the Tibetans, and this continued to influence his view of the issue throughout
the 1950s.9 During the “liberation” of Tibet, Beijing accused India of being
“affected by foreign influences hostile to China,” while New Delhi felt that
China had acted with “extreme discourtesy.” The Tibet issue necessitated
early Sino-Indian negotiations. Despite sympathizing with Tibet, India real-
ized it would have to recognize China’s domination of Tibet and relinquish
the special privileges it had inherited from Britain. In 1954, India and China
reached an agreement on Tibet that legitimized Indian trade and cultural
interests but recognized Chinese control.10
Even before the 1954 negotiations, New Delhi was alarmed by China’s
claim that “China’s western borders were consolidated.” In November 1950,
speaking before the Indian Parliament, Nehru declared:
The frontier from Bhutan eastward has been clearly defined by the McMahon
Line … The frontier from Ladakh to Nepal is defined chiefly by long usage
and custom … [T]hat is our boundary – map or no map. That fact remains
and we stand by that boundary, and we will not allow anybody to come across
that boundary.11
Nehru’s vision of India as an ancient nation and an internalized historical

vision of Indian geography informed his view of the boundary. Moreover,
he believed that the British had been, for geopolitical expediency, willing to
surrender territory that was historically Indian. This national mythology of
sacred territory resulted in an inflexibility that prevented India from making
any territorial concessions.12 China controlled Aksai Chin, located north of
the Karakoram mountain range, which is an extension of the ancient north-
eastern Kashmir kingdom of Ladakh. In 1953, New Delhi rejected the 1899
British decision to draw the northern boundary of Ladakh along the Kara
koram, which left Aksai Chin outside of British India. Using older maps,
Indian officials redrew their country’s boundary along the northern edge of
Aksai Chin and rejected the notion that the border of Aksai Chin and the
middle sector near the border with Nepal was “undefined.” In the eastern
sector, India changed the broken line depicting the McMahon Line as “de-
fined but undemarcated” to a solid line, thus portraying the entire Sino-
Indian boundary as much more formalized than was actually the case.13 On
several occasions even in the late 1940s, the Republic of China government
had protested British and then Indian encroachment into areas claimed by
China south of the McMahon Line (see Map 3).14
At this early date, both China and India clearly realized that a boundary
dispute existed. Senior officials in India’s Ministry of External Affairs wanted
Sino-Indian negotiations over Tibet to include the entire boundary issue.
Map 3 India
Nehru supported this policy initially but Beijing resisted. Although China
did not want to open the boundary question at the time, Zhou Enlai, recog-
nizing the existence of a dispute, stated that “big countries like India and
China with long frontiers were bound to have many questions at issue.” Zhou
believed, however, that conditions were not yet “ripe for settlement” because
the Chinese side had had no time to “study the question.” China’s unwilling-
ness to discuss the issue at the time or to make any adjustments without a
joint survey kept the question open for future negotiations.15 Nehru wanted
an explicit commitment from Beijing on the boundary, but Ambassador
Panikkar persuaded him not to press for negotiations but to simply assert
that the border was completely settled by historical treaties, forcing the
Chinese to raise the issue of the border’s legitimacy. Other Indian officials
disagreed. Former foreign secretary and national security adviser J.N. Dixit
argued:
The first occasion when we could have negotiated a realistic deal with China
was when Nehru acquiesced with the Chinese resuming their suzerainty and
jurisdiction over Tibet … We could have and should have demanded the quid
pro quo of their not questioning the delineated boundary … We did not util-
ize the opportunity of our agreeing to China resuming authority in Tibet to
safeguard our territorial interests … [W]e did not take a firmer stance against
the Chinese early enough when signals were discerned about their territorial
ambitions … Our approach, which was marked by caution and politeness,
contributed to the Chinese consolidating their position on the ground and
their political conviction that they could deal with any Indian challenge.16
The more pressing issue at the time, however, was India’s interests in Tibet,
and pushing the boundary question would only have made the Tibet issue
more difficult to settle.17 Not addressing the sensitive boundary issue at this
time had negative consequences; what India perceived as tacit acceptance
by China of India’s position on the boundary only made India’s later sense
of betrayal more intense.18
Zhou sought to “identify common ground and set aside differences” to
avoid becoming “entangled in disputes.”19 This was the objective of the Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, or Panchsheel (mutual respect for ter-
ritorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, non-interference
in others’ internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexist-
ence). Outlined in the Sino-Indian agreement on Tibet, the Five Principles
were formally announced two months later, in June 1954. This agreement
signalled an improvement in Sino-Indian relations that, however, lasted only
through the mid-1950s. Although underlying tensions continued, during
this period of “Hindi-China Bhai-Bhai,” Sino-Indian relations were outwardly
very cordial.
By early 1959, the amicable relations between the two countries reached
an important watershed. Two factors played an important role: the Tibetan
rebellion and growing Soviet-Indian cooperation in the face of increasing
Sino-Soviet tension. China’s forceful suppression of rebellion in Tibet was
a specific cause of friction. India sympathized with the Tibetan uprising and
gave the Dalai Lama sanctuary. In response, Beijing began a vitriolic anti-
India campaign, criticizing New Delhi for interfering in China’s internal
affairs and violating the principles agreed on in 1954. Nehru believed that
the Chinese had become “rigid and increasingly arrogant and were inclined
to throw their weight about,” and that China “was passing through one of
the phases of expansionism which occurred regularly in Chinese history
whenever the country was strong and united.”20 The boundary dispute, side-
stepped for several years while relations were cordial, now became the focus
of contention, rooted in larger strategic concerns such as the Sino-Indian

regional rivalry, the Sino-Soviet dispute, and the symptoms of other strains
in Sino-Indian relations, such as differences over Tibet.
The impact of China’s takeover of Tibet on Indian public opinion affected
the dynamics of future boundary negotiations. Negotiations over minor
boundary issues that had begun quietly as early as the mid-1950s revealed
China’s sensitivity to boundary differences as well as Beijing’s uncertain
understanding regarding the boundary line, but when the boundary dispute
became public, Indians felt betrayed. Nehru’s inflexible stand on India’s
boundaries led Indians to believe that the “sanctified” Sino-Indian border
was firmly established – “searing the lineaments of India’s territorial bound-
aries deep into the national consciousness” and resulting in the “popular
sacralization of territory.”21 Politically, Nehru could not seek a compromise
settlement even if he might have realized that it was necessary notwithstand-
ing his personal disinclination to make concessions.
Keep in mind that these developments – the worsening Sino-Soviet dispute
and growing Soviet-Indian cooperation, as well as the increase in US covert
activities in Tibet – occurred simultaneously. The Soviets attempted to
maintain a neutral position as Sino-Indian tensions escalated over the
boundary issue in 1959 and were reluctant to support China. After the mil-
itary confrontation across the Sino-Indian border in 1959, Moscow issued a
very even-handed statement calling for a peaceful settlement:
Soviet leaders express the conviction that governments of the Chinese

People’s Republic and the Republic of India will not let this incident further
the aims of those who want the international situation … to degenerate and
who aspire not to permit the emergent lessening of tensions in relations
between states … [Soviet leaders] express the conviction that both govern-
ments will settle the misunderstanding that has arisen, taking into account
their mutual interests in the spirit of traditional friendship between the
peoples of China and India.22
China reacted strongly, accusing the Soviets of not upholding socialist

solidarity, of being “partial toward India, condemning China, and revealing
Sino-Soviet differences to the world.”23 Foreign Minister Chen Yi told Soviet
premier Nikita Khrushchev that China’s policy toward India was one of
“unity cum struggle rather than appeasement” and that Soviet so-called
neutrality made China indignant.24 In fact, however, even after numerous
Indian protests, Soviet maps continued to depict the Sino-Indian boundary

more in harmony with China’s position. It was not until 1972, after signs
of a possible Sino-Indian rapprochement, that the Soviets took measures to
appease India over the boundary controversy.25
In this deteriorating strategic environment, Mao Zedong initiated efforts
to ease Sino-Indian tensions by settling the boundary dispute, and made it
clear that he did not want the boundary dispute to exacerbate growing
Sino-Indian friction.26 In May 1959, China’s ambassador to India, Pan Zili,
revealed that Beijing was cognizant of the larger strategic context when
formulating its India policy: “China will not be so foolish as to make another
enemy of India to the west after having the United States an enemy to the
east. We cannot have two centers of attention, nor can we take friend for
foe.”27 To improve relations with India, Beijing initiated boundary negotia-
tions and Mao authorized Zhou to propose territorial compromises in order
to reach an early settlement. Although no Chinese government had ever
recognized the McMahon Line as a legitimate boundary and Mao believed
that it was an artifact of British imperialism, he was willing to accept it as a
basis for compromise.28
From the outset of the dispute, China showed continued willingness to
negotiate a settlement and, pending an agreement, to take measures to reduce
tensions. In his April 1959 “Report on the Work of the Government,” Zhou
expressed Beijing’s fear that boundary disputes could be manipulated by
outside powers and confirmed China’s desire for a peaceful settlement of the
disputes through negotiations:
The undetermined boundary lines between our country and certain neigh-
boring … countries … have been used by mischief-makers as propaganda
material … We consider it to be in the interests of both parties to … not let
the imperialists succeed in their scheme of sowing discord between us.29
Boundary Dispute
In the 1954 Sino‑Indian agreement on Tibet, several important mountain
passes between Tibet and India west of Nepal (middle sector) were men-
tioned but were not defined as either Chinese or Indian territory, and Beijing
declined to negotiate the issue.30 This led to the first protests over border
violations. In July 1954, China protested the presence of Indian troops in
areas it considered part of Tibet, but India rejected this protest, which, along
with the Zhou-Nehru communications, were kept secret until 1959. 31 By
October 1954, tensions along the border were such that when Zhou and
Nehru met in Beijing, Nehru raised the boundary issue and protested that
maps of the People’s Republic of China included Indian territory. Zhou re-
sponded that they were “reproductions of old pre-liberation maps” and that
China “had had no time to revise them.”32 Nehru did not press the issue or
challenge Zhou because he perceived that China was truly unclear about the
boundary alignment.33
These latent tensions rose closer to the surface when China constructed
the Xinjiang-Tibet Highway traversing the Aksai Chin region claimed by
India. Built in 1956-57, this was a strategically important road for China
connecting Tibet with Xinjiang, especially considering the growing Tibetan
resistance movement. India was aware of Chinese activity in Aksai Chin, but
deliberately chose to downplay it and preserve Sino-Indian amity. However,
once completion of the highway became public with the publication of a
map in China Pictorial in July 1958, India could no longer ignore the issue.
New Delhi raised the issue with Beijing and sent patrols to the area. 34
In August 1958, India protested that the Chinese map included portions
of Indian territory. In November, China responded that the map was based
on older maps, but emphasized its willingness to discuss a “new way of draw-
ing the boundary” following “consultations and survey.” Tension grew when
Nehru responded to the Chinese note by personally writing Zhou and as-
serting that India’s boundaries were not even in question. He claimed there
was “no question of these large parts of India being anything but India,” and
rejected China’s position that a survey would “affect the well-known and
fixed boundaries.” Referring to the 1954 Tibet agreement, Nehru stated: “No
border questions were raised at that time and we were under the impression
that there were no border disputes between our respective countries. In fact,
we thought that the Sino-Indian Agreement … had settled all outstanding
problems between our two countries.” Nehru’s position appeared to foreclose
any possibility of a compromise settlement. Zhou responded that China
never believed that a border dispute did not exist, but that in 1954 the time
was “not yet ripe for its settlement.”35
Nehru had been aware of the Chinese maps for some time but withheld
the information from Parliament, fearing that it would inflame Indian public
opinion against any territorial compromise and complicate any settlement.
Once the dispute became public, however, New Delhi took an even more
inflexible position just as negotiations were about to begin, arguing that no
territorial dispute existed. A careful study of available documents makes
clear that India missed several opportunities to seek a settlement of the

boundary question and, whether sincere or not, tried to maintain that since
Beijing had not rejected India’s position earlier, it had tacitly accepted it.
By 1958, it was obvious the entire Sino‑Indian boundary was disputed.
More than two thousand miles long, the boundary is divided into three
sectors, with disputed areas in each sector.36 The western sector, from the
Karakoram Pass to the Parigas salient, includes the strategically important
Aksai Chin plateau. It extends for a thousand miles and the total disputed
area is approximately fifteen thousand square miles. It is more strategically
important to China than to India because of the Xinjiang‑Tibet Highway.
India argues that the entire sector was delimited by treaties concluded in
1684 between Ladakh and Tibet and in 1842 between Tibet and the author-
ities of Jammu and Kashmir. Beijing rejects those agreements, arguing that
a treaty with a Chinese government had never been concluded, and that, in
any case, earlier agreements negotiated by local authorities are vague and
imprecise.37 While New Delhi has asserted what it considers a historical and
legal claim to Aksai Chin, for China it is a strategically important region
and China views New Delhi’s claim as driven more by its desire to undermine
China’s hold on Tibet than by a principled position based on dubious his-
torical and legal factors.38
The middle sector, comprising the area from Parigas to Nepal, is the
least controversial. This sector is approximately four hundred miles long,
and neither India nor China claims that it was ever delimited by a boundary
convention; both countries recognize that a traditional line does exist. The
dispute is over the exact location of this historical boundary. India claims
that the 1954 agreement on Tibet that listed six passes proves that a rec-
ognizable boundary exists. China argues that the 1954 agreement did
not concern the boundary question and that the mention of the passes does
not demonstrate the existence of any agreement on the location of the
boundary.39
The eastern sector runs from Bhutan to Burma across the region origin-
ally called the North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) that became the Indian
state of Arunachal Pradesh in 1987 (but is sometimes referred to as “South
Tibet” by the Chinese). This sector involves approximately 32,000 square
miles of disputed territory. India maintains that the boundary following
the McMahon Line is legitimate, negotiated between British, Tibetan, and
Chinese officials at the Simla Conference in 1914. According to New Delhi,
the boundary was delimited by treaty either before or during the British Raj.
The only issue, Nehru argued, was for China to observe the “well known
and fixed boundaries.”40 China rejects the McMahon Line as a “product of
imperialism.”41 No Chinese government has ever recognized this boundary
convention, and Beijing maintains that the entire border is undelimited and
that only a traditional customary boundary exists. The major town in this
disputed area is Tawang, important to China because it is home to one of
the most important monasteries in Tibetan Buddhism and is the birthplace
of the Sixth Dalai Lama; control of Tawang would enhance China’s claims
over Tibet. China’s strategic interests in Tawang arise from the fact that
access to southern Tibet runs through Tawang. Moreover, the area is ethnic-
ally and religiously diverse, and Indian control has often been challenged
by local groups (see Map 3).42
India has persistently voiced concerns about Chinese maps that included
large areas of land also claimed by India. In a speech before the Standing
Committee of the National People’s Congress, Foreign Minister Chen Yi
denounced the Indian government’s position as a “legacy of British imperial-
ism.”43 By late 1959, rising tensions along the border had already resulted in
several military incidents.44 It was obvious that boundary negotiations were
necessary if an armed conflict was to be avoided.
Boundary Negotiations
In concluding the 1954 agreement on Tibet, Nehru inferred China’s accept-
ance of the Indian position on the boundary – the “traditional frontier.” At
the time, Zhou Enlai did not strongly object to India’s assumption, and this
only exacerbated later disagreements. Beijing also misjudged New Delhi’s
inflexible approach to boundary questions. Following the 1954 meeting
between Nehru and Zhou in Beijing, no formal discussion of the boundary
occurred until late 1956, when the two men met again in New Delhi. This
time, Zhou indicated that China would move forward to settle its boundary
dispute with Burma based on the “traditional customary line” (i.e., the
McMahon Line). He expressed a willingness to do the same with India in the
NEFA (the eastern sector), but refused to recognize the legitimacy of
the McMahon Line, insisting that it was an inherited legacy of imperialism
that must be resolved.45 In April 1958, talks were held regarding specific areas
in the middle sector in an attempt to reduce the possibility of confrontation
between border patrols. A month after the publication of the July 1958 China
Pictorial article, New Delhi asked Beijing to clarify its “official stand” on the
boundary, asserting that ten years was ample time for the People’s Republic
of China to revise its maps that continued to include large areas of Indian
territory within China. Beijing responded by reiterating that the maps were
based on old maps, and argued that the boundaries were not delimited be-
cause the countries concerned had not been consulted. Zhou said that China
would “act with prudence and needs time to deal with this matter.”46
India maintained that “there is no major boundary dispute between China
and India. There never has been such a dispute so far as we are concerned.”
At times, Nehru appeared to concede that a boundary question did exist,
but, alarmed by China’s extensive claims, he was unwilling to lend legitimacy
to its larger claims by accepting a compromise agreement even in the middle
sector. Nehru therefore denied that a boundary question existed, and argued
that agreement on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence affirmed this.47
That China misjudged India’s firm resolve is clear from Zhou’s comment in
September 1959 that because of their common objection to “imperialist ag-
gression,” he assumed both countries would adopt “an attitude of mutual
sympathy, mutual understanding and fairness and reasonableness in dealing
with the boundary question.”48
In a note to Nehru dated 7 November 1959, Zhou proposed that military
personnel withdraw twenty kilometres in all sectors and that negotiations
begin immediately. Nehru wanted withdrawal only in the western sector,
where the Chinese actually controlled territory claimed by India, and was
reluctant to meet for negotiations.49 U Nu of Burma offered his services
and was willing to go to Beijing to set the stage for negotiations. Nehru turned
down the offer, saying that India would not accept China’s “absurd” claims
and believing that any agreement to negotiate would only “harden the
Chinese attitude by suggesting that India was frightened and anxious to find
some way out.”50
Beijing clearly wanted a boundary settlement but insisted on negotiating
a new treaty. China showed its willingness to accept earlier treaties and
the traditional customary line as the basis for a new treaty during boundary
negotiations, but as a matter of principle would not recognize the validity of
the earlier treaties, which it considered unequal and the legacy of imperial-
ism. Zhou told Nehru that China was willing to “take a more or less realistic
attitude towards the McMahon Line.”51 He made it clear that although
China did not accept the McMahon Line, Chinese troops would not cross
the line in order to “facilitate negotiations and [a compromise] settlement
of the boundary question.”52 By 1959, however, quiet attempts to resolve the
dispute had failed and a long and acrimonious exchange of accusations began.
There was an exchange of fire between border guards on 25 August, followed
by a more intense confrontation on 21 September.53 These two incidents
illustrated the risk of a larger military confrontation.
In his report to the National People’s Congress in September 1959, Zhou
stated that the Chinese desired a negotiated boundary settlement. He be-
lieved that peaceful coexistence was still possible if India was willing to
“maintain the longstanding status quo of the border” and negotiate a com-
promise settlement. 54 At a January 1960 Politburo Standing Committee
meeting, China’s top leadership agreed that a compromise settlement should
be negotiated without delay by settling differences according to the principle
of “mutual understanding and mutual accommodation” (huliang hurang) and
making the necessary territorial concessions.55 Beijing’s miscalculation of
India’s willingness to negotiate a compromise boundary settlement was rooted
in the belief that India too felt victimized by imperialism and recognized
the illegitimacy of the current Sino-Indian boundary. Beijing understood
neither Nehru’s views of historical India nor the domestic political factors
that made compromise all but impossible once the dispute became public.
China viewed the Sino‑Indian dispute in the context of its larger strategic
concerns – the unravelling Sino‑Soviet relationship and the escalating US
involvement in the region, which exacerbated Beijing’s economic, military,
and diplomatic challenges. Beijing did not want poor relations with India to
further complicate this difficult strategic environment. 56 That the larger
strategic context was a major concern was made clear in Zhou’s November
1959 letter to Nehru, expressing apprehension over the very real possibility
that “it will be made use of by people who are hostile to the friendship of our
two countries to attain their ulterior objectives,” and arguing that India and
China “have no reason to allow the tension on the border … to continue.”57
Eventually, after the two skirmishes in late 1959, Nehru agreed to a summit
and Zhou travelled to New Delhi in April 1960. He made clear his belief that
the boundary dispute was not the primary cause of conflict and that a settle-
ment could ease the more fundamental causes of tension:
As to the boundary question between our two countries, it is in our opinion,

only an issue of limited and temporary nature compared with the fundamental
question of preserving friendly co‑operation between our two countries. To
use a common Chinese expression, it concerns only one finger out of ten.58
Zhou emphasized China’s desire to settle the boundary question because

China needed “peace” and “friends.”59 During the summit, he offered a six-
point proposal:
1 A boundary dispute does exist.

2 There is an “actual line of control,” and while there are differences of
opinion about this, there are few differences over the actual location of
the line.
3 The same principle of determining the boundary (watershed, mountain
passes, etc.) should apply in all cases.
4 National sentiments regarding the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain
ranges should be considered.
5 Before a final boundary settlement, the line of actual control should be
observed, but certain adjustments can be negotiated. Neither side should
assert territorial claims as preconditions.
6 In order to preserve peace along the boundary and facilitate negotiations,
both sides should refrain from patrolling the boundary.60
Nehru rejected the six-point proposal even though it included points that
he himself had made, but he agreed to continue talks at a lower level.
Nehru’s uncompromising position was due in part to his belief that
China would be restrained by the Soviet Union and that China would not
use force against India. This view was supported by the Indian military,
which believed that “India was too big, the Chinese had too many problems,
and the Himalayas were still a formidable barrier.”61 In addition, Indian
domestic politics made any compromise extremely difficult and reinforced
New Delhi’s inflexibility before the border war.62 In May 1960, Deng Xiaoping
told the Soviet ambassador to China, S.V. Chervonenko, that China had
concluded that Nehru was not constrained by “rightists and other reaction-
aries”; rather Nehru himself did not want to settle the boundary question
in order to gain leverage against the Indian Communist Party.63 However,
China also attributed this failure to make progress toward a settlement to
the influence of “American reactionaries” on Nehru, because a Sino-Indian
boundary settlement “would be a blow to the aggressive Asia policy of America
and the other imperialist states” and “could hinder their aggression.”64
Zhou’s approach to the negotiations followed a pattern set by the recently
concluded successful negotiations with Burma. He had come to New Delhi
to discuss “principles” and not the details on the ground.65 It was clear that
China would accept the “traditional customary line” – the McMahon Line
– in the eastern sector if India would compromise in the western sector.
After all, China’s greatest security concerns were in Aksai Chin because of
the Xinjiang-Tibet Highway, and India’s security concerns were more acute
in the NEFA, which controlled the high ground north of Assam and gave
China direct access to the narrow Siliguri corridor (“chicken’s neck”), a stra-
tegic bottleneck in India’s defence of the northeastern frontier. China had
proved its willingness to compromise by accepting the McMahon Line as
the boundary with Burma in January 1960.66 Although Zhou gave no details
of any compromise proposal, he indicated to Nehru that Beijing would accept
such a settlement. In his press conference before returning to Beijing, he
made it clear that China was willing to give up its claim to the eastern sector
if India would reciprocate in the western sector.67 In Beijing’s view this repre-
sented a settlement based on geopolitical interests and avoided the thicket
of complex historical claims and the geographical vagaries of poorly mapped
frontier regions.
There is evidence that China was willing to compromise even further to
achieve a boundary settlement. While Zhou was in New Delhi, there were
no arrangements for him to meet with Krishna Menon, the Indian defence
minister. Among Indian elites, Menon was suspected of advocating a
compromise settlement to avoid further tensions with China because he
believed Pakistan to be the primary military threat. Despite measures to
prevent private discussions between the two men, Menon went directly to
Zhou’s private suite. Some accounts claim that during their conversation
regarding the impasse in negotiations, Zhou even offered to cede the
Chumbi Valley salient between Sikkim and Bhutan if India was willing
to accept China’s position in the Aksai Chin. Other accounts attribute the
compromise proposal to Menon, who suggested a long-term lease exchange
of the two areas, an idea rejected by other members of the Indian government
but considered by Nehru.68
The Chumbi Valley was strategically important for India’s defence because
the only road from Assam to Bhutan passed through the valley, while Aksai
Chin was vital to China because of the Xinjiang‑Tibet Highway. India’s Chief
of the Army Staff, Thimayya, considered the Xinjiang-Tibet Highway of no
strategic value to India, while Krishna Menon believed that the Chinese ter-
ritorial claims had merit and should be considered.69 A precedent was set when
Beijing ceded the Namwan Assigned Tract to Burma in exchange for several
villages during negotiation of the Sino‑Burmese boundary settlement.
According to different accounts, Zhou went to New Delhi “ready and

anxious to reach an agreement.” Nevertheless, Nehru opined, “I see no reason
why we should weaken in it [India’s position] at any point.” 70 Once the dispute
became public, Nehru was watched closely and pressured by the public as
well as influential government officials not to make any concessions to China.
Beijing exhibited flexibility and was willing to compromise to reach a settle-
ment, but New Delhi was inflexible, agreeing only to continue talks.71 Even
evidence of China’s willingness to compromise provided by the recent
agreement with Burma was dismissed by Nehru, who argued that there was
“no room for negotiations with China” and that China’s compromise agree-
ment with Burma was simply an attempt to pressure India to accept China’s
expansive territorial claims in India.72
Lower-level negotiations were held from June to December 1960. Forty-
seven meetings were held but no substantive progress was made. A five-
hundred-page “red book” was compiled, and in the joint report both sides
generally restated their previous positions; there have been no substantive
changes in negotiating positions since then.73 Despite the lack of success, a
Chinese diplomat observed that “the seemingly fruitless negotiations kept
the negotiation door open – and the opening, from a long-term point of view,
was not insignificant.” 74
Nevertheless, China did continue to seek a compromise settlement and
continued dialogue.75 A territorial compromise was discussed on two sub-
sequent occasions. In July 1961, while returning from Mongolia, R.K. Nehru,
secretary-general of the Ministry of External Affairs and former ambassador
to China, met with Zhou Enlai and Foreign Minister Chen Yi. He favoured
a negotiated settlement and may have hinted at Indian willingness to accept
the proposal originally discussed by Krishna Menon and Zhou Enlai in 1960,
to drop India’s claim to Aksai Chin in exchange for China’s cession of the
Chumbi Valley.76 A near-breakthrough in the stalemate came in July 1962
during the Geneva Conference on the Question of Laos, when Krishna Menon
and Chen Yi discussed the boundary question. China made it clear that the
McMahon Line in the eastern sector was acceptable, but that the Aksai Chin
region was strategically important to China. Menon agreed to an exchange,
but was concerned by the strong domestic public opinion, including even
the Indian communists, against any territorial compromise.77 Possibly to
reduce New Delhi’s opposition to a territorial compromise, Menon sought
a renewed counter-offer of Chinese territory, such as the Chumbi Valley,
in exchange for the Indian “concession” in Aksai Chin. China agreed and
negotiations were set to continue. However, an outcry in the Indian Par

liament against such a compromise and against Krishna Menon’s negotiating
with the Chinese at all forced Nehru to deny that any negotiations had ever
taken place. Three times false hopes had been raised about a compromise
settlement; Beijing concluded that Nehru had repudiated the idea of a ter-
ritorial compromise and that further negotiations were fruitless.78
The Border War

In late 1961, India forced the boundary issue militarily by adopting a “forward
policy.” Nehru, with the support of Indian intelligence despite grave reserva-
tions by the military and the foreign ministry, decided to build additional
outposts and increase military patrols in disputed areas. The intent was
not to establish military superiority in those areas but rather to make a
political statement, “a symbol of sovereignty.” 79 Publicly, Nehru also left some
doubt about the purpose of the forward policy. Just one week before the
People’s Liberation Army (PLA) launched a blitz against the border patrols
on 20 October 1962, he told the press that Indian forces “are to free our ter-
ritory,” but left the timing “entirely for the Army” to decide. In his memoirs,
Indian general B.M. Kaul wondered whether “Nehru’s statement did not
precipitate their [China’s] attack.”80 Mao’s response to India’s forward policy
was motivated by two conflicting emotions. He felt that “belligerence towards
India was dictated by the desire to take revenge for the century of humilia-
tion at the hands of the European great powers” and believed that India’s
territorial claims represented boundaries established by European imperial-
ism. On the other hand, Mao was reluctant to go to war, arguing that while
China should “never give in to the Indian invasion,” it should nevertheless
“try to avoid bloodshed, and be prepared for armed coexistence along a
jagged line.”81 Mao made this clear when he told the Russians that China
“would never go beyond the Himalayas. This is a dispute over insignificant
patches of territory.”82
Several skirmishes had occurred earlier, but on 20 October Chinese troops
attacked and overran Indian positions. In the NEFA, China penetrated as
far as one hundred miles beyond the McMahon Line. On 24 October, China
called for a ceasefire, withdrawal, and the resumption of boundary negotia-
tions. New Delhi immediately rejected Beijing’s call for negotiations and
accused China of attempting to “force a settlement on their own terms.”83
On 21 November, China responded by announcing that it would unilat-
erally withdraw its troops twenty kilometres behind the actual 1959 line of
control, that is, north of the McMahon Line in the eastern sector, even if
India did not agree to a ceasefire. It also called for renewed negotiations at
the highest level, in either Beijing or New Delhi.84 This proposal clearly showed
that Beijing was not bent on occupying more disputed territory but rather
sought a boundary settlement and launched the invasion in a desperate at-
tempt to force India back to the negotiating table. Foreign Minister Chen Yi
summed up China’s policy as an attempt to “achieve unity through struggle
and make Nehru agree to negotiate so that a relatively permanent and peace-
ful boundary-line could be drawn and fixed. Our purpose was to pacify a
front, namely the southwest frontier, so that we could concentrate our atten-
tion on the eastern front. Our strategic concern is mainly the United States.”85
Despite the Chinese retreat, India remained unwilling to negotiate.
Postwar Developments
The years since the border war have seen only minimal progress toward a
settlement. Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi made an overture to im-
prove Sino-Indian relations in 1969.86 The following year, when China was
also seeking to improve relations with the United States to offset escalating
tensions with the Soviet Union, Mao personally signalled his desire for im-
proved relations with India. Engaging in “Tiananmen diplomacy,” while
greeting guests atop Tiananmen Square on 1 May 1970, Mao shook hands
with the Indian charge d’affaires and told him that “India is a great country
… We should be friendly.”87 However, this initiative was soon overshadowed
by the civil war in Pakistan and the conclusion of a Soviet-Indian Treaty of
Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation in August 1970. Zhou Enlai made a
second gesture to open a dialogue in March 1971, but there was no significant
movement until several years later, when diplomatic relations improved.
China and India re-established relations at the ambassador level in 1976.
Boundary negotiations were reinitiated in September 1977, and the first
high-level talks in March 1978 resulted in an agreement to settle the bound-
ary through biannual negotiations. Early on, a settlement appeared possible
when Prime Minister Morarji Desai hinted that India was prepared to rec-
ognize the present line of actual control as the border, accepting China’s
position of “mutual understanding and mutual accommodation” (huliang
hurang) by recognizing China’s claims in Aksai Chin in exchange for Chinese
recognition of India’s control in the eastern sector, contingent on the overall
improvement in Sino-Indian relations.88 Deng Xiaoping pushed to improve
relations in other areas and again presented the “package deal”; however,
Indian Foreign Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s February 1979 visit to Beijing
ended abruptly when China invaded Vietnam to “teach a lesson.” China
certainly also viewed the invasion as a reminder to India of the consequences
in 1962 of India’s unwillingness to settle their boundary dispute through
negotiations. Possibly hoping that India would still have this “lesson” in mind,
Chinese Premier Hua Guofeng raised the boundary issue with Indira Gandhi
when they met in Belgrade in May 1980, and the two leaders issued a joint
communiqué stressing the necessity of reducing tensions along the border.
The following month, while speaking with Indian journalists, Deng resur-
rected Zhou Enlai’s 1960 offer of a package deal that would swap China’s
claims in the eastern sector for Indian acceptance of its claims in Aksai Chin
– basically accepting the status quo. Deng said that China was not asking
for the “return of all the territory illegally incorporated into India by the old
colonialists,” and that the dispute could be settled by “respect[ing] the present
state of the border.”89 To jumpstart relations, Deng took a more neutral
position on the India-Pakistan dispute over Kashmir, stating that the dispute
was a “bilateral” issue and should be solved peacefully, thus dropping
Beijing’s previous pro-Pakistan position supporting Kashmir’s right to self-
determination. In Beijing the previous year, Vajpayee had informed the
Chinese that their support for Pakistan on this issue was an additional
complicating factor in improving Sino-Indian relations.90
India rejected China’s proposal, showing no willingness to make “mutual
concessions” on the boundary and continuing to insist that Beijing unilat-
erally retreat from Aksai Chin. India did not view such a compromise settle-
ment as a Chinese “concession” because it did not accept the Chinese premise
that the territory was “illegally incorporated into India.”91 The Chinese
believed, however, that the proposal of a swap was fair and reasonable; both
sides would make accommodations in light of each other’s security interests,
China would even implicitly recognize the “imperialist McMahon Line” in
the eastern sector while India would accept China’s strategically important
control of Aksai Chin, which India had never controlled in any case. In the
eyes of the Chinese, “by rejecting China’s reasonable proposal, India dem-
onstrated, once again, its arrogant attitude: what’s mine is mine, and what’s
yours is mine too … The perceptual gulf between India and China on the
issue of rejection of the east-west swap remains huge.”92
Foreign Minister Huang Hua travelled to New Delhi in June 1981 prepared
to discuss other bilateral questions even if India was unwilling to accept
China’s offer of “mutual understanding and mutual accommodation” and a
“package deal” settlement (huliang hurang, yilanzi jiejue). Huang’s visit, the
first by a minister-level Chinese official since Zhou Enlai’s visit in 1960,
signalled a gradual improvement in Sino-Indian relations by initiating a
series of negotiations that continued from December 1981 to 1988.93 During
the discussions, China continued to call for understanding and accommoda-
tion and offered to legitimize the status quo. The talks made no progress, as
India was unwilling to discuss the Chinese proposal for a claims swap. India’s
stubbornness irritated the Chinese, who criticized New Delhi’s “ideological”
approach to the boundary disputes, claiming that the location of the bound-
ary was clear but that India was simply unwilling to negotiate a compromise
settlement.94 Despite lack of progress on the boundary issue, however, Beijing
demonstrated its desire for improved relations in other areas and agreed to
allow Indian pilgrimages to Tibet.
As in the past, Indian domestic politics were an obstacle to progress. Indira
Gandhi was primarily concerned about the domestic political repercussions
of any territorial concessions. After her assassination in 1984, the new
government, headed by Rajiv Gandhi, initially supported improved Sino-
Indian relations but in the end proved unwilling to make any concessions
to China.95 China in turn hardened its position in 1986, rejecting the
McMahon Line and calling for Indian concessions in the eastern sector,
a retreat from Beijing’s earlier offer of a package deal. The Chinese view
was that Zhou offered a swap in 1960 when China was weak and sought to
shore up relations with its neighbours; India did not take the opportunity
then, and China was no longer bound by its offer of a package deal.96 The
boundary negotiations were further complicated in December 1986 when
the Indian National Congress voted to elevate the Northeast Frontier
Agency to Arunachal Pradesh state. China strongly protested this move and
asked rhetorically whether India thought China would “submissively obey
and hand over its territory.”97
At the same time, the two countries engaged in military manoeuvres
along the Line of Actual Control in the Sumdorong Chu Valley, located
near the China-Bhutan-India border, which led to a war scare in 1986-87.98
Beijing warned New Delhi that “history shows that it is unwise to try to solve
border disputes by force of arms. The border conflict of 1962 may serve as a
lesson.”99 This was the closest China and India came to a repeat of October
1962. Deng Xiaoping, through US Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger
and Secretary of State George Shultz, conveyed the message that China would
“teach India a lesson” if the crisis was not resolved.100 The crisis was defused
when Indian Minister of External Affairs N.D. Tiwari stopped in Beijing

after attending a non-aligned conference in Pyongyang. A statement was
issued on avoiding conflict and working toward a complete settlement of
the boundary.101
Even before the Cold War ended, Sino-Soviet relations began to improve
following Leonid Brezhnev’s overtures to Beijing in 1982 and the renewal of
Sino-Soviet boundary talks. This made New Delhi anxious over maintaining
balance in the triangular relationship.102 Visiting New Delhi in November
1988, Mikhail Gorbachev expressed the view that China would no longer
be confrontational and encouraged Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi to improve
relations with China.103 India was compelled to adjust to the changing bal-
ance of power, and Gandhi dropped India’s earlier insistence on a boundary
settlement as a precondition for general improvement in bilateral relations.
His visit to Beijing in December 1988 was followed by the historic Sino-
Soviet summit in May 1989. The objective of this first visit to China by an
Indian prime minister since Nehru’s in 1954 was to preserve India’s bar-
gaining power in boundary negotiations. Although the summit made no real
progress on the boundary question, it led to a significant breakthrough in
bilateral relations in the form of an agreement to establish the Joint Working
Group mechanism for boundary negotiations.104 India had reordered its
priorities, dropping its position that a precondition to any improvement in
relations was recovering “every inch of lost territory,” and the joint com-
muniqué indicated a willingness to seek “a fair and reasonable settlement …
while seeking a mutually acceptable solution to this question.”105
Progress in the boundary negotiations depended on larger international
developments, such as Beijing’s isolation following the Tiananmen Square
massacre in June 1989 and the shift in the balance of power with the col-
lapse of the Soviet Union shortly after. This systemic change gave Beijing
greater incentive to resolve the boundary dispute in order to safeguard its
more fundamental strategic interests. Premier Li Peng visited India in
December 1992. The strategic importance of improving Sino-Indian rela-
tions became clear when New Delhi and Beijing rejected an “international
oligarchy” and US hegemony. The following September, during Prime
Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao’s visit to Beijing, the two countries concluded
a landmark “Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace along the Line of Actual
Control [LAC] in the India-China Border.” The agreement stated that “pend-
ing an ultimate solution to the boundary question between the two countries,
the two sides shall strictly respect and observe the line of actual control
between the two sides” and “when necessary, the two sides shall jointly check
and determine the segments of the line of actual control where they have
different views as to its alignment.”106 Other agreements reached at the same
summit included “confidence-building measures,” such as regular meetings
of field commanders and establishment of a hotline for communications and
troop reductions based on “mutual and equal security to ceilings to be mu-
tually agreed.” Troop reduction negotiations were initiated in February
1994.107 In July 1994, Foreign Minister Qian Qichen and Rao “agreed to
disagree” and Qian said he did not “expect any overnight solutions,” but
Rao predicted that China and India would soon achieve a breakthrough to
end the “eyeball-to-eyeball confrontation” along the border.108 During Jiang
Zemin’s November 1996 visit to India, the two countries signed the “Agree
ment on Confidence-Building Measures in the Military Field along the Line
of Actual Control.” These significant confidence-building agreements
brought greater stability to the border regions and created an atmosphere
of progress toward an eventual boundary agreement. In April 1998, PLA
general Fu Quanyou visited India to ease mutual suspicions and expressed
the view that boundary negotiations would not be delayed; he was confident
that there would be “gradual realization of boundary demarcation.”109
From the Chinese perspective, however, Beijing’s willingness to com-
promise has not been reciprocated by a recalcitrant India because of its
deeply rooted suspicions. According to one of China’s leading analysts of
Sino-Indian relations, “mutual understanding and trust between the two
countries is still far from adequate, especially because in India a consider-
able group of people (xiangdang yibufen ren) have been influenced by the
‘China’s threat theory’ … and still have suspicions about China. Added to
which is the fact that the negative influence of the 1962 war has not been
entirely eliminated.”110
These underlying tensions in Sino-Indian relations were exacerbated in
May 1998 when Indian Defence Minister George Fernandes, referring to
China as India’s “potential threat 1,” said that to “underplay the situation
across the Himalayas is not in the national interest”; within days, India
conducted five nuclear tests. Prime Minister Vajpayee justified the tests by
saying that “we have an overt nuclear weapons state on our borders, a state
which committed armed aggression against India in 1962,” and “an atmos-
phere of distrust persists mainly due to the unresolved border problems.”111
China suspended negotiations on the boundary that had been given renewed
momentum with Rajiv Gandhi’s 1988 visit, but steps were quickly taken
to put relations on an even keel and Minister of External Affairs Jaswant
Singh visited China in June 1999. Singh stated that India did not consider
China a threat, and Foreign Minister Tang Jiaxuan responded that “Sino-
Indian relations have entered a phase of improvement … A precondition
of the development of Sino-Indian relations is ensuring the two sides do not
see each other as a threat.”112 Singh’s visit was followed by a succession of
high-level exchanges, including a visit to Beijing by President K.R. Narayanan
from 28 May to 3 June 2000 and an agreement to adopt a “forward looking”
policy and complete clarification of the Line of Actual Control. Inter
national developments also provided impetus for further improvement in
Sino-Indian relations. Following the 11 September 2001 Al-Qaeda attacks
on the United States, Defence Minister Fernandes, who had been the staunch-
est anti-China Indian official, stated that 9/11 changed the nature of the
security discourse and that “the Sino-Indian relationship is to be rearranged
in this altered context.”113
In 2002, New Delhi and Beijing continued discussions over Sikkim.
Annexed by India in 1975, it remained a sensitive issue because Beijing did
not “recognize India’s illegal annexation of Sikkim.”114 China began softening
its position and moving toward recognizing Indian sovereignty over Sikkim
as early as 1980, when Deng Xiaoping indicated that although China still
opposed India’s annexation of Sikkim, it would not allow this issue to under-
mine overall relations. At the same time, Deng revived the offer of a package
deal to solve the boundary dispute.115 Jiang Zemin raised the issue as well
during his visit to India in November 1996. Following the visit, Minister of
External Affairs Inder Kumar Gujral said that he got the impression that
“there was a move in China to accept India’s contention on Sikkim.”116 During
Prime Minister Vajpayee’s visit to China in June 2003, the first by an Indian
prime minister in a decade, a Declaration of Principles for Relations and
Comprehensive Cooperation was issued in which India explicitly recognized
the “Tibet Autonomous Region” as part of China and Beijing agreed to allow
trade between Tibet and Sikkim via the Nathu La Pass on the eastern Sikkim-
Tibet border, the strategic pass traversed by the Dalai Lama in 1959 when
he fled to India, and the location of a military confrontation in 1967.117 The
linkage between India’s recognition of the Tibet Autonomous Region as
part of the People’s Republic of China and Beijing’s implicit recognition of
Sikkim as part of the Indian Union was clear during the negotiations.118 The
assumption that this constituted Chinese recognition of Sikkim’s accession

to India was refuted, however, by the Chinese Foreign Ministry’s statement
that “the question of Sikkim is an enduring one left over from history” that
cannot be resolved “overnight,” but that China would “take into considera-
tion the reality,” hinting that substantive changes were forthcoming. Vajpayee
concluded: “We have started the process by which Sikkim will cease to be
an issue in India-China relations.”119 China did eventually reciprocate during
Premier Wen Jiabao’s April 2005 visit to New Delhi, conceding that Sikkim
was part of India. Wen stated that “Sikkim is no longer a problem in China-
Indian relations” and presented the Indians with a Chinese map showing
Sikkim as part of India.120 Border trade officially opened in July 2006 over
the fifteen-thousand-foot pass. Significantly, this settlement established a
pattern of contingent recognition that set a precedent for future boundary
settlements based on quid pro quo recognition of the status quo.
Vajpayee’s 2003 visit also marked an important step forward in Sino-
Indian relations. The prime minister noted the “compelling geographical,
political and economic logic for closer relations” and recognized that
“there was a period in the India-China relationship when our preoccupation
with our differences prevented pragmatic understanding of the mutual
benefits from cooperation.” Signalling the new tack in bilateral relations,
the two sides initiated high-level boundary negotiations led by “Special
Representatives” that would serve as a high-level platform “to explore,
from the political perspective … the framework of a boundary settlement.”
Vajpayee opined that “on previous visits, we have never moved forward on
the border issue as much as we have on this trip.”121 For his part, Premier
Wen Jiabao said the visit had “taken the negotiations on the boundary ques-
tion to a new level.”122
At the October 2003 meeting of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) in Bali, Wen made clear the larger context in which
China sees the boundary dispute, telling Vajpayee that China wanted to
solve the boundary dispute “in the context of the long-term strategic rela-
tions between the two countries.”123 Beijing viewed New Delhi’s interest
in better relations as being similarly motivated, driven by India’s desire to
balance its improved relations with the United States and Russia and dispel
any Chinese fears over them.124 Although continuing to insist that China
was occupying Indian territory, India showed flexibility when Minister for
External Affairs Digvijay Singh stated that “India and China seek a fair,
reasonable and mutually acceptable settlement of the boundary question

through peaceful consultations.”125
Premier Wen’s April 2005 visit to New Delhi resulted in the first negoti-
ated agreement on “Political Parameters and Guiding Principles for the
Settlement of the India-China Boundary Questions.” The agreement recog-
nized that “proceeding from the political perspective of overall bilateral rela-
tions,” both sides were “seeking a political settlement of the boundary
question in the context of their overall and long-term interests” and that
the settlement was being “pursued as a strategic objective.” The two sides
pledged to “make meaningful and mutually acceptable adjustments to their
respective positions … so as to arrive at a package settlement of the bound-
ary question.” To achieve a final settlement, both sides would “take into
account … historical evidence, national sentiments, practical difficulties and
reasonable concerns and sensitivities.”126 The agreement paves the way for
the eventual reciprocal recognition of the status quo, leaving China control-
ling the Aksai Chin and India in control of the southern slope of the
Himalayas that constitutes part of the state of Arunachal Pradesh. The
primary barrier to such a settlement is India’s inability to put behind it
the trauma of 1962 and accept the status quo, but this attitude may be
changing. As one Indian scholar observes, “in actuality, the border dispute
has virtually ceased to exist … China has occupied the Aksai Chin, which
was never under our control, while China has tacitly accepted our rule
over NEFA [Arunachal Pradesh] and the border is peaceful. China is pre-
sumably asking us to legalize this reality through a package deal. Is any-
thing wrong with that?”127 Beijing sees no obstacles to an early settlement
if New Delhi embraces the principles of mutual understanding and mutual
accommodation.128
However, despite the agreement to raise the level of negotiations and place
the boundary dispute in a broader political context, the actual management
of differences on the ground causes tensions and there is disagreement over
how to interpret the 2005 “Political Parameters and Guiding Principles”
document. The Line of Actual Control is not a clearly defined border, and
even its actual location is disputed. To deal with the occasional spikes in
tension, the Special Representatives agreed in January 2012 to establish a
Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination on Border Affairs
to “address issues and situations that may arise in the border areas that affect
the maintenance of peace and tranquility.”129 In March 2013, Beijing presented
a draft “Border Defence Cooperation Agreement” and negotiations are

ongoing. The need for such mechanisms was demonstrated in April 2013,
on the eve of Premier Li Keqiang’s maiden trip to India in May. Responding
to the Indian construction of permanent structures near the India-China-
Pakistan trijunction in Ladakh (Tiannan River Valley), China deployed
troops in the area a short distance from the Indian camp. The incident was
quickly resolved “through border-related mechanisms, diplomatic channels
and border defense meetings,” and troops from both sides withdrew simul-
taneously from the disputed area.130
Following Li’s visit, India’s Special Representative travelled to Beijing in
June for discussions with his counterpart. After a meeting with Premier
Li, they issued a statement stressing that both sides would “manage the
boundary question from a strategic and overall perspective, [and] strengthen
communication to narrow the differences and work together to safeguard
peace and tranquility along the border.”131 In July, the Indian defence min-
ister visited China to continue negotiations on Beijing’s proposed Border
Defence Cooperation Agreement to deal with local irritants along the border.
A joint statement by the two countries’ defence ministers stated that
“appreciating that border defense cooperation would make a significant
contribution … they agreed on an early conclusion of negotiations for a
proposed agreement.”132
Conclusion
The Sino-Indian boundary is China’s only unsettled boundary in South
Asia (with the minor exception of Bhutan). The Indian government has
always been under intense domestic pressure not to compromise, and this
pressure has not abated. Among Ministry of External Affairs officials as-
sociated with the boundary negotiations and within the military, there are
“settler” and “non-settler” factions, the perceptions of which are coloured
by India’s humiliation and sense of betrayal in 1962.133 However, India began
to soften its views of China as an intimidating security threat in the late
1990s, and this, coupled with the normalization of relations and a boundary
settlement between China and Russia, changed the strategic context. Since
then, the Sino-Indian boundary settlement negotiations have been envisioned
as proceeding in three stages. The first stage was the 2005 breakthrough
agreement on political parameters. The second stage, which is ongoing,
involves negotiating a framework for resolving the dispute in all sectors.
According to India’s Special Representative, National Security Adviser
Shivshankar Menon, this is the most complex stage because it will deter-
mine what will be “actually translated into the line” delineated on maps
and on the ground in the third and final stage of negotiations.134
Inexorably, India and China are becoming economically complementary.
China is now India’s largest trading partner and two-way trade reached
US$60 billion in 2012, with a target of US$100 billion by 2015. The need
to deal with each other’s growing power in the region is an additional stra-
tegic factor. As China and India increasingly share economic interests and
common political and strategic objectives in global governance, they have
greater incentive to resolve the boundary dispute and reduce the potential
for future conflict.135 Even George Fernandes, formerly a strong critic of
China, has changed his views, commenting in February 2003 that “the Sino-
Indian relationship is to be rearranged in this altered context.”136 For its part,
China is motivated to push for a settlement because of the rapidly improving
US-India relationship.
Bilateral relations have continued to improve in other areas but bound-
ary negotiations have made little substantive progress. The current approach
appears to be to consider the border in its entirety instead of as individual
sectors, and attempt to translate the Line of Actual Control into a delimited
boundary. There has been an enormous change in the approach to the
dispute, with both sides agreeing to joint investigation and consultation.
China has accepted Sikkim’s accession to India and it continues to press
for a compromise boundary settlement, but Indian public opinion remains
strongly opposed to a territorial swap. Beyond some minor technical adjust-
ments in the Line of Actual Control, however, Beijing can offer little more
than the package deal it has already put on the table. According to one
Chinese boundary expert, “China and India have envisaged a political settle-
ment … [but it] will take a prolonged period of time and will be an arduous
task.”137 It will take a bold political move by Indian leaders to overcome
domestic opposition to a compromise settlement.
Before the 1962 border war with India, China had already begun pursuing
boundary settlements with its other South Asian neighbours. As Sino-Indian
tensions grew and the likelihood of a boundary settlement faded, China
concluded a boundary treaty with Burma in January 1960 and similar treaties
with Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan in the ensuing years. Because of
the timing of these settlements, they have been commonly explained as a
Chinese ploy to gain leverage by appearing flexible and willing to compromise
while India appeared rigid and uncompromising.138 China may have been
conscious of this advantage, but the timing, negotiating records, and

settlements exhibit a pattern that is more fully explained by placing the
boundary settlements within the context of China’s deteriorating relations
with Moscow and trepidation over growing US involvement in the region,
as well as deteriorating relations with India. China surely took tactical
advantage of the settlements with its other South Asian neighbours to
pressure India to compromise, but a full explanation of the fundamental
strategic impetus for China’s behaviour is achieved only by placing it in
the larger strategic context. The boundary settlements should be seen as
an effort to reduce tensions with neighbouring states and thereby adjust to
the shift in the balance of power and ensure China’s overall security.
The attempt to settle the boundary dispute with India was only one of
several efforts undertaken by China in response to the systemic changes
at the time. In the following chapters, China’s boundary settlements with
its other South Asian neighbours will be analyzed in the context not only
of Sino-Indian relations but also of the broader and structurally more de-
terministic shift in China’s overall strategic environment.
3 The Sino-Burmese Boundary
Settlement
In the midst of growing confrontation with India over the boundary and
the general deterioration in China’s strategic environment, especially with
the Sino-Soviet split and concerns about the growing influence of the
United States in Southeast Asia, China concluded the first in a series of
boundary agreements with neighbouring states on 28 January 1960. After
years of refusing to negotiate and then prolonging the negotiations by modi-
fying its position, Beijing concluded an agreement with Rangoon after five
days of intense negotiations. The Sino‑Burmese boundary treaty is signifi-
cant not only because it was the first such agreement but also, more im-
portantly, because of the pattern it established (see Map 4). The treaty set
an important precedent, as the Chinese were eager to point out. The Renmin
ribao editorial published the day the treaty was signed stressed:
The key to the solution of the question is whether or not the two sides with
the boundary concerned have the sincerity to abide faithfully by the Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, to adopt a stand of mutual understand-
ing and mutual accommodation [huliang hurang] on the basis of equality
and mutual benefit, and to solve the question through friendly consultations.
If the two sides have such sincerity, it would not be difficult to settle the
boundary question or other disputes.
The most notable point was China’s flexibility and willingness to settle
outstanding boundary disputes quickly.
Historically, Chinese viewed Burma as a vassal state following the expansion
into South Asia of the Yuan Dynasty (1279‑1368). After a military confronta-
tion in 1790, China signed a treaty with local tribal chiefs that stipulated
that the Burmese would return prisoners and territory and send tribute
Map 4 Burma
missions to Beijing every ten years. Burmese kings were thereafter vested
with authority by Qing court nobility.1
With the decline of the Qing court and the British domination of Burma,
changes occurred along the Sino‑Burmese frontier. In 1886, China claimed
the territory north of Bhamo in the Kachin region. Britain rejected the claim
but allowed China to retain control of the region. The British later annexed
Upper Burma in response to the growing French domination of Indochina.
Although Britain and China negotiated boundary conventions in 1894
and 1897, many parts of the border were left unresolved because of their
inaccessibility and lack of strategic importance at the time.2 The issue of
sovereignty remained unclear because of the divided loyalties of the various
tribal chiefs. With British approval, some of these chiefs continued to send
decennial tribute missions to the Qing court.3
The Sino-Burmese Boundary Settlement 69
With the rise of the Chinese Nationalists after 1927 and a growing
sense of Chinese nationalism, resolution of border problems did not become
any easier. Sovereignty over the region north of Myitkyina, an area of ap-
proximately 77,000 square miles, was disputed. The Nationalists asserted
that the boundary should run along the Irrawaddy River in the north. Along
the southern sector of the boundary, disagreements that had gone unsettled
since 1897 were submitted to a League of Nations boundary commission in
1935. The Iselin Commission presented its findings in 1937; the Nationalist
government accepted the commission’s report in 1941 and agreed to the
so-called Iselin Line or “1941 Line.”4 It is likely that the Nationalists concluded
the treaty because of the Japanese invasion of China and a desire to enlist
British support, but the boundary was never demarcated. The Union of Burma
gained independence on 4 January 1948, nearly two years before the estab-
lishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Both governments inherited
an unsettled 1,500-mile boundary that traverses rugged terrain. The two
newly independent states were left to settle a boundary dispute that the
British authorities, the Qing court, and the Nationalist government had all
failed to settle for over half a century. The PRC considered the boundary
unsettled but accepted the 1941 Line in practice as an obligation inherited
from the Nationalist government. Beijing argued, however, that the agree-
ment had been forced on China after China was weakened by the Japanese
invasion, and was therefore no different from the earlier treaties that Britain
had forced on the crumbling Qing Dynasty.5 Given the circumstances sur-
rounding the agreement, this was a view that Burmese Prime Minister U Nu
was “inclined to share.”6
Early PRC‑Burma Relations

Eager to establish good relations with the PRC, Burma was the first non-
communist country to recognize the new government. Burma was historic-
ally sensitive to Chinese expansionism and, anxious to settle the border
problems, it sought to continue the boundary discussions initiated with
the Nationalists.7 It feared that a newly united and hypernationalistic
China might be expansionist, and had taken note of Chinese maps that in-
cluded territory claimed by Burma.8 According to U Nu, “our tiny nation
cannot have the effrontery to quarrel with any power. And least, among
these, could Burma afford to quarrel with new China.” 9 A more immedi-
ate problem, however, was the approximately ten thousand Nationalist
troops that had crossed the border into Burma as they fled the communist
advance, and that continued to be supplied by the Nationalists from

Taiwan. Rangoon was concerned about a potential conflict if People’s
Liberation Army troops crossed the border in pursuit of these Nationalist
remnants. Rangoon assured Beijing that the Nationalists were not welcome
in Burma and that it was taking every measure to have them removed.10
Beijing, still concerned with pockets of Nationalist resistance and other
problems, and eventually at war in Korea, did not respond to the Burmese
overtures to discuss the boundary.11
Instead, it adopted a two-track policy. Although China had more pressing
concerns than the unsettled boundary with Burma, it had ideological rea-
sons for not responding to the Burmese initiatives. Mao had supported
Burma’s independence as early as 1945, but after it was achieved, Burma
adopted a non‑aligned policy and did not take a strident anti‑imperialist
position; as a result, Beijing criticized Rangoon for “bourgeois appeasement
toward imperialism.” The Chinese called for a “hard, long struggle” for
“national liberation” because Burma was still a “miserable colony” of the
imperialists.12 At the outset, China made it clear that it was not seeking
close ties with Burma and that Rangoon had been forced to recognize the
People’s Republic of China because “the victory of the Chinese people has
been so overwhelming and decisive that they are left with no alternative.”13
In November 1949, even before Burma recognized the new Chinese govern-
ment, Liu Shaoqi expressed the view of Beijing when he stated that “the wars
of national liberation in Burma are now developing” and that the “fighters
of the national liberation wars … have acted entirely correctly.”14 The PRC
continued to support the insurgent Burmese Communist Party through
their base areas in northern Burma. U Nu characterized the period thus:
“Our relations with the new Chinese regime remained uncertain for a
number of years … The new Chinese government seemed inclined to give
our communists their moral support, apparently regarding us as stooges
of the West.”15
Besides supporting communist insurgents, the PRC continued to encour-
age political change in Burma in various ways. There was already a growing
secessionist movement among the frontier minorities of Burma, and Burma’s
constitution allowed states to secede beginning in 1957. A Chinese atlas
published in 1953 noted the boundary questions, but stated that “these
problems await the establishment of a People’s Burma … then they can
receive complete and reasonable solution.”16 By 1955, China had established
five autonomous areas along the Sino‑Burmese border, and reports indi-
cated that the Chinese government was issuing identity cards to Kachins
who lived in the disputed area and was supplying them with food and medical
assistance. The PRC also showed support for a “greater Kachin state” that
would include parts of Assam, Yunnan, and northwestern Burma. These
policies all heightened Rangoon’s fear that China still hoped to eventually
control the Kachin and Shan states.17 Despite its support of Burmese insur-
gents, however, China did not ignore other options and was careful not to
jeopardize its influence with the government in Rangoon.
China’s two-track policy paid off. Although Burma voted to condemn
North Korean aggression in 1950, in 1951 it voted against the US-sponsored
resolution condemning the PRC for aggression. Burma did not attend the
San Francisco Peace Conference and consistently supported the PRC as
the legitimate government of China at the UN. In May 1953, it refused
US aid to protest US support for the Chinese Nationalist insurgents on
the China‑Burma border, and in April 1954, it signed a three-year trade
agreement with the PRC. Despite these developments, however, China did
not end its support for insurgency movements or compromise on territorial
issues.
Surrounded by regional powers that in turn were backed by one of
the two superpowers, U Nu adopted a realist view of Burma’s security
predicament:
We are hemmed in like a tender gourd among the cactus. We cannot move
an inch. If we act irresponsibly like some half‑baked politicians who have
picked up their world politics from one or two books and thrust the Union
of Burma into the arms of one bloc, the other will not be content to look on
with folded arms. Oh no!18
U Nu believed that a boundary settlement with China was fundamental to

Burma’s national security and concluded:
In the circumstances of today, when distance and barriers no longer make

for inaccessibility, it is of the utmost importance that even the best of neigh-
bors … should know where the territory of one ends and the other begins so
as to be in a position to apply faithfully the principle of respect for each other’s
sovereignty and territorial integrity.19
However, despite Burma’s desire to settle the boundary question and elimin-
ate problems resulting from an undefined border, China continued to resist
any initiatives.
Border Problems
The dispute surfaced in 1950 with the publication of a map showing the
PRC’s claim to large areas of territory also claimed by Burma. The largest
area was in the Kachin state north of Myitkyina, the same area that the
Nationalists had claimed earlier. The boundary was shown as undelimited
in the northern sector, and areas west of the 1941 Line (Iselin Line) were also
claimed. When Burma protested, Chinese officials claimed that the maps
were reproductions of old maps, but insisted that these areas were unsettled
in any case.20 As early as 1953, Burma also became aware that People’s
Liberation Army troops had moved into the area China claimed west of the
1941 Line, in the Wa region of the Shan States.21
Three areas were disputed (see Map 4). The early Sino‑British treaty had
not settled one sector in the Wa region. This sector was settled by the Iselin
Commission in 1937, but was disputed by Beijing, and China continued to
claim territory west of the line. The second problematic area was at the con
fluence of the Namwan and Shewli Rivers, commonly known as the “Namwan
Assigned Tract.” Although the area was recognized as Chinese territory in
the 1894 boundary convention, the British built a road through it to connect
Bhamo and Namwan. This became the major road connecting the Kachin
state with the Shan States. In the 1897 boundary convention, Britain leased
the area in perpetuity from the Qing Dynasty court for one thousand rupees
annually. This fee was paid until 1948, when the Chinese Nationalist govern-
ment refused to accept the payment from the government of the new Union
of Burma, rejecting the perpetual lease as a violation of its sovereignty and
territorial integrity and therefore an unequal treaty. The third contested area
was in the Kachin region north of High Conical Peak ( Jiangaoshan or Manang
Bum). This disputed region was never settled; it was the same area the
Nationalists had claimed, and the boundary was described as undelimited
on PRC maps. Three villages – Hpimaw, Kangfang, and Gawlum – were under
Burmese administration, but Beijing pointed out that the British had ac-
knowledged the villages as Chinese in 1911.22
Burma did not want the border situation to adversely affect Sino-Burmese
relations; thus, despite the maps, U Nu declared that China did not show
any irredentist ambitions, and accepted the Chinese explanation of the
recently published maps and assurances from Beijing that “China has no
territorial ambitions.”23
In the mid-1950s, Beijing began to pursue better relations with its non-
communist neighbours and the non-aligned movement generally, some-
thing that India strongly encouraged. Zhou Enlai attended the April 1955
Non-Aligned Movement conference of Asian and African countries in
Bandung, Indonesia. This shift in Beijing’s foreign policy led to early bound-
ary negotiations with Rangoon because maintaining Burma’s non-aligned
policy was strategically important to China. However, no settlement was
reached until larger strategic concerns over India, the Soviet Union, and
the growing influence of the United States in Southeast Asia forced Beijing
to pursue a quick settlement with Burma in order to eliminate the boundary
as a major cause of friction and improve relations with Rangoon.
In the wake of the Bandung Conference, China set aside its earlier reser-
vations about Burma’s non‑aligned policies and began to stress peaceful
coexistence. This new policy was made clear when Zhou Enlai visited
Rangoon in June 1954. The joint communiqué emphasized the Five Prin
ciples of Peaceful Coexistence and mutual respect for different social sys-
tems, and Zhou stated during a press conference that revolution could not
be exported.24
Chinese troops that had occupied disputed areas were withdrawn at
Rangoon’s request, but China pointed out that this should not prejudice
the outcome of future boundary negotiations. U Nu travelled to Beijing
in December 1954 and broached the boundary issue. Zhou pleaded that
China needed time to study the issue and pledged that it “would not behave
unfairly when the time came” for a settlement. Although encouraged by
some officials to press Beijing for a boundary settlement, U Nu believed
that “80 percent of the border problem would be solved” if China was first
confident of Burma’s friendship. He therefore assured the Chinese that
Burma would not become a base for military action against China. The
joint communiqué issued at the conclusion of the summit stated: “In view
of the incomplete delimitation of the boundary line between China and
Burma the two Premiers held it necessary to settle this question in a friendly
spirit at an appropriate time through normal diplomatic channels.”25
Groundwork began to be laid for boundary negotiations, but was inter-
rupted when an armed confrontation in November 1955 led to strained
bilateral relations for several months. Minor border incidents had occurred
previously, but this incident involved approximately five thousand PLA
troops. A Burmese column on a flag march was forced to retreat. Chinese

troops destroyed boundary markers along a five-hundred-mile stretch
of the border and constructed permanent outposts in the occupied area.
Beijing rejected Burma’s protest on the grounds that the 1941 Line was not
legitimate and that China had maintained effective control of the disputed
territory, as proved by the military encounter.26 Chinese troops continued
to move into disputed areas, especially the region north of Myitkyina that
had never been settled but had been controlled by the British. China implied
that Burma was also occupying disputed territory. Border clashes occurred
intermittently until the final boundary settlement in 1960.27
The 1955 incident demonstrated China’s ability to occupy territory and
its willingness to use force to assert sovereignty over as much as 77,000
square miles of territory claimed on published maps. It also underscored
China’s rejection of Burma’s claims based on British agreements imposed
on a weak and declining Qing Dynasty. Burma feared that this was only
the beginning of expansionist pressure from China, and sought India’s help
toward an early resolution.28 Larger strategic concerns motivated Beijing to
seek a compromise settlement, however. It worried that Burma would be
drawn into the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) following the
deterioration of relations after the armed confrontation. Even the Soviet
Union detected Burma’s more sanguine view of SEATO and noted that an
“about face in their political orientation” had taken place. As early as 1956,
Burma began negotiating with the United States, which extended Burma
$42 million dollars in development assistance in 1957.
The clash and subsequent developments provided the impetus for Beijing
to seek a settlement.29 Following the confrontation, Song Qingling (Sun Yat-
sen’s widow and vice chair of the Standing Committee of the National
People’s Congress) travelled to Rangoon in January 1956 and stressed China’s
intent to work for the improvement of Sino-Burmese relations based on the
Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. Significantly, she added that the
boundary could be settled on the basis of mutual benefit. Soon after, a joint
boundary commission was established to consider questions regarding
the boundary “left over by history.” However, Beijing regarded the question
of the so-called 1941 Line to be an issue of principle and not a question that
a joint boundary commission could settle. This issue required high-level
negotiations because it involved the question of the validity of treaties signed
by previous Chinese governments with “imperialist powers.” It was not simply
a matter of demarcating the boundary based on earlier treaties signed by
those previous governments.30 This established a pattern for China’s negotiat-

ing behaviour in other boundary disputes and settlements.
Events surrounding the clash in 1955 and further PLA activities in the
disputed areas were reported in a series of sensational articles published
by the Burmese newspaper Nation on 13-14 February 1956 and again on 31
July. Some have argued that this was a ploy by Burma to use public pressure
against China to gain leverage in boundary negotiations.31 In the wake of
the Nation stories, China moved quickly to prevent the deterioration of
Sino-Burmese relations. Beijing responded in a 5 August Renmin ribao edi-
torial titled “Vigilance against the Saboteurs of Sino‑Burmese Relations.”
The editorial denied that PLA troops had crossed the “border,” since no
settled boundary existed and Chinese troops had always been in the area.
Beijing implied that the Burmese were also occupying disputed territory and
called for mutual withdrawal and negotiations.32 Negotiations on a boundary
settlement continued between 1956 and 1959, but China remained quite
inflexible despite Burma’s willingness to forgo many of its demands. Even a
Chinese “package deal” offered in 1957 was acceptable to Burma, but China
demanded further boundary modifications at the last minute.33
China’s Package Deal

Although U Nu had been replaced as prime minister by U Ba Swe, he trav-
elled to Beijing in September 1956 and was joined by leaders from the Kachin
state in meetings with Zhou Enlai. U Nu clarified the Burmese position,
asserting that based on Sino-British agreements between 1894 and 1941,
the boundary should be the Iselin Line in the Wa region and the McMahon
Line in the north. He agreed that the “Namwan Assigned Tract” was Chi
nese territory and should be returned to China.34 Zhou conceded that “the
Chinese people are not happy about the ‘1941 Line,’ which Britain created
by taking advantage of China’s difficult position … Nevertheless, the
Chinese side is ready to affirm this line even though the Kuomintang
[Nationalist] government agreed to it under British pressure.”35
After two weeks of negotiations, China offered a tentative settlement:
the Iselin Line would be recognized except for the three villages of
Hpimaw, Gawlum, and Kangfang located on the Burmese side of the line
but recognized as Chinese territory even by the British in previous agree-
ments. Along the northernmost border with Tibet, Beijing would accept
the “traditional customary line” (China’s term for the McMahon Line).
Furthermore, the perpetual lease of the Namwan Assigned Tract would be
abrogated, although China would be mindful of its logistical importance to
Burma. China also offered an interim agreement to withdraw Chinese troops
west of the 1941 Line (Iselin Line) within one month. Although each sector
of the boundary was addressed separately, Beijing considered this a package
deal and Zhou indicated that no aspect of the proposal was negotiable. The
National People’s Congress (NPC) approved the offer on 5 November 1956,
the day U Nu left to return to Rangoon.36 U Nu agreed in principle, but local
Kachin leaders resisted recognition of the three villages as Chinese
territory.
Zhou travelled to Rangoon in mid‑December to continue negotiations.
His public speeches downplayed the boundary dispute, stressing that the
problems were historical and could be settled peacefully, while also under-
scoring China’s willingness to be patient and seek “mutual understanding.”
During negotiations to clarify the tentative agreement, at U Ba Swe’s sug-
gestion, Zhou agreed to cede the Namwan area to Burma if Rangoon would
compensate China with an equivalent piece of territory west of the 1941
Line. Opposition to the package deal continued in Burma, mostly from Kachin
leaders with ties to the three villages, but an agreement was eventually
reached to resettle the inhabitants of these villages.37
Other problems arose regarding the specific details of the package deal.
In February 1957, U Ba Swe wrote to Zhou to clarify the proposal. He stated
his understanding that Burma would transfer to China 56 square miles
around the three villages; in exchange, China would transfer the Namwan
Assigned Tract to Burma and the traditional customary line would follow
the watershed (McMahon Line). U Nu returned as prime minister before
China formally responded to U Ba Swe’s letter. During negotiations in
Kunming in March 1957, Zhou flatly rejected Burma’s interpretation of the
package deal as nothing more than an exchange of Chinese territory for
Chinese territory. China maintained that the three villages were Chinese
territory and encompassed 186 square miles, and proposed the exchange of
a comparable tract in the Wa region west of the 1941 Line for the Namwan
Assigned Tract. Beijing also claimed that the traditional customary line was
different from the McMahon Line, which followed the watershed and in-
cluded on the Burmese side of Rangoon’s proposed boundary Tibetan mon-
asteries and medicinal herb-producing areas that China considered part of
Tibet. Zhou told U Nu that Burma’s position failed to consider the basis of
China’s proposal: although it dealt with three distinct areas, the offer had
to be considered as a package. Zhou specifically stated that the area in-
habited by the Panghung and Panglao tribes in the Wa region west of the
1941 Line would be acceptable compensation for the Namwan Assigned
Tract. There was a historical precedent for transferring this tribal area to
China: at the time of the Iselin Commission investigation in 1935, this area
was claimed by the Nationalists but was awarded to Burma.
On 9 July 1957, Zhou told the National People’s Congress that China’s
position on the boundary was “based on a desire to protect our national
interests as well as promote Sino‑Burmese friendship.” He stated that
China should honour all valid agreements concluded by previous govern-
ments, but he was cognizant of the historical background of the boundary
and sought appropriate adjustments. The resolution adopted by the NPC
on 15 July asserted China’s sovereignty over the three villages and the
Namwan Assigned Tract, but supported a “fair and reasonable solution of
the Sino-Burmese boundary question.”38
On 26 July, China responded formally to U Ba Swe’s February proposal.
The reply took into account Zhou’s discussions with U Nu in March. Beijing
argued that the three villages in the Kachin state should be returned to
China unconditionally, and that if China ceded the Namwan Assigned Tract,
it should be compensated with the two tribal areas mentioned by Zhou
during the March discussions with U Nu. Using the watershed principle to
delimit the northern sector of the border was not acceptable, but Zhou
indicated Beijing’s willingness to consider it.39
U Ba Swe returned to Beijing to continue negotiations in December 1957,
and Burma accepted the package deal in principle if China would accept
the 56 square miles around Hpimaw, Gawlum, and Kangfang in exchange
for the Namwan Assigned Tract. China would not compromise on the three
parts of the package deal, and in fact increased its demands to include
additional areas along the northern border. Negotiations were deadlocked.
In March 1958, Burma rejected the new Chinese demands, stating that
there should be no adjustments to the McMahon Line except around the
three villages. China rejected this position in July.40
The negotiations foundered over the package deal and China’s new de-
mands. At the same time, U Nu’s party (the Anti‑Fascist People’s Freedom
League) experienced a domestic political crisis that eventually led to his
resignation as prime minister. In September 1958, a military caretaker gov-
ernment led by General Ne Win took power at U Nu’s request. China’s
declining relations with India, the crisis in Sino-Soviet relations, and growing
US involvement in Southeast Asia provided the larger strategic context within
which Beijing subsequently adopted a more flexible position and moved
quickly to reach a compromise boundary settlement.
The Boundary Settlement

In June 1959, Ne Win offered to transfer sixty-two square miles along the
Iselin Line in exchange for the Namwan Assigned Tract. He proposed an
immediate meeting in Beijing to sign a treaty based on this offer, and rejected
China’s counter-proposal that it be considered in conjunction with the pack-
age deal as a basis for renewed negotiations.41 China responded positively
and on 22 December invited Ne Win to Beijing to continue negotiations. On
23 January 1960, Ne Win and U Nu arrived in Beijing. The Chinese were
much more conciliatory and flexible, and the parties reached an agreement
five days later. The agreement was similar to earlier British treaties, except
that fifty-nine square miles encompassing the three villages in the northern
sector and seventy-three square miles west of the 1941 Line in the Panghung
and Panglao tribal areas of the Wa state were exchanged for the Namwan
Assigned Tract. It closely mirrored U Nu’s position on the package deal and
Ne Win’s proposal the previous June. China had given up its claim to larger
areas while Burma had made only minor concessions to offset China’s transfer
of the Namwan Assigned Tract.42 Eager to reach agreement, Beijing accepted
the McMahon Line as the basis for a new boundary treaty and ceded the
Namwan Assigned Tract, which both states had always recognized as China’s
territory. These Chinese concessions were offset by a token Burmese conces-
sion west of the 1941 Line.43 The Sino-Indian boundary dispute played a part
in the final agreement: the India-China-Burma trijunction was left undefined,
and U Nu explained this as an “intentional omission” because the “Sino-
Burmese boundary must naturally be the point where the three international
boundaries of China, Burma and India meet.”44 U Nu pointed out that Burma
had achieved a long-term objective: “We have now got the frontier which we
have claimed all along, and with Chinese agreement … I believe that Burmese
interests have been well served by the conclusion of this Agreement. For the
first time in history we shall have a well-defined mutually agreed boundary
between Burma and China.”45
China conceded a great deal in the final negotiations but retained control
over strategically important areas. The three villages control the southern-
most pass connecting the Salween and Irrawaddy valleys and are strategically
important for troop movement in the area because they provide access to
eastern Tibet and India’s northeastern region, an area disputed by China and
India. This was an important staging area during the suppression of the
Tibetan revolt in 1959 and later in the 1962 war with India.46 In the final ne-
gotiations, China also gave up its 49 percent participation rights in the Lufang
mines in Burma, with the understanding that Burma would not allow a third
party to be involved in their operation.47 Also, and perhaps more significant,
was the signing of a “Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Non-aggression.”
A boundary commission was quickly established and work to demarcate
the boundary proceeded with no significant hitches.48 On 1 October 1960,
the formal signing of the treaties took place with great fanfare in Beijing.
Emphasizing congruent interests in his speech at the ceremony, U Nu dis-
missed any criticism that the treaty was one-sided: “It would be ridiculous
for anyone to suggest that this treaty was imposed by Burma on an unwilling
China. It would be equally ridiculous for anyone to suggest that the treaty
was imposed by China on Burma. When we sign today, we do so freely on
the basis of absolute equality.”49
China’s Grand Strategy and the Boundary Treaty

The timing of the boundary treaty was significant. Fundamental strategic
considerations motivated China’s greater flexibility and readiness to settle
boundary disputes quickly. After years of avoiding negotiations and then
delaying a settlement once they began, Beijing accepted a boundary with
Burma that corresponded with the treaties signed by the British and the
Qing Dynasty in the 1890s and with the Nationalists in 1941. This accept-
ance came at a time when the balance of power was shifting against China,
requiring Beijing to improve relations with Burma. The boundary settlement
can be explained in the context of China’s broader regional and strategic
considerations. China’s strategic situation deteriorated in the late 1950s. The
disastrous Great Leap Forward devastated its domestic economy. Beijing had
trade problems with Japan and tense relations with Indonesia regarding
overseas Chinese, and the 1958 offshore islands crisis in the Taiwan Strait
brought the United States and China to the brink of war. After a period of
effusive friendship, friction with India was growing. Beijing’s increased
assistance to insurgency groups in Southeast Asia had alarmed China’s
neighbours. Rangoon responded by signing a ten-year military assistance
agreement with the United States in 1958 and obtaining a US$37 million
economic assistance package the following year.50
China was concerned over the increased friction with neighbouring

states. In 1959, it renewed efforts to reduce tensions and signalled a retreat
from the domestic and foreign policy radicalism of the Great Leap Forward
period of 1958-60.51 It used the treaty with Burma to publicize its willingness
to conduct relations with other states amicably despite a difference in social
systems. Zhou Enlai emphasized China’s readiness to settle outstanding
issues with other neighbours. In April 1960, he told the National People’s
Congress: “We firmly believe that no matter what complex questions may
have been left over from history … reasonable solutions can be found for
them all, so long as friendly consultations are conducted in accordance with
the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.”52
The significance of the treaty with Burma went beyond a mere boundary
settlement, as Beijing used it as evidence of its willingness to settle bound-
ary problems with other neighbours. The day the treaty was signed, a Renmin
ribao editorial declared:
The key to the solution of the question is whether or not the two sides
with the boundary concerned have sincerity to abide faithfully by the Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, to adopt a stand of mutual understanding
and mutual accommodation on the basis of equality and mutual benefit, and
to solve the question through friendly consultations. If the two sides have
such sincerity, it would not be difficult to settle the boundary question or
other disputes.53
In the wake of the domestic economic failure of the Great Leap Forward
and increasing international isolation resulting from a strident foreign
policy during the same period, China felt compelled to seek rapprochement
with its neighbours in an attempt to counterbalance growing friction with
India, Soviet hostility, and growing US influence in the region. China feared
that “neutralist” states such as Burma would gravitate toward a US or Soviet
alignment, and took steps to prevent such a shift.
Faced with deteriorating relations with Burma and the possibility that
Burma would abandon its policy of neutrality, China sought rapproche
ment. Beijing concluded that the Burmese communists could never become
a significant force, and rather than continue to support them, it opted to try
to tilt Burmese neutrality in China’s favour.54 The end of Chinese support for
Burmese communist insurgents and the settlement of the boundary question
greatly alleviated Burma’s fears of China and advanced Beijing’s foreign

policy objective of developing better relations with neighbouring states.
Of the two agreements reached in January 1960, the non-aggression treaty
was more important to China in terms of national security, whereas the
boundary treaty paved the way for achievement of China’s real objective:
having Burma as a buffer against direct and indirect Indian, Soviet, or US
threats in the region. Article III of the non-aggression treaty stated: “Each
Contracting Party undertakes not to carry out acts of aggression against
the other and not to take part in any military alliance directed against the
other Contracting Party.” This gave China some assurance that Burma would
not become a base from which a third power could threaten China. Burma
was thus effectively neutralized in terms of the Sino-Indian and Sino‑
Soviet disputes and the US-dominated Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.
The non‑aggression treaty was a significant security gain for the PRC. It
was the first such treaty Burma had signed and the first between China and
a non-communist state. Beijing made the most of this, and a Renmin ribao
editorial touted the treaty as a “new example of friendship and solidarity
among Asian countries.” It called for unity, sympathy, and support between
China and its neighbours in the face of “cunning aggressors” who sought
to “sow discord” between them and “enslave” them.55 Beijing had not con-
ceded everything in order to achieve this larger objective, however. China
did gain strategically and militarily significant territorial concessions from
Burma. These concessions facilitated many road- and bridge-building pro-
jects that enhanced the PRC’s logistical flexibility vis-à-vis India and Tibet.
The non-aggression treaty led to closer cooperation between Burma and
China, and this in turn diminished the influence of the Soviet Union and
the United States.56 Article IV stated that the “Contracting Parties declare
that they will develop and strengthen the economic and cultural ties be-
tween the two states.” Following the conclusion of the agreements, China
increased economic assistance to Burma, and two‑way trade and cultural
exchanges grew. On the one hand, China derived desperately needed bene-
fits, becoming one of Burma’s biggest customers for rice. On the other hand,
Beijing offered Burma an $84 million interest-free loan and agreed to supply
Burma with factory equipment and technical advisers, using such economic
incentives to draw Burma closer. Burma was frank about the leverage China
began to exert: “We have rice to sell and we must sell it if we are to survive
… It may take time before we can … go into the motives of our customers.”57
Burma also provided rhetorical support for China’s opposition to US policy

in Vietnam. Although Rangoon maintained cordial relations with the United
States and the Soviet Union, after 1960 many concluded that Burma was
abandoning its non-aligned policy.58
By 1959, Mao and Zhou were increasingly anxious about China’s deteri-
orating relations with its neighbours and the growing Soviet and American
threat. Strategic factors made Beijing want closer relations with Burma. It
therefore sought a boundary settlement with Burma to improve relations
with Rangoon and other neighbouring states in order to enhance China’s
security. China also needed to settle its boundary issues amicably to pub-
licize its new foreign policy during a time of concern over increasing isola-
tion.59 National security interests took precedence over deeply held images
of control over peripheral territory, and Beijing was now willing to make
concessions despite legitimate historical claims. The Burma settlement dem
onstrated that although China rejects treaties made by previous govern-
ments, negotiations, when dictated by political circumstances, can proceed
using the earlier treaties as the basis for a settlement.
Conclusion
Although the boundary treaty closely followed previous agreements ne-
gotiated between the British and the Qing court or the Nationalists, the
new boundary treaty is, in the view of the PRC, different. The present bound-
ary settlement is acceptable because it was negotiated by two independent
states on the basis of equality. Thus, terms such as the “McMahon Line” are
not cited as the basis for the treaty, whereas the “traditional customary line”
is. The eventual “concession” of territory and acceptance of the earlier British
boundary was justified as a necessary compromise between two states that
were dealing with each other on the basis of equality and mutual benefit
based on “mutual understanding and mutual accommodation.” Thus, the
present boundary is legitimate while the former was not.
More importantly, however, the boundary agreement and the non‑
aggression treaty, as well as the economic and cultural agreements that
followed, improved China’s overall strategic situation and gave China the
ability to exert greater influence over Rangoon’s foreign policy. China
emerged as the “top power” in Burma, overshadowing the Soviet Union
and the United States.60 Burma also became cautious and refused to become
involved in the Sino‑Soviet dispute or Sino-Indian confrontation.61 It received
some military assistance from the United States in 1963, but this was part
of the ten-year military assistance agreement concluded in 1958. West

Germany also supplied Burma with arms; visiting Rangoon in 1964, Zhou
Enlai sought an “explanation” of Burma’s understanding of Article III of
the non‑aggression treaty and protested these military assistance relation-
ships.62 Bowing to Chinese pressure, Burma scrapped a US-funded highway
project linking Rangoon to Mandalay in 1964.
China valued a stable boundary more than the return of territory that it
considered China’s historically. Persisting with these historical claims
would only have led to more tension and instability at a time when China
needed to ensure the friendship of neighbouring states in the face of perceived
threats from India, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Still, China
could not just simply accept the previous treaties. A new boundary agree-
ment was necessary to nullify old treaties tainted by echoes of inequality
and imperialism. This sent a clear message to other countries that had
boundary disputes with China: to pave the way for rapprochement, China
was flexible and was willing to adopt prior treaties as a basis for negotia-
tions, and even to relinquish territory in order to reach an agreement. This
new approach to boundary settlements was dictated by the larger strategic
context and China’s growing security concerns.
4 Boundary Settlements with Nepal,
Sikkim, and Bhutan
On 21 March 1960, two months after concluding the boundary treaty with
Burma, China reached a similar agreement with Nepal, the second in a
series of such treaties negotiated by China over a three-year period. A bound-
ary treaty with Sikkim (now recognized as part of India by China) was ne-
gotiated by the Qing court with Great Britain in the 1890s and there was
no indication that the boundary was disputed by China. India closed the
road linking Tibet and Sikkim following the Sino-Indian border war in 1962,
and it remained closed until 2006, when the Nathu La Pass was reopened.
Boundary negotiations with Bhutan have continued for many years without
reaching a conclusion.
The Sino-Nepali Boundary Settlement
Significance of the Settlement

Although the Sino-Nepali boundary question was much less complicated
than the dispute with Burma, its settlement followed a similar pattern. Most
importantly, it exemplifies China’s use of boundary settlements to reduce
friction with neighbouring states. Relations between India and Nepal were
historically closer than Indo‑Burmese relations, and this settlement illus-
trates more clearly how deteriorating relations with India influenced China’s
efforts to improve its relations with Nepal. Specifically, this settlement was
an attempt to establish a friendly buffer state between India and China,
something that became increasingly important because of the Tibetan
insurgency, growing Soviet influence in the region as well as Indo-Soviet
cooperation, and the fact that Nepal was a staging area for covert activities
by the United States in Tibet.
Relations between China and Nepal date from the Tang Dynasty (618‑907).
From early times, China considered Nepal a vassal state. Even after the
Boundary Settlements with Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan 85
Map 5 Nepal
Gurkhas came to power in the 1760s, Nepal continued to send tribute

missions to the court in Beijing. A 1792 peace treaty between Nepal and the
Qing court stipulated quinquennial tribute missions, and tributary rela-
tions continued until the fall of the Manchus in 1911. As Qing control over
China’s periphery declined in the 1850s, however, Nepal asserted itself in
Tibet. An 1856 treaty established extraterritorial status for Nepali traders
in Tibet and even exacted tribute from Lhasa.
For hundreds of years, Tibet and Nepal recognized a customary boundary
that was never formally demarcated. The 1792 treaty mentioned only a com-
mon border between the two states. Delimitation of a common boundary
was agreed to in the 1856 Nepal-Tibet treaty, but no formal boundary treaty
was ever concluded.1 Both the People’s Republic of China and Nepal accepted
the Himalayan peaks as the legitimate boundary between the two countries,
forming an “existing, customary, traditional line.”2 (See Map 5.)
Shortly after the communists assumed power in China, the Rana family
oligarchy was overthrown and a constitutional monarchy led by King
Tribhuvana was established in Nepal. King Tribhuvana favoured normal-
ization of relations with the PRC, but domestic issues and ultimately his
death delayed this until his son, King Mahendra, assumed the throne in
1955. King Mahendra ended the “special relationship” with India and pursued
a more balanced relationship with India and China. China responded posi-
tively to this new direction in Nepal’s foreign policy, and within a few
months, normalized relations with Nepal based on the Five Principles of
Peaceful Coexistence.3 This set the tone for future Sino‑Nepali relations.
A 1956 trade agreement abrogated all earlier Nepali-Tibetan treaties or
agreements concluded by previous Chinese governments and ended Nepal’s
extraterritorial and other privileges in Tibet granted in the treaty of 1856.4
During Zhou Enlai’s visit to Kathmandu in early 1957, the Nepalis raised
the question of negotiating a boundary treaty again, but Zhou was non
committal. China responded coolly to subsequent overtures by Nepal,
leading one Nepali official to conclude that Beijing was not ready to solve
the border problem.5 Nepali concern over the boundary issue intensified
in 1959 because of the large number of People’s Liberation Army troops
deployed along the Sino-Nepali border while suppressing the Tibetan
rebellion.
Boundary Negotiations and Settlement

After its initial coolness, larger strategic concerns motivated China to seek
a boundary settlement. The China‑Nepal boundary did not present the
challenges that the Sino‑Burmese boundary had. With no previous boundary
agreements, there was no troublesome legacy of “unequal treaties” to com-
plicate a settlement. Even by extreme estimates, the area actually in dispute
comprised less than one thousand square miles.6 Mount Everest was a major
sticking point, however, as both China and Nepal claimed the entire peak.
Meeting with a visiting Nepali delegation in October 1959, Zhou indicated
China’s willingness to negotiate a boundary settlement.7 At China’s invita-
tion, Prime Minister B.P. Koirala travelled to Beijing in February 1960 to
open negotiations.8 Koirala made it clear, however, that Nepal would not
make any concessions and that he expected China to compromise: “Not
withstanding its size or might, if any power attempts to occupy or control
even an inch of territory of another Asian country, such attempts will def-
initely disrupt peace in the world.”9 China wanted to reach an early agreement
and, since disagreements were not substantial, proposed the establishment

of a joint commission to demarcate the boundary.10
In an effort to resolve the explosive issue of Mount Everest, Mao Zedong
personally decided China’s position. Meeting with Mao on 18 March, Koirala
stated that several differences existed that were issues of “prestige” for Nepal,
and a cause for concern. Mao asserted that China did not want “one inch”
of Nepali territory. Koirala pointed out the differences over the “emotional”
issue of Mount Everest, claiming the mountain belonged to Nepal, while
Zhou maintained that it was on the Chinese side of the boundary. Mao re-
sponded: “This can be solved by dividing it in half … And the peak is also
divided … If it cannot be solved, then it is all right to delay settlement … We
cannot emotionally accept conceding the entire mountain to you, and you
cannot emotionally bear conceding the entire mountain to us.” On other
disputed points, Mao told Koirala “not to discuss them with him, but rather
discuss them with Premier Zhou.”11
An agreement to respect the traditional customary boundary until a formal
boundary treaty was negotiated was signed on 21 March 1960.12 China also
proposed that a non-aggression treaty be concluded, but Koirala was unwill-
ing to go that far. China then settled for a generally worded peace and friend-
ship treaty, which was signed in Kathmandu the following month.13
A joint committee used maps provided by both sides to investigate the
boundary and resolve any disputes. The “customary, traditional line” was
the basis for the boundary, and any problems were resolved using accepted
watershed principles and other boundary-delimiting norms while consid-
ering mutual benefit and accommodation. The areas that the joint committee
investigated included those where a different line was claimed by both par-
ties but administrative control was not contested, and those where both the
boundary line and administrative control were contested. The governments
agreed that no military patrols would enter the disputed areas.14
The final agreement was not reached without problems, however. China’s
maps, more detailed and historically more accurate than Nepal’s, placed
Mount Everest about five miles inside China; Nepalese maps showed the
mountain on the border, but the entire peak was within Nepal. Zhou pointed
this out to Koirala during the latter’s stay in Beijing in March 1960.15 At a
news conference only two days after he returned to Kathmandu, Koirala
revealed that China claimed Mount Everest, but suggested that the Chinese
claim was weak and that Beijing was willing to compromise on the issue
because the summit had never been climbed from the north face.16
Mount Everest was an emotional issue in both countries. The mountain

has great nationalistic significance for Nepal, and Koirala’s revelation was
followed by anti‑China demonstrations in Kathmandu.17 During a four-
day visit to Nepal in April 1960, Zhou moved quickly to allay Nepali fears
about China’s claim to Everest, stating at a press conference:
We have never laid any territorial claim to Mount Jolmo Lungma or Sagar
Matha [Tibetan and Nepali names for Everest] ever since the question was
raised during the talks in Peking. During the talks in Peking the two parties
just exchanged maps. The delineations on the maps of the two countries are
different. The Chinese maps which are drawn on the basis of the Chinese
historical situation show the mountain within Chinese territory, while
the Nepalese maps which were drawn on the basis of the Nepalese historical
situation show the mountain on the boundary line between the two
countries.
Zhou also conceded that China was willing to accept the Nepali position
that the mountain was on the boundary line between the two countries:
“There is no question of dividing … The mountain links up our two countries,
and will not separate our two countries.”18 Citing Mao’s proposal to draw
the boundary through the middle of the peak, Zhou stated “after Chairman
Mao Zedong and Prime Minister Koirala discussed the issue, the Chinese
government has consistently adopted this position.”19 China actively asserted
its claim to part of Mount Everest when on 25 May 1960 a Chinese expedition
reached the summit from the north face. China initially denied the existence
of the expedition, possibly to avoid provoking an anti-China reaction in
Nepal, but later published an account of it.20
A second cause of increased friction between the two countries occurred
on 28 June 1960. In the Mustang region of Nepal, where the location of the
actual boundary had not been determined, Chinese troops killed one Nepali
official and took as many as seventeen more prisoners. Kathmandu protested
strongly and accused China of crossing the demilitarized zone established
only a few months earlier. China was carrying out operations against the
Tibetan resistance at the time, and had notified Kathmandu two days before
the incident that PLA troops would be moving into the area in pursuit of
Tibetan insurgents.21 In response to Kathmandu’s protest, Beijing pointed
out that the incident had occurred north of the Kore Pass, in Chinese terri-
tory, whereas Nepali authorities stated that it had occurred south of the pass,
in Nepali territory. Confusion over the exact location of the incident was
possibly a result of poor maps, but China did not want to cause further
friction and did not press the issue. Although it argued that the incident had
occurred on Chinese territory, Beijing assumed responsibility and paid
compensation for the dead official.22 After the final boundary demarcation,
it was determined that the location where China claimed the incident had
occurred was actually on the Nepali side of the border.23
On 15 December 1960, King Mahendra dismissed parliament and ended
the constitutional monarchy, initiating a system of direct rule. Prime
Minister Koirala and other officials were arrested and detained. Despite
Nepal’s domestic unrest, the work of the joint committee continued with
out any real problems.
On 5 October 1961, King Mahendra and Liu Shaoqi signed the formal
boundary treaty in Beijing.24 Estimates vary, but Nepal gained about three
hundred square miles and China received about fifty-six square miles of
the disputed territory. Mount Everest was divided between the two states
as suggested by Mao.25 Conscious of Indian sensitivities, the trijunctions
on the east with Sikkim and on the west with India were not settled, but
the boundary agreed on does correspond to the line claimed by India.
On 21 January 1963, the final boundary protocol was signed in Beijing.
Even after this event, however, Nepal continued to cloud the issue of Mount
Everest. In Hong Kong, en route home from Beijing, Nepal’s foreign min-
ister, Tulsi Giri, publicly declared that the entire peak was within Nepal’s
territory.26
China’s Global Strategy and the Boundary Treaty

China and Nepal experienced converging interests in the 1950s. Although
it had pro‑India and pro‑China factions, on balance Nepal wanted to assert
its independence and further attenuate its special relationship with India,
which was actually a continuation of the earlier colonial relationship with
Britain. At the same time, China wanted improved relations with Nepal
to offset greater tensions with India as well as US influence in the region.
The growing unrest in Tibet only increased Nepal’s strategic importance
to China. Nepal’s professed non-aligned policy could, if implemented in
practice, help mitigate China’s security concerns because Nepal would
act as a buffer against India. An amicable Nepal would make outside inter-
ference more difficult, whereas a hostile Nepal could provide a staging area
for anti‑China forces in the region.
China’s concerns over the shifting balance of power brought about by the
festering Tibetan rebellion, US covert activities in the area, and the growing
friction with India spurred Beijing to improve its relations with Nepal. It
may have favoured a pro‑China communist government in Nepal, but with
such a government very unlikely, a neutral, nationalistic government was
the best alternative. China’s only option was to ensure that Nepal tilted
toward China or was at least non-aligned, similar to Burma. China and
India clearly competed for Nepal’s favour. King Mahendra was somewhat
pro‑China in his sympathies, like the first prime minister he appointed,
Tanka Prasad Acharya. Surprisingly, however, his second prime minister,
K.I. Singh, formerly an opposition leader who had lived in China and entered
office in 1957, advocated closer relations with India and even an invigora-
tion of the special relationship. The first popularly elected prime minister,
B.P. Koirala, who headed the pro‑India Nepali Congress Party, took office in
May 1959. The outbreak of the Tibetan rebellion at the same time further
pushed Nepal toward India and away from its previous non-aligned policy.
In May 1959, under Koirala’s leadership, the Nepali Congress Party adopted
a resolution on Tibet that was very critical of the PRC. Clearly referring to
China’s behaviour as a dominant power in the region, the resolution stated:
“It would be a reactionary step if China tries to establish its sovereignty over
Tibet on the basis of old standards.” It went on to state that China had violated
its 1951 agreement with Tibet and that this served as a “warning” to other
neighbouring states. The resolution equated China’s use of force in Tibet with
the Soviet use of force in Hungary in 1956, and called on Beijing to apply the
“Leninist” principles of national self-determination in Tibet.27 In January
1960, Koirala travelled to India to consult with Nehru. The leaders’ speeches
during the visit as well as the communiqué described Nepal‑India relations
as “invincible” and “indestructible,” and stressed their mutual understanding
on international security issues. Koirala also welcomed Nehru’s statement
that an attack on Nepal would be considered an attack on India.28
Nepal’s official position was more balanced than that of the Nepali Con
gress Party. Kathmandu was officially non-aligned and demonstrated its
official neutrality by abstaining from a United Nations resolution that
condemned China’s actions in Tibet. Nevertheless, King Mahendra re-
mained concerned, and he and Koirala toured the border area extensively
in the winter of 1959‑60. Nepal also closely coordinated its response to
the situation with India. India responded to Nepal’s concerns and increased
its financial aid, enabling Nepal to boost defence spending by 100 percent
in 1959‑60.29
An improvement in Sino‑Nepali relations during the mid-1950s was fol-
lowed in the late 1950s by deterioration in China’s relations with Nepal as
well as with the Soviet Union and India. During this period, China felt
compelled to take steps to prevent a further decline in relations with Nepal.
Its objective was to preserve the gains that had been made in relations be-
tween the two countries by adopting policies and making compromises to
facilitate amicable relations, which were considered vital to China’s strategic
interests, and to encourage Nepal’s non-aligned foreign policy.
When Prime Minister Koirala returned from China in March 1960 and
publicly revealed that China claimed Mount Everest, he knew he would pro-
voke anti‑China sentiment in Nepal. A boundary treaty was important to
Nepal, but Koirala did not want closer relations with China. It is possible
that his strategy was to draw the Chinese into a diplomatic struggle that
would lead to a treaty but leave a residue of anti‑China sentiment.
Beijing responded adroitly, however, and immediately made concessions
to mollify Nepali public opinion. In a news conference in April 1960, im-
mediately following demonstrations protesting China’s claim to Mount
Everest, Zhou Enlai stated that China was willing to accept Nepal’s position
that the boundary ran through the middle of the mountain. He also stressed
the fact that during the March negotiations, Mao Zedong himself had sug-
gested that the boundary be drawn through the middle of the peak. Beijing
realized that the Mount Everest issue was much more sensitive for Nepal
than for China, whereas settlement of the boundary was more important
to China than disputing the public statements of Nepali officials. Following
conclusion of the treaty, China never challenged the vague statements by
King Mahendra and others that Nepal had prevailed in the negotiations and
controlled Mount Everest.30
China was willing to ignore ideological differences to entice Kathmandu to
adopt a pro-China or at least neutral position. In December 1960, after King
Mahendra dismissed the cabinet and suspended the constitution, oppos
ition leaders fled to India, where they found support, and the Nepalese Com
munist Party was outlawed. Nevertheless, Beijing supported King Mahendra,
even though he represented the “feudal and reactionary” elements.31
Another example of Beijing’s eagerness for better relations is the Mustang
incident. China was concerned about the Tibetan resistance and US support
for it and “subversive” activities in Nepal. Nevertheless, China responded

to Nepal’s protests immediately and demonstrated complete willingness to
resolve the issue without delay. In communications with Koirala, Zhou
accepted complete responsibility for the incident and agreed to Nepal’s
demand for compensation.32 Certainly one motive for China’s proposal that
a non-aggression pact be concluded at the same time as a boundary treaty
was concern over Tibet. Koirala was opposed to this, so China was forced
to settle for a generally worded peace and friendship treaty with no mention
of defence issues. Under such circumstances, the agreement on at least a
twenty-five-mile demilitarized zone offered China something and allayed
some of its security concerns. Also, in an attempt to draw Nepal into a closer
strategic relationship, and in response to India’s pledge to defend Nepal,
Chinese Foreign Minister Chen Yi emphasized Nepal’s strategic import-
ance to China and assured Nepal that if it was attacked, China would “stand
on your side.”33
At the same time that the boundary treaty was signed, an agreement was
concluded to build a Kathmandu‑Tibet Highway. This had important political
and strategic implications for China. Prime Minister Acharya had first pro-
posed building such a highway in February 1957. China was not interested
at the time, for both economic and political reasons. Nevertheless, the pro-
China Acharya wanted closer Sino-Nepali relations and began constructing
the highway; construction continued until he resigned in mid‑1957.34 By 1960,
China wanted to complete construction of the highway, but Prime Minister
Koirala did not endorse the idea. China now needed the road link because
access to Nepal from Tibet via Sikkim had become tenuous with the decline
in Sino‑Indian relations. In April 1960, at his Kathmandu press conference,
Zhou publicly proposed the idea of a highway link, hoping to outflank Koirala
and gain public support from the Nepalese traders who strongly favoured
such a highway.35 After assuming direct rule, King Mahendra concluded an
agreement to construct the highway with economic assistance from China.
Strategically, this was one of the primary benefits for China of improved rela-
tions with Nepal.
Conclusion
The boundary treaty with Nepal is a key factor in the closer, more coopera-
tive relations that developed between China and Nepal. Given King
Mahendra’s pro-China disposition, his assumption of direct rule also facili-
tated the achievement of China’s foreign policy objectives in the early 1960s.
While India criticized the suspension of democracy in Nepal, Chinese of-

ficials praised Mahendra’s leadership. Beijing was conscious of Nepal’s
sensitivity toward India’s heavy-handed approach in dealing with Nepal,
and early in the development of a closer relationship with Nepal, Beijing
disavowed imperial China’s “hegemonic” attitude toward its neighbours.36
At the signing of the formal boundary treaty on 5 October 1961, Liu Shaoqi
admitted that China had had the tendency to “ignore” smaller states, but
said that in the future it would “take meticulous care to avoid the repetition
of such blunders.”37 He stated that Beijing “fully respected the independent
policy of peace and nonalignment pursued by His Majesty’s Government of
Nepal and solemnly declared … that China would never adopt an attitude
of great nation chauvinism toward Nepal.”38 Liu also assured Nepal that
China would not pressure it to take a stand in the increasingly fractious
Sino‑Indian relationship.
With its own security in mind, China gave Nepal economic assistance,
first in 1956 and then much more significantly beginning in 1960. This cor-
responded with the shift in China’s foreign policy. The motive behind China’s
economic and technical assistance was expressed by Zhou, who stated that
“the prosperity and strength of Nepal … are powerful support for our
country.”39
China achieved its objectives by drawing Kathmandu away from its long-
standing special relationship with India, with Nepal becoming a buffer state
along China’s southwestern frontier. During the 1960s, strong economic and
cultural ties between the two countries were developed, and a strategically
important highway was completed. Thus, concluding the boundary treaty
facilitated closer political, economic, and cultural relations with Nepal at a
time when China perceived a growing threat to its national security.
Unlike other boundaries, the Sino‑Nepali boundary was clearly a trad-
itional customary boundary and not a legacy of imperialism. This made
settlement much easier than in the case of the boundary accords reached
earlier with Burma and later with Pakistan. In the final settlement with
Nepal, China accepted the watershed principle as the basis of the boundary.
This may undercut China’s claims in the eastern sector dispute with India,
where New Delhi claims that the McMahon Line, drawn along the watershed,
is the boundary; nevertheless, acceptance of the watershed as the boundary
with Nepal established a precedent and signalled to India China’s willingness
to accept the McMahon Line in practice if India would compromise in the
Aksai Chin region.
China’s larger strategic interests were what ultimately motivated Beijing

to seek a boundary settlement and influenced the timing of the agreement.
The role of Nepal in China’s security strategy had changed and disputed
territory was an irritant in an otherwise good relationship. The Mount Everest
issue and the Mustang incident were not allowed to prevent a quick settle-
ment. Beijing did not want the boundary issue to hinder relations in other
areas of strategic interest.
A full explanation of the Sino-Nepali boundary settlement and China’s
behaviour is possible only if they are placed in the broader context of
Beijing’s grand strategy at the time. Beijing was willing to compromise to
reach a quick settlement after years of delay, and was willing to wink at
Nepal’s obfuscation on the issue of Mount Everest. In this way, China en-
sured closer Sino-Nepali relations as well as Nepal’s neutrality, which en-
hanced China’s security along its southern border. This created a more
favourable balance of power for China at a time when it felt threatened not
only by India but also by growing Soviet-Indian cooperation and US in-
volvement in the region.
The China-Sikkim Boundary

On 5 December 1950, after the departure of the British from India, India
and Sikkim signed a treaty by which Sikkim continued to be a “protectorate”
of India and New Delhi took control of Sikkim’s defence and foreign policy.
As was the case with other South Asian countries, as Sino-Indian relations
declined, Beijing attempted to develop closer relations with Sikkim at the
expense of India, but was unsuccessful. A boundary settlement was not a
factor in these efforts, however. As tensions grew along the Sino-Indian
border in the late 1950s, the Sikkim-Tibet border remained relatively calm,
despite the activities of Tibetan insurgents and the fact that the Dalai Lama
fled to India via Sikkim in 1959. That year, Zhou Enlai stated that “the bound-
ary between China and Sikkim has long been formally delimited and there
is neither any discrepancy between the maps nor any disputes in practice.”40
Located between Nepal and Bhutan, the 140-mile China-Sikkim boundary
was the only section of the long frontier negotiated by British India and
China not contested by the People’s Republic of China.41
Sikkim was ruled by a hereditary Tibetan king from 1642, and even Brit
ain considered it a feudal dependency of Lhasa before taking control. After
Sikkim became a British protectorate in 1861, the boundary issue became
important due to the historical relations between Lhasa and Sikkim. China
accepted British control in Sikkim but raised the issue of boundary de-
limitation in 1889. The boundary was established along the watershed
by treaty in 1890, the first boundary treaty signed by British Indian author-
ities and the Qing court, over the objections of the Tibetans, after a British
military expedition defeated Tibetan forces. China accepted the British
proposal to demarcate the boundary to avoid any border incidents, and this
was eventually completed in 1903. Demarcation proceeded with difficulty,
however, and Tibetans continued to resist a final settlement, complaining
that the border was fixed by the Chinese and British without consulting
the Tibetan government and was unilaterally imposed on Tibet. The treaty
also formally recognized Sikkim as a British protectorate. In the end,
Tibetan authorities accepted the boundary after a British military exped-
ition fought its way to Lhasa in 1904.42 The boundary, based on the watershed
that divides Sikkim and Tibet, corresponds to the boundary concluded with
Nepal in 1961.
Between Two Giants

Despite Zhou Enlai’s 1959 statement, Beijing has described the treaty as
“unequal”; the mere fact that the treaty was negotiated between the declining
Qing Dynasty and an imperialist power made it unequal in Chinese eyes.43
However, the PRC never challenged the fact that the boundary line was for-
mally delimited based on a traditional customary line recognized by both
Tibet and Sikkim, and in practice the PRC has always respected the boundary.
After 1950, India controlled Sikkim’s defence and foreign relations but it was
an independent state.44 In 1959, Zhou wrote to Nehru stating that the bound-
ary with Sikkim “does not fall within the scope” of the Sino-Indian boundary
question, and in a later note stated that the “China-Sikkim boundary has
long been formally delimited and its location is very clear.”45 Nevertheless,
as China and India slipped toward war, and despite Sikkim’s lack of concern,
Nehru pledged to defend Sikkim if China attacked.46 On several occasions
in 1960, China protested Indian incursions at Nathu La Pass, the main route
connecting Sikkim with Tibet, and New Delhi protested the crossing of
Chinese patrols into Sikkim near Jelepla Pass.47
After the Sino-Indian border war in 1962, China accused India of building
military installations on the Chinese side of the China-Sikkim boundary
and demanded their withdrawal. Again in the midst of the 1965 Indo‑Pakistani
war, Beijing claimed that India was violating the China-Sikkim boundary by
constructing military facilities on the Chinese side of the boundary in the
strategically important passes leading from Sikkim into the Chumbi Valley
of Tibet. Beijing protested these boundary violations and demanded India’s
immediate withdrawal. Eventually, on 21 September 1965, Indian troops
withdrew from the area.48
India annexed Sikkim in 1975, which made the question of a China‑
Sikkim boundary moot. Beijing protested “India’s illegal annexation of
Sikkim” and reinforced its troops along the border. For three decades, it
refused to recognize India’s annexation until Sino-Indian relations im-
proved, but it began inching toward softening its position and recognizing
Indian sovereignty over Sikkim as early as 1980, when Deng Xiaoping indi-
cated that while China still opposed India’s annexation of Sikkim, it would
not allow this issue to undermine overall relations.49 In 1996 Jiang Zemin
again raised the issue during his November visit to India. After the visit,
Minister of External Affairs Inder Kumar Gujral said he got the impression
that “there was a move in China to accept India’s contention on Sikkim.”50
During Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s visit to China in June 2003, the first by an
Indian prime minister in a decade, a Declaration of Principles for Relations
and Comprehensive Cooperation was issued in which India explicitly rec-
ognized the Tibet Autonomous Region as part of China and Beijing agreed
to allow trade between Tibet and Sikkim via the Nathu La Pass, the strategic
pass traversed by the Dalai Lama in 1959 when he fled to India and the loca-
tion of a military confrontation in 1967. The linkage of India’s recognition
of the Tibet Autonomous Region as part of the PRC to China’s implicit rec-
ognition of Sikkim as part of India was made clear during the negotiations.51
However, the notion that this constituted Chinese recognition of Sikkim’s
accession to India was refuted by a Chinese Foreign Ministry statement that
“the question of Sikkim is an enduring one left over from history” that can-
not be resolved “overnight,” but that China would “take into consideration
the reality,” hinting that substantive changes were forthcoming. Vajpayee
asserted that “we have started the process by which Sikkim will cease to be
an issue in India-China relations.”52
China did eventually reciprocate during Premier Wen Jiabao’s April
2005 visit to New Delhi, when he stated that “Sikkim is no longer a problem
in China-Indian relations” and presented the Indians with a Chinese map
showing Sikkim as part of India.53 Border trade was officially opened in July
2006 over the fifteen-thousand-foot Nathu La Pass. This has reopened the
historical Lhasa-Kalimpong trade route that connects Tibet with Kolkata,
and links Tibet with Paro in western Bhutan, a route that is one-third shorter
than the Lhasa-Kathmandu route. This has generated new wealth in Tibet
and the surrounding region as trade has developed.
Apparently, a new boundary treaty does not need to be negotiated and no
boundary adjustments are needed. Beijing has stated on several occasions
that the boundary is “clearly delimited” and there are no outstanding issues
in this sector of the Sino-Indian boundary.
The Sino-Bhutanese Boundary

China’s relations with Bhutan are paradoxical. Despite the intimate historical
and ethnic connections that Bhutan shares with Tibet, since 1960, when the
470-kilometre boundary was sealed, there have been no cross-border rela-
tions between Bhutan and Tibet, and the PRC and Bhutan have yet to establish
formal diplomatic relations. Momentum in Sino-Bhutanese relations and
the boundary settlements itself are subordinated to overall Sino-Indian rela-
tions and progress toward settling the Sino-Indian boundary. Thus, despite
holding annual meetings to discuss the boundary since 1984, Beijing and
Thimphu have not achieved a final settlement (see Map 6).
Historical Relations
Bhutan is geographically isolated from India but connected to Tibet by trade
as well as ethnic and religious affinities; travel to Bhutan from India requires
passing through Sikkim and the Chumbi Valley of Tibet. The British East
India Company sent explorers to Bhutan in the 1770s to open trade routes
to Tibet. Military conflict between Britain and Bhutan ended with the 1865
Treaty of Sinchula, by which Bhutan ceded territory to Britain and, in return,
Britain paid Bhutan an annual allowance. Because Bhutan borders the nar-
row Siliguri corridor that controls access to northeastern India and is linked
to Tibet by fourteen mountain passes, it is strategically important to India’s
defence of its northeastern frontier and China’s access to the southern slopes
of the Himalayas. As China asserted its influence over Tibet, Britain main-
tained Bhutan as a buffer state between India and China, and Bhutan gave
the British complete control over its external relations in the 1910 Treaty of
Punakha, Article 8 of which stated: “On its part, the Bhutanese government
agrees to be guided by the advice of the British Government in regards to
its external relations.”54 After India gained its independence, Bhutan was
apprehensive about India’s ambitions in the Himalayas and protested the
new government’s assertion that Bhutan was a “protectorate” of India.55
Shortly thereafter, however, it signed the Perpetual Peace and Friendship
Map 6 Bhutan
Agreement, and India took control of Bhutan’s foreign relations; Article 2

of the 1949 treaty replicates the language used in the Treaty of Punakha
except that Bhutan was required to follow New Delhi’s advice in its foreign
relations.56 In 1971, Bhutan finally established a ministry of foreign affairs
after joining the United Nations. India continued to assert a great deal of
influence over Bhutan and its foreign relations, insisting that Bhutan was
“obligated” to follow its advice, whereas the government in Thimphu main-
tained that it needed only to “seek and consider” India’s guidance. According
to Prime Minister Jigme Dorji, the architect of Bhutan’s foreign policy in
the early 1960s, Bhutan was “guided by the advice of India in matters of
her external relations, but … can conduct her own external relations.”57 In
February 2007, India and Bhutan signed a Friendship Treaty that made no
mention of New Delhi’s oversight of Bhutan’s foreign policy.
Historically, China’s relationship with Bhutan dates from the 1720s, when
Manchu officials travelled to Tibet and had contact with Bhutanese officials
residing in Lhasa. Bhutan maintained a representative in Lhasa until 1959
but never established a tributary relationship with China. The Chinese
claimed, however, that the Tibetan ruler Polhane had established suzer-
ainty over Bhutan in 1731, and China asserted “residual” suzerainty over
Bhutan. The Qing court protested the 1910 Treaty of Punakha, but China
has made no official claims to Bhutan since then. 58 Nevertheless, in the
1939 Chinese Communist Party publication The Chinese Revolution and
the Chinese Communist Party, Bhutan is classified as a “vassal state” (fan) of
China that was occupied by England, and A Brief History of China, published
in 1954, included a map showing Bhutan as a former Chinese vassal state.
This alarmed the Bhutanese, who feared that Bhutan could suffer the same
fate as Tibet.59 But Beijing has not involved itself in Bhutan’s internal affairs
and has consistently affirmed its respect for Bhutan’s monarchy.60
To prevent any Sino-Bhutanese relationship from developing following
Zhou Enlai’s 1957 visit to Kathmandu, Nehru travelled to Bhutan by horse-
back in September 1958 and encouraged it to end its self-imposed isolation
and establish closer ties with India. Bhutan maintained its isolation until it
became alarmed by the Tibetan uprising and the flight of the Dalai Lama to
India in 1959. Following the uprising, Chinese troops were deployed along
the ill-defined Sino-Bhutanese boundary and occupied eight historically
Bhutanese enclaves (approximately three hundred square kilometres) in
Tibet that Bhutan had administered since the seventeenth century by agree-
ment with Tibetan authorities.61 China also blocked Bhutanese access to
the Chumbi Valley, effectively cutting off the only road connecting Bhutan
with India. Despite King Jigme Dorji Wangchuk’s profession that Bhutan did
not want to be “either friend or enemy of China,” he sealed the borders with
Tibet in 1960 and withdrew Bhutan’s representative in Lhasa.62
Beginning in 1961, Bhutan ended its historical isolation and began cooper-
ating with India on military and defence issues, accepting Indian assistance
in training military personnel, and developing closer economic ties.63 As Sino-
Indian relations deteriorated over the boundary dispute, Nehru assured
Thimphu that if China attacked Bhutan, India would come to its defense.64
Roads directly linking India and Bhutan were completed in the early 1960s
and became Bhutan’s economic lifeline.65 The precipitate end of Bhutan’s
isolationism and its degree of dependence on India has “few parallels in
modern history, but was clearly motivated by events beyond the Himalayas.”66
No boundary was ever formally negotiated between Bhutan and Tibet. A
historical customary boundary for areas around major mountain passes is
recognized, but there is uncertainty as to the location of the boundary along
much of the frontier. Early maps had discrepancies but this did not become
a significant issue until 1958, when a detailed map published in China
Pictorial claimed a large portion of Bhutan. Through India, King Wangchuk
protested the Chinese claim to Bhutanese territory. Concern also grew after
Chinese military incursions into Bhutan in 1959 and as China built roads
in the vicinity of the border. Conflict between Tibetan and Bhutanese herders
was common in traditional grazing areas in the Chumbi Valley, along the
northwestern border. Bhutan communicated its concerns directly to Beijing
in 1959, but India intervened. New Delhi protested, but Beijing rebuffed
India’s representations and refused to discuss issues concerning Bhutan.67
Zhou Enlai asserted:
The boundary between China and Bhutan … does not fall within the scope
of our present discussion. I would like, however, to take this opportunity to
make clear once again that China is willing to live together in friendship with
Sikkim and Bhutan, without committing aggression against each other, and
has always respected the proper relations between them and India.
In a subsequent communication, Zhou stated: “There is only a certain dis-

crepancy between the delineations on the maps of the two sides … But it has
always been tranquil along the border between the two countries.”68
As with the other Himalayan states, China’s objective was to woo Bhutan
away from its close relationship with India and establish it as a neutral buffer
state. In December 1960, Beijing began exploring the possibility of establish-
ing formal ties with Bhutan. In an attempt to develop better relations with
Thimphu, Beijing offered Bhutan economic and technical assistance; it ex-
pressed interest in discussing the boundary issue but refused Indian media-
tion.69 Prime Minister Dorji viewed this as a Chinese attempt to encourage
Bhutan “in enlightened self‑interest” to “bypass India and start direct nego-
tiations.” 70 Although not responding to China’s call for direct negotiations,
Dorji asked to participate in Sino‑Indian negotiations regarding Bhutan’s
border. Nehru, however, refused to include Bhutanese representatives in any
boundary negotiations.71
At a January 1961 press conference in India, King Wangchuk confirmed

the recent Chinese overtures. He said that “private persons” had approached
the government proposing direct talks on a boundary settlement, and Bhutan
showed some inclination to respond positively. Because of pressure from
Nehru, the king said publicly that such issues should be handled by New
Delhi and Bhutan declined direct negotiations with Beijing, but Bhutan
clearly desired a multilateral foreign policy.72 At the press conference, King
Wangchuk also stated that “we do not want to be either friends or enemies
with China,” but made it clear that Bhutan would maintain the status quo
and await the settlement of Sino-Indian differences.73
In London in 1962, Prime Minister Dorji revealed that Beijing had ap-
proached Bhutan about establishing a “Confederation of Himalayan States,”
but he opposed such a policy.74 Evidence suggests, however, that China’s
overtures struck a responsive chord among some of Bhutan’s elite, some of
whom felt that Bhutan should pursue a more even-handed policy toward
China and India, much as Nepal had successfully done.75 Beijing took advan-
tage of these pro-China sentiments but, failing to establish formal diplomatic
relations, tried in other ways to eliminate friction with Bhutan.
Redrawing maps required only minor territorial concessions but would
eliminate a major source of tension between the two states. Beginning in
1962, maps published by China more closely reflected the boundary claimed
by Bhutan.76 This led some scholars to conclude that despite the lack of official
diplomatic relations and Indian opposition, China and Bhutan had concluded
a “secret” boundary treaty in 1961 and that Bhutan had agreed to allow
Chinese troops to transit its territory; however, later developments confirmed
that there had been no secret agreements.77
With the outbreak of hostilities between India and China, Nehru publicly
assured Bhutan that India would defend it against any foreign aggression.
King Wangchuk stated publicly, however, that the 1949 Indo-Bhutanese
treaty made no reference to any Indian defence commitment.78 Beijing sought
to reassure Bhutan by issuing a statement that it would respect Bhutan’s
territorial integrity as Chinese troops advanced toward the Sino‑Indian
frontier east of Bhutan.79 This apparently reassured Bhutan, which during
the border war tried to maintain “formal neutrality” by not allowing Indian
troops access to Bhutanese territory and was relieved by the ceasefire.80
Although China’s conciliatory policy of the early 1960s was unsuccessful
and Bhutan continued to resist any boundary settlement, the policy did bear
fruit beginning in the 1970s, when Bhutan began to seek greater independ-
ence in its foreign policy. Bhutan became a member of the United Nations
in September 1971 and voted to seat Beijing as the representative of China
the following month. Thimphu has consistently supported China on human
rights and Taiwan issues. Despite its historical ties to Tibet, Bhutan has no
contact with the Dalai Lama’s government-in-exile in Dharamsala, India,
and does not, in spite of cultural affinities with Tibet, involve itself in the
Tibetan independence movement.81
In 1974, China was one of only six countries invited to send a representa-
tive to the coronation of King Jigme Singye Wangchuk, a clear indication
that Bhutan desired closer ties with China but was still waiting for progress
in Sino-Indian boundary negotiations before undertaking to settle its own
boundary with China. During discussions with China’s chargé d’affaires
in New Delhi, who represented China at the coronation, Bhutanese Foreign
Minister Dawa Tsering acknowledged the outstanding border questions but
recognized a basis for a settlement, stating that “China and Bhutan have no
conflicting views, but only a similar perspective.” The new king also acknow-
ledged the benign nature of the boundary differences, saying that Sino-
Bhutanese relations had “always been peaceful.”82
In 1979, in response to improving Sino-Indian relations and in an effort
to manage the friction caused by Tibetan herders’ increasing encroachment
into Bhutanese territory, members of Bhutan’s national assembly considered
normalizing relations with China and urged direct dialogue with that coun-
try.83 In March 1981, Bhutan directly approached the Chinese representative
in New Delhi about initiating boundary negotiations, but only after consulta-
tions with New Delhi, and in June Thimphu announced its intent to open
direct boundary negotiations with Beijing.84 In mid-April 1984, Bhutan’s
ambassador to India travelled to China for the first official round of nego-
tiations, the first visit of a Bhutanese official to Beijing. After several days of
discussion, a joint communiqué on 20 April announced an agreement to
hold further negotiations.
Based on China’s 1958 map, it appeared that the major dispute was over
a 600-square-kilometre tract located along the northeastern boundary
(McMahon Line) and the Tibetan enclaves that were administered by Bhutan,
but the exact extent of territorial claims was vague. As negotiations got
underway, however, it became clearer that the dispute centred on 269 square
kilometres lying along the northwestern boundary of Bhutan and the
Chumbi Valley, which the Chinese claimed based on historical and custom-
ary Tibetan use. Subsequent rounds of negotiations, conducted by officials
at ambassadorial and vice foreign minister levels, have taken place annually,
alternating between Thimphu and Beijing. In 1988, agreement was reached
on “guiding principles” for the settlement of the boundary. During late
October and early November 1989, Bhutan’s foreign minister travelled to
Beijing for the sixth round of negotiations. Meeting the Bhutanese delega-
tion, President Yang Shangkun said that despite the absence of official dip-
lomatic relations, mutual exchanges had increased and the two countries
did not have any basic conflict of interest.
China continued to press for an agreement but Bhutan hesitated. During
the tenth round of negotiations, held in Beijing in November 1996, China
proposed to exchange 495 square kilometres along the northern central
boundary for the 269-square-kilometre tract along the Bhutan-China bound-
ary in the Chumbi Valley. A preliminary agreement was reached based on
this “package deal” offered by the Chinese, which recognized Bhutan’s
sovereignty along the northern boundary in exchange for Chinese claims in
the northwest, and also included agreements on diplomatic relations, bilateral
trade, and the road linking Bhutan and Tibet.85 If accepted, the northwestern
border along the Chumbi Valley would be pushed further south; this alarmed
India because of the security implications of this strategically important
region, but Bhutan responded positively.86 Despite China’s continued logging
and road construction in disputed areas, during the twelfth round in 1998,
Thimphu consented to an interim agreement. In the December 1998 agree-
ment on the “Maintenance of Peace and Tranquility Along the Sino-
Bhutanese Border Area,” Beijing “reiterate[d] its position to fully respect the
independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of Bhutan.”87 The two
sides acknowledged that they had “reached consensus on the guiding prin-
ciples on the settlement of the boundary issues and narrowed their differ-
ences on the boundary issues,” and “agreed that prior to the ultimate solution
of the boundary issues, peace and tranquility along the border should be
maintained and the status quo of the boundary prior to March 1959 should
be upheld.”88 This first official agreement between Thimphu and Beijing
appeared to establish the basis for an eventual formal boundary treaty.
However, Bhutan’s Council of Ministers questioned the tentative agreement
on a package deal, arguing that some changes had to be made. During the
fourteenth round in 2000, Bhutan pushed its claim along the northwestern
Chumbi Valley boundary beyond China’s initial offer, arguing that “the
earlier agreement was not acceptable and … some changes had to be made
in the claims” based on an exchange of maps that showed significant differ-
ences in the respective claims. Beijing complained that “Bhutan was raising
new issues after many years of talks,” but was nevertheless “willing to con-
sider some in the demarcation of the border but their adjustment was not
limitless.” It is clear that Beijing was “keen to go beyond Bhutan’s setback,”
proving its eagerness to reach a settlement and normalize relations with
Thimphu. The following year, the Chinese said that the “boundary issue
had, by and large, been resolved,” and both sides agreed that “discussion was
close to a final solution.”89
In 2004, however, Thimphu was again alarmed by Chinese road-building
projects that it claimed even crossed Bhutan’s “traditional boundary claim
line.” Bhutanese representatives raised the issue several times with the Chi
nese embassy in New Delhi, protesting that road projects violated the 1998
agreement to refrain from “unilateral action to alter the status quo of the
border.” The issue was again raised with the Chinese foreign minister at the
United Nations in September that year, and Bhutan was assured that road-
work would stop. Chinese Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing “conveyed the
Chinese government’s commitment to settle the issue amicably and through
friendly negotiations,” but argued that the roads were only improving the
infrastructure in Tibet and had not entered Bhutanese territory. Nevertheless,
he stated that “in view of the close relationship between the two countries,
China had decided to stop construction work in the disputed area although
it did not mean a change in China’s position on the disputed areas.”90
The Bhutanese national assembly urged the government to move faster
toward a settlement but no final boundary has been agreed to. China wants
to achieve an early settlement and its road building may be a tactic to encour-
age domestic pressure on a reluctant Bhutanese government to break the
impasse and conclude a boundary treaty despite the failure of India and
China to achieve a settlement. It is possible that Beijing may show more
flexibility to achieve this goal.91
Conclusion
The Sino-Bhutanese boundary negotiations are distinguished by the delay
in beginning talks despite the outward appearance of friendly relations, and
by how long negotiations have continued with no settlement. We can safely
assume that the basic reason it took so long to even initiate negotiations for
a Sino-Bhutanese boundary treaty is India’s domination of Bhutan’s foreign

affairs. India is especially sensitive about China’s demands in the Chumbi
Valley because of the valley’s strategic significance to India, near the so-
called chicken’s neck that connects India with its northeastern frontier,
Sikkim and Bhutan.92 Even after negotiations got underway beginning in
the early 1980s, it has been difficult to reach final agreement. This is due to
the historically intimate and complex relationship between Tibet and Bhutan
and to current sensitivities over China’s domination of Tibet, as well as to
the fact that Bhutan’s foreign relations are dominated by India. No doubt the
Indian factor will continue to be a key element in any future settlement.
Although not linked in a formal sense, a Sino-Bhutanese boundary settle-
ment is nevertheless linked politically to Sino-Indian relations.93
5 The Sino-Pakistani Boundary
Settlement
On 26 December 1962, two months after the Sino-Indian border war

began, China and Pakistan agreed to settle their mutual boundary. This
treaty is “provisional,” pending the resolution of the Indo-Pakistani dispute
over Kashmir. It clearly highlights how the shifting balance of power influ-
enced China’s perceptions of strategic imperatives in the early 1960s, and
how this in turn influenced Beijing’s policy toward Pakistan. The entente
cordiale between Pakistan and China was the result of congruent national
interests and geopolitics, despite competing social systems and alliances.1
Following the 1955 Bandung Conference, Sino-Pakistani relations began
to improve, with visits to Pakistan by Vice Chair of the Standing Committee
of the National People’s Congress Song Qingling in October 1956 and Prime
Minister Zhou Enlai in December. Beijing recognized that despite the dif-
ferent political systems and conflicting views on many issues, congruent
geostrategic interests facilitated close bilateral relations.2 Initially, cultural
and economic relations were the primary means of contact, and political
relations were not close. A major wedge preventing closer Sino-Pakistani
relations was the United States–Pakistan military alliance.
The Sino‑Pakistani entente cordiale became a strategic imperative in 1960
when the balance of power in the region began to shift as Sino‑Soviet and
Sino-Indian relations deteriorated, and US‑Pakistan relations were strained.
India drew closer to the Soviet Union and the United States, thereby gaining
support against China and Pakistan. The Sino-Pakistani boundary settlement
is therefore a good example of the influence of strategic considerations on
China’s foreign policy and on its handling of boundary disputes.
China’s relations with present-day Pakistan began even before the establish-
ment of the legendary Silk Road that passed through the Sino-Pakistani
border regions of Ladakh and Gilgit. Buddhism and Islam also brought people
The Sino-Pakistani Boundary Settlement 107
of the two areas into contact. Tribal leaders in Eastern Turkistan (Xinjiang)
considered the Hunza region of northern Pakistan a tributary state and
required payment of an annual tribute. The Qing court claimed Hunza as
a vassal state as well, and as late as 1936 the Mir of Hunza paid tribute to
Chinese authorities against British advice.3
The area of Kashmir currently under Pakistan’s control was a frontier
region with no clearly delimited boundaries during British domination over
India. The various kingdoms, only nominally subject to British control, were
recognized as separate from British India. In the 1870s, the British began to
assert some political control over the region as the expansion of the Russian
empire threatened to encroach into the area.4 Fearful that Russia might
eventually dominate Eastern Turkistan, British officials approached the
Chinese in 1899 seeking to establish a common boundary in the Kashmir
region along the Karakoram mountain range. Qing authorities considered it
a fair proposal, and because the Karakoram watershed formed a clear bound-
ary, no demarcation was negotiated.5 These unsettled boundaries resulted
in a volatile situation after the partition of India in 1947, however, and in
1949 the People’s Republic of China inherited an undelimited boundary
between Xinjiang and the Kashmir region contested by Pakistan and India.
In December 1949, Pakistan, along with the United States and other coun-
tries, sponsored a United Nations resolution criticizing the Chinese Com
munists’ revolution and supporting the Chinese people’s right to “choose
freely their political institutions and maintain a government independent
of foreign control.”6 Although Pakistan recognized the People’s Republic of
China in January 1950, it still participated in the San Francisco peace confer-
ence in 1951. The PRC was initially ambiguous about Pakistan and did not
immediately respond to its recognition. The Chinese Communist Party had
favoured a federation of Muslim and Hindi states rather than partition, and
when Beijing asserted control over western China, Pakistan became uneasy;
it complained about PRC troop movements along the border and took meas-
ures to prevent violations.7
Despite these tensions in their political relations, China came to Pak
istan’s assistance when India stopped supplying Pakistan with necessary
coal; a barter agreement facilitated trade of Chinese coal for jute and cotton.8
Pakistan initially supported the seating of the Beijing government as the
legitimate representative of China at the United Nations, and abstained
from voting on the US-sponsored UN resolution condemning the PRC for
aggression in Korea. Pakistan also declined to send troops to support UN
forces in Korea. Despite this initial amity with Beijing, however, Pakistan
began developing closer relations with the West for strategic reasons.
Pakistan became a member of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
(SEATO) in 1954 and the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO/Baghdad
Pact) the following year. Beijing strongly opposed SEATO, viewing it as a
US attempt to encircle China. Pakistan insisted that the treaties were de-
fensive and were not directed against China, and that Pakistan would not
participate in actions against China. To a degree, China accepted Pakistan’s
membership in SEATO as defensive, especially after Zhou Enlai and Prime
Minister Mohammed Ali Bogra met at the Bandung Conference in 1955.
Zhou made Beijing’s views clear in a report to the Chinese People’s Political
Consultative Conference in March 1957:
As everybody knows we differ on certain questions. Take the Manila Treaty

(SEATO) and the Baghdad Pact (CENTO). Pakistan is, since 1954, a party
to both whereas we oppose these treaties. Nevertheless we expressed a com-
mon desire to promote the cause of world peace and further develop existing
friendly relations between China and Pakistan.9
Other aspects of Pakistan’s foreign policy irritated Beijing, too. In 1956,

Pakistan supported the British during the Suez Crisis and opposed the
Soviet invasion of Hungary; in addition, although Pakistan claimed that
it supported Beijing as the legitimate representative of China at the UN, it
cast negative votes whenever the question of supplanting the Republic of
China with the PRC arose after the mid-1950s.
Beijing did not openly criticize Pakistan’s participation in military pacts,
but stressed its desire for Pakistan to develop an “independent” policy.10 And
despite Pakistan’s military alliances with the West and other irritants in
bilateral relations, Sino-Pakistani relations remained cordial. Even during
the high point of Sino‑Indian friendship, Beijing was neutral regarding the
Indo‑Pakistani dispute over Kashmir. China favoured direct negotiation
between India and Pakistan as called for by India, but opposed UN involve-
ment, which Pakistan favoured.
Thus, the mid‑1950s was marked by uneven relations between China
and Pakistan. By the late 1950s, their outwardly cordial relations began to
deteriorate. Two important developments led to this. First, China built the
Xinjiang‑Tibet Highway in 1956‑57 and this concerned Pakistan for security
reasons.11 Then in 1958, General Muhammad Ayub Khan, a proponent of

Pakistan’s pro-Western security arrangements, led a military coup and began
pursuing even closer ties with the West. China reacted strongly to this new
direction in Pakistan’s foreign policy, criticizing Ayub for “bringing the wolf
into the house in an attempt to rely upon American power to maintain their
unstable control and suppress the struggle waged by the people.”12
The Tibetan rebellion heightened tension and Pakistan became increas-
ingly concerned about security. It joined the UN criticism of Chinese sup-
pression of the rebellion, whereas India did not take a strong stand. Pakistan
also hosted a Muslim hajj delegation from Taiwan, eliciting strong criticism
from Beijing.13 In March 1959, the United States and Pakistan concluded a
joint defence agreement, and, concerned about the threat from the “north,”
Ayub sought to establish a joint defence agreement with India as well,
arguing:
As a student of war and strategy, I can see quite clearly the inexorable push
of the north in the direction of the warm waters of the Indian Ocean. This
push is bound to increase if India and Pakistan go on squabbling with each
other. If, on the other hand, we resolve our problems and disengage our
armed forces from facing inwards as they do today, and face them outwards,
I feel we shall have a good chance of preventing a recurrence of the history
of the past, which was that whenever this subcontinent was divided – and
often it was divided – someone or other invited an outsider to step in.14
India rejected Pakistan’s proposal even though Sino-Indian relations were

also deteriorating. Beijing criticized Pakistan’s defence agreement with the
United States and its proposal for a joint defence agreement with India as
an attempt to sow “discord in the relations between China and India,” and
also accused Pakistan of “adopting an extremely unfriendly attitude toward
China.”15
Despite the increased tension with Pakistan, with the beginning of the
Sino‑Soviet dispute, the deterioration in Sino‑Indian relations, and concerns
over growing US involvement in the region, Pakistan seemed less threaten-
ing to Beijing, and a potential ally according to China’s united front doctrine.
As both China and Pakistan felt threatened and isolated, and because of
congruent strategic interests, the stage was set for them to seek mutual ac-
commodation. A boundary settlement played a central role in eliminating
Map 7 Pakistan
residual friction and paved the way for improved relations. Ayub observed:
“This agreement on border demarcation was the first step in the evolution
of relations between Pakistan and China. Its sole purpose was to eliminate
a possible cause of conflict in the future.”16

The China-Pakistan boundary extends 325 miles along the Karakoram
mountains (following the McMahon Line), dividing Pakistani-controlled
Kashmir and Xinjiang between the trijunction with Afghanistan and the
Karakoram Pass (see Map 7).17 From the Sino-Indian boundary negotiations
in 1959, Pakistan learned that some Chinese maps included territory in
Hunza and Gilgit as part of the PRC.18 Although Pakistan raised the issue
with Beijing and attempted to handle the boundary dispute calmly, it adopted
a firm position against Chinese claims. An editorial in Dawn, a leading paper
in Pakistan, warned:
Chinese maps … have shown a part of the extreme northern region of our
country as Chinese territory, [and] we feel it our duty to tell the comrades in
Peking that, as far as Pakistan is concerned, there will be no yielding of any
kind at any time. The sanctity of the McMahon Line must be preserved and
maps or no maps, we will not countenance the loss of even a single inch of
our territory.19
Ayub called China a “hovering giant” casting its shadow over Pakistan, and
warned that if Beijing pushed its claims in Kashmir, “dire consequences”
would result.20 He also asserted that India and Pakistan enjoyed a “complete
understanding … in the wake of the danger developing on the northern and
northwestern frontiers of the sub-continent.”21
Beginning in 1959, minor skirmishes were reported along the border.
China perceived the new direction of Pakistan’s foreign policy under Ayub
as a threat to its security and began to raise the territorial issue: “Should
the Pakistani side continue to … commit acts injurious to China’s sover-
eignty and territorial integrity … the Pakistani government must bear full
responsibility for all damage thus done to Sino‑Pakistani relations.”22 Con
cerned about a military confrontation with China, Pakistan increased its
military forces in the area and eventually closed the border.23 No formal
boundary had ever been demarcated and, unlike India, Pakistan held that
the boundary with China was undetermined, despite the official references
to the McMahon Line. Pakistan was also motivated to settle the boundary
because it was concerned that India might pre-empt Pakistan’s claims in
Kashmir through an agreement with China.24
To reduce tension along the border, Pakistan sought to discuss the bound-
ary with China, and in October 1959 Ayub announced that it would seek a
boundary settlement. What prompted him to do so was the opinion ex-
pressed by a Burmese delegate at the United Nations to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
that the Chinese had been “entirely reasonable and often, indeed, mag-
nanimous in their dealings with Rangoon over the border.”25 However, fairly
substantive Sino-Indian discussions were already underway and China
delayed a reply until January 1961; even then, it did not push for a settlement
because Beijing wanted to avoid derailing a possible Sino-Indian boundary
settlement. In March 1961, Pakistan’s ambassador in Beijing pressed the
issue but Beijing hesitated to proceed with any boundary negotiation, not
wanting to complicate Sino-Indian relations. By February 1962, however,
Beijing had concluded that a settlement with India was unlikely, and it
proposed a “temporary agreement” until “the relevant sovereign authorities

will renegotiate with the Chinese Government … a formal boundary treaty”
after India and Pakistan settle the Kashmir issue. 26 This was followed by a
formal proposal by Pakistan to China on 28 March, and on 3 May Beijing
announced the initiation of Sino-Pakistani boundary negotiations:
The Government of the People’s Republic of China and the Government of

Pakistan, after an exchange of views, affirm that the boundary between
China’s Xinjiang and the contiguous areas, the defense of which is under the
actual control of Pakistan, has never been formally delimited and demarcated
in history. With the view of ensuring tranquility along the border and growth
of good neighborly relations between the two countries, they have agreed to
conduct negotiations so as to obtain an agreed understanding of the location
and alignment of the boundary and to sign on this basis an agreement of a
provisional nature. They have also agreed that after the settlement of the
dispute over Kashmir between Pakistan and India, the sovereign authorities
concerned shall reopen negotiations with the Chinese Government regarding
the boundary of Kashmir so as to sign a formal boundary to replace the
provisional agreement.27
The total area disputed was approximately 3,400 square miles. Negotia
tions began on 12 October 1962, just one week before China attacked Indian
forces; two months later, on 28 December, an agreement on the principles
for settling the boundary was announced. The boundary settlement generally
corresponded to Pakistan’s initial claims, following the watershed of the
Karakoram Mountains (the McMahon Line). At one point, the boundary
deviated from the watershed to include on the Pakistan side of the line an
area controlled by the PRC but claimed by Pakistan. This 750-square-mile
area included salt mines that were important to the inhabitants of Pak
istan’s Hunza region. The settlement also divided control over the mountain
peak K-2, the second highest after Mount Everest; this was the same solution
adopted in the Sino-Nepali boundary settlement regarding Mount Everest.28
The treaty was signed in Beijing on 2 March 1963.29 This provisional agree-
ment explicitly deferred a formal treaty until after the settlement of the
Indo‑Pakistani dispute over Kashmir. India claimed that the treaty was in-
valid because Pakistan illegally occupied Kashmir. India also claimed that
the treaty ceded 1,300 square miles of Indian territory to China. Pakistan
pointed out, however, that the boundary corresponded to the boundary
sought by Britain in 1899 and coincided with British claims as recent as

1939.30 Although New Delhi criticized the agreement, Nehru indicated pri-
vately that he felt it was a good agreement.31 It took until 1965 for demarcation
to be completed, and the final boundary protocol was signed in Rawalpindi
on 26 March.
China’s Global Strategy and the Boundary Settlement

China’s ambivalence toward and lukewarm relations with Pakistan during
the early 1950s resulted primarily from Beijing’s view of Pakistan’s leaders
as bourgeois nationalists and its pursuit of a “lean to one side” policy of
aligning with Soviet bloc countries. 32 In the mid-1950s, China’s opening
to the Non-Aligned Movement excluded Pakistan because it was aligned
with the West as a member of SEATO and CENTO. Thus, the improvement
in Sino-Pakistani relations in the early 1960s is an excellent example of how
strategic imperatives influenced China’s relations with its non-communist
(and even pro-Western) neighbours. More than any other single factor,
Pakistan’s role in ensuring China’s national security influenced Beijing’s
rapprochement during this period. The boundary settlement was a necessary
step in the process, eliminating a major irritant in bilateral relations and
facilitating an entente cordiale.
When Ayub came to power in 1958, he set out to strengthen US‑Pakistan
military ties and proposed a joint defence agreement with India against the
threat from the north. Because of his anti-communist sentiments, he also
arrested many pro‑China politicians and Sino-Pakistani relations deterior-
ated dramatically. With the growing Sino‑Soviet conflict and Sino‑Indian
dispute, China needed to cultivate Pakistan as an ally to counter the growing
cooperation between the Soviet Union and India that was dramatically
shifting the regional balance of power and to allay concerns about growing
US involvement in the region.
China’s reaction to Pakistan’s new policies was low-key so as not to in-
crease friction. It did not openly protest Ayub’s overtures to the United States
and India, and it refused to include the area of Kashmir under Pakistan’s
control in its negotiations with India.33 Eventually international developments
shifted the situation in China’s favour: India rejected Ayub’s joint defence
proposal, the Soviet Union’s downing of the American U‑2 spy plane based
in Pakistan in May 1960 brought threats from the Soviet Union, and relations
between Pakistan and Afghanistan deteriorated, as did Pakistan’s relations
with the United States. Ayub realized that his policies had backfired: “The
whole pattern of our relations with others required fundamental re‑thinking.

Some of the essential elements in our geographical situation had not been
recognized, nor was there a clear concept of the nature of the political
compulsions to which we would be subjected.” He concluded: “I think it was
the force of events which compelled us to undertake this exercise.”34
Pakistan found itself surrounded by hostile and alienated neighbours,
and Beijing wanted closer relations with Pakistan. Pakistan was deeply con-
cerned about India’s ambitions regarding Kashmir and felt that the SEATO
and CENTO pacts alone would not deter India. Pakistan wanted closer rela-
tions with China to counter the threat from India. An article in Dawn argued:
“Let us fool ourselves no more that any power, however well meaning, will
eventually rush to our aid from across the oceans if we are in peril. An alli-
ance nearer home against a common enemy is far more logical.”35 And China
now viewed Pakistan’s participation in the US-led military alliances as be-
nign; Liu Shaoqi stated that China was “convinced that your [Pakistan’s]
participation in SEATO is only against India and not against China at all.”36
China’s interest in better relations with Pakistan was motivated by the
larger strategic situation and the shift in the regional balance of power. This
shift set the stage for Sino-Pakistani rapprochement.37 China was concerned
about growing tensions along the border with the Soviet Union in Xinjiang,
even as Pakistan’s concerns over China were overshadowed by the threat
from India, the Soviet Union, and Afghanistan. 38 Thus, complementary
strategic interests opened the way for closer relations. China used the bound-
ary treaty with Pakistan primarily to facilitate improving relations by remov-
ing a major source of friction.39
By October 1959, Pakistan had already signalled its desire for a settlement.
A boundary settlement would facilitate rapprochement with Pakistan, but
there were several possible reasons for China’s delayed response. Even if
China was interested in a boundary settlement, negotiations with Burma
were beginning around the same time, and negotiations with Nepal and
Mongolia quickly followed the settlement with Burma. The delay in com-
mencing negotiations with Pakistan may have simply been due to Beijing’s
inability to handle so many sensitive diplomatic initiatives at once. A second
possible reason is that at this point in its negotiations with New Delhi,
Beijing was still hoping for a settlement with India and was therefore re-
luctant to discuss the boundary question with Pakistan. Discussions with
India were at a sensitive stage and opening negotiations with Pakistan would
have exacerbated Sino-Indian relations and entangled China in the Indo-

Pakistani dispute over Kashmir. At the time, Beijing felt that any Sino-
Pakistani negotiations should be preceded by an Indo‑Pakistani settlement
of the Kashmir issue. China recognized the existence of a legitimate territorial
dispute over Kashmir and tried to remain neutral.
In the late 1950s, China also did not feel an acute need for closer relations
with Pakistan. It considered Pakistan as a potential ally, but first Pakistan
would have to abandon policies that were inimical to China.40 A clear shift
in Pakistan’s foreign policy occurred in 1961, when Ayub indicated that
Pakistan would support Beijing as China’s representative at the United
Nations. China responded by expressing its willingness to be “reasonable”
regarding a boundary settlement if Pakistan would act similarly on issues
that affected China.41 The following year, China agreed to begin boundary
negotiations. There is clear evidence that these developments are all related;
Ayub had even discussed a quid pro quo with the Chinese ambassador.42
China was interested not only in a boundary settlement but also in broader
strategic cooperation. A boundary settlement would be just the first step in
achieving its more important strategic objectives. As in the earlier negotia-
tions with Burma and Nepal, China raised the question of concluding a
non-aggression treaty at the same time as the boundary agreement. Although
China did not make Pakistan’s withdrawal from its military pacts a precon-
dition for this, Pakistan hinted that it was willing to leave the alliances.43
Some Pakistanis favoured cutting ties with the West and developing relations
with China as a more credible deterrent against India.44
Although there is evidence that Pakistan rejected China’s offer to conclude
a non-aggression pact, several statements deliberately left the impression
that such an understanding had been reached secretly.45 For example, Foreign
Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto stated: “This … cannot be regarded as incon-
sistent with our alliances with the West. Our alliances are for self‑defense.
A nonaggression pact further reinforces the defensive character of those
alliances.”46 Despite such statements, Bhutto claimed that there were no secret
agreements when the boundary treaty was concluded, and other scholars
concur.47 However, Bhutto hinted at the possibility of China’s becoming
involved in an Indo-Pakistani war when he stated:
That conflict would not involve Pakistan only … An attack by India on Pakistan
would also involve the security and territorial integrity of the largest state in
Asia. This new factor that has arisen is a very important one. I would not,
at this stage wish to elucidate it any further … From that point of view … I
think I can confidently say that everything is being done to see that our na-
tional interests and territorial integrity are safeguarded and protected.48
China also gave assurances to Pakistan: “The US, UK and USSR have to
consider that if they help India, China would support Pakistan. This is a big
point that has to be considered by their policy‑makers.”49 Even into the 1980s,
when Beijing’s relations with New Delhi had improved, China continued
to pledge explicitly to defend Pakistan. Visiting Pakistan in July 1983, Chi
nese Foreign Minister Wu Xueqian stated that “Pakistan is China’s excep-
tionally friendly neighbor. If there is a war and Pakistan suffers foreign armed
attack, the Chinese government and people will, of course, stand on the side
of Pakistan.”50
In the context of China’s desire for reconciliation with neighbouring states
to ensure its strategic objectives, the timing of the boundary agreement is
significant. The delay in China’s response to Pakistan’s earlier overtures is
not so curious when we consider China’s more fundamental strategic con-
cerns. Beyond the boundary settlement, China wanted to draw Pakistan into
a strategic partnership. It was careful to ensure that Pakistan was not just
feigning rapprochement to gain leverage against India. In 1961, China had
approached Pakistan about supporting its UN representation bid, but Ayub
had said that such support was contingent on China’s willingness to settle
the boundary.51 Pakistan’s October 1962 vote in favour of seating Beijing at
the United Nations was an important step, and China reciprocated by quickly
agreeing to move forward with a boundary settlement. One Pakistani news-
paper concluded that “the trend of recent events may induce China to proceed
with demarcation talks. Pakistan’s recent vote for the admission of China
into the United Nations may be an important factor in the process.”52 How
ever, while this may be true, Beijing had larger security concerns that made
rapprochement with Pakistan even more imperative.
The start of the negotiations and the announcement of an agreement cor-
responded with other events in Sino‑Indian relations that should not be
considered coincidental. By mid‑1962, Beijing knew that a boundary settle-
ment with India was unlikely and was anticipating armed conflict in the near
future. At this point, China was willing to risk greater friction with India to
improve relations with Pakistan. Negotiations began in mid‑October and
preceded China’s attack on India by one week; once the war began, China
pushed for an early agreement.
By the outset of the Sino-Indian border war, China had not accepted several
Pakistani conditions. It is possible that this influenced Pakistan’s neutral
attitude during the war, which may also have been prompted by Pakistan’s
desire for further Chinese concessions. In late 1962, on the eve of Indo‑
Pakistani negotiations on Kashmir, China unexpectedly accepted all of
Pakistan’s conditions. This surprised Pakistan because of Beijing’s prior
resistance to Pakistan’s demand for control over salt mines and grazing
areas beyond the Shimshal Pass, which China claimed. Suddenly and with-
out consulting local residents, Beijing accepted Pakistan’s claims.53 Clearly,
once Pakistan had met China’s basic conditions for a settlement, Beijing
moved rapidly to seal the Sino‑Pakistani entente cordiale and forestall a
possible Indo-Pakistani rapprochement.
Conclusion
Although there were specific political factors and general ideological issues
that caused friction between China and Pakistan, Beijing was compelled to
seek accommodation because of larger strategic considerations that ultim-
ately required it to set aside lesser issues to facilitate closer relations. More
than any other factor, this led to the improvement in Sino‑Pakistani relations
in the early 1960s. The settlement of the boundary dispute removed a major
source of tension in the relationship. Under Ayub, Pakistan initially moved
closer to the United States and even attempted to engage India in a joint
defence agreement. China, facing growing threats from the Soviet Union,
conflict with India, and a growing threat from the United States, adopted a
policy of reconciliation with Pakistan despite differing ideological views and
the latter’s political affiliations.
Pakistan is strategically important to China for several reasons. Pakistan
could give China access to the Indian Ocean, and is one of the “back doors”
into China. Construction of the 1,300-kilometre Karakoram Highway con-
necting Xinjiang with Pakistan over the 4,800-metre Khunjerab Pass began
a few years after the boundary settlement. Moreover, Pakistan borders
China on the western approaches to the Aksai Chin region, and the bound-
ary settlement helped secure the southwestern border near the strategic
Xinjiang‑Tibet Highway. China was concerned about US military bases and
apprehensive about encirclement by the Soviet Union or Soviet-dominated
states in the region.54 A closer strategic relationship with Pakistan would

be tactically beneficial in case of a second border war with India. East Pakistan
(until 1971) could have played an important logistical role along the narrow
choke point (chicken’s neck) connecting India to the North-East Frontier
Agency (Arunachal Pradesh after 1986).
China’s relationship with Pakistan was strategically important for Beijing’s
foreign policy objectives. To allay any Pakistani fears that it was being used
as a pawn in the Sino‑Indian dispute, Liu Shaoqi told Ayub that “on China’s
part, friendship with Pakistan is a long‑term policy. It is not a matter of
expediency.”55 However, the agreement also benefited China in its boundary
dispute with India. Whereas New Delhi had always insisted that there was
no question that the location of the boundary that it claimed had been entirely
settled historically, the Sino-Pakistani agreement explicitly recognized that
the boundary had “never been formally delimited and demarcated in his-
tory.” This implied Pakistan’s support for China’s position in its dispute with
India. The agreement also frustrated the attempts of both the Soviet Union
and the United States to encourage rapprochement between Pakistan and
India in order to bolster the subcontinent as a counterweight to China, or
to strengthen the containment of China along its southern flank.
Sino-Pakistani relations flourished in all areas and China’s leaders be-
came the “most welcome” visitors in Pakistan. China adapted its position
on Kashmir to provide Pakistan with unequivocal support for the next two
decades. When Zhou Enlai visited Pakistan in February 1964, the joint com-
muniqué stated that the Kashmir dispute should be “resolved in accordance
with the wishes of the people of Kashmir,” a clear reference to Pakistan’s
call for self-determination, a position rejected by India.56 Pakistan opposed
Soviet attempts to establish an Asian security zone aimed at containing
China, and refused to support the US military escalation in Vietnam. 57
Although Pakistan maintained its commitments to SEATO, it argued that
there was no conflict of interest between closer ties with China and its treaty
obligations.58 China benefited from improved relations with Pakistan, as
increased friction between the United States and Pakistan reduced US
military and economic assistance to Islamabad, an important strategic gain
for China.
Other areas of Sino-Pakistani relations strengthened. A 1963 agreement
initiated air service between the two countries. This was China’s first air link
with a non-communist country and it proved to be an important conduit
between China and Western countries. Important road links through the
Karakoram Mountains were also eventually reopened. In 1964, China ex-

tended a $60 million interest-free loan to Pakistan to finance imports from
China. A most-favoured nation agreement caused Pakistan’s exports to
China to double in the next six years, while China’s exports to Pakistan
increased eight times in the same period. China eventually became Pakistan’s
biggest cotton customer, and Pakistan turned to China for help in finan-
cing $1.2 billion in development anticipated during the five-year plan for
1965‑70.
Rapprochement with Pakistan was an important part of China’s attempt
to improve its deteriorating strategic environment. The boundary settle-
ment played an important role in making closer relations possible. China
was seeking better relations with all of its neighbours for larger strategic
reasons, not just seeking short-term allies or negotiating leverage against
India. Very concerned about the threat from the Soviet Union and the
United States, China was keenly aware of Pakistan’s geopolitical significance
in the global strategic picture.59 This is a more compelling strategic explana-
tion of Beijing’s motives in seeking a boundary settlement with Pakistan.
The Sino-Pakistan entente cordiale has proven to be very strong over the
decades since it first took root in the mid-1960s. Even as Sino-Indian rela-
tions began to improve in the 1980s and the balance of power shifted sig-
nificantly after the Cold War, China’s policy toward Pakistan remained
very supportive, perhaps the only significant change being China’s adoption
of a policy of neutrality regarding Kashmir. In 1980, to boost Sino-Indian
relations, China shifted its position on the Kashmir dispute, which it began
characterizing as “bilateral,” dropping its previous support for Kashmir’s
right to self-determination. During the 1990 Kashmir crisis, Beijing remained
neutral, no doubt influenced by Sino-Indian rapprochement.
Any future change in the status of the Sino-Pakistan boundary depends
on the settlement of the Sino-Indian boundary dispute and the dispute over
Kashmir. Although China is eager to conclude a boundary settlement with
India by legitimizing the status quo, the future of Kashmir will be determined
by Islamabad and New Delhi, and Beijing has carefully avoided becoming
entangled in this dispute.
6 The Sino-Afghan Boundary
Settlement
The boundary agreement with Afghanistan was the last in a series of

settlements that China concluded with its South Asian neighbours in the
early 1960s. The present configuration of the border is the legacy of the “Great
Game” played by two expanding empires, Russia and Britain, at the end of
the nineteenth century. The Wakhan (Vakhan) Valley, which forms the
Afghan panhandle and creates a narrow buffer between Eurasia and
Pakistan, is an extremely narrow corridor connecting China to Afghanistan
through the Wakhjir Pass, which is closed by snow except during the sum-
mer months. This case is significant because one question in the Sino-
Soviet and, after 1991, the Sino-Tajik boundary dispute involves the “Pamir
Knot” – formed by the South and Central Asian mountain ranges, the Kara
koram, the Hindu Kush, and the Pamir – at the trijunction of Tajikistan,
Afghanistan, and China (see Map 8).
As early as 139 BC, the Han Dynasty sought a military alliance with Afghan
tribes against the Xiongnu, who at the time presented the greatest threat
to China. Afghanistan later became an important centre for Buddhism, to
which Chinese were drawn, and Islam came to China via Afghanistan. At
the time, a major branch of the Silk Road passed through Afghanistan and
was a primary conduit for trade and communication between China and
the West. During the Tang Dynasty, the emperor dispatched troops from
Kashgar through the Wakhan Valley to set up a military garrison, and during
the Mongol Yuan Dynasty Afghanistan was sacked and occupied. The Ming
court maintained trade and tributary relations that continued during the
Qing Dynasty, and regional tribal leaders sent many missions to China.
In 1759, the Emperor Qianlong sent a military expedition to the Pamirs
and erected a marker recording the event. The Qing court claimed suzerainty
but did not directly control the region. Between 1878 and 1889, as the Russian
The Sino-Afghan Boundary Settlement 121
empire expanded into Central Asia, the Qing court established border posts
and garrisoned troops in the Pamirs. In 1884, China signed the Sino-Russian
Kashgar Boundary Treaty, which established a boundary with Russia west of
the Pamir plateau but did not delimit the border. After Russian troops oc-
cupied the area in the early 1890s, the Qing court sought in vain to negotiate
a boundary treaty, and in 1894 China sent Russia a note stating that it retained
its claim to the region despite the fact that it did not maintain a garrison.1
The unique feature of the Sino-Afghan boundary is the eastern salient of
Afghanistan, the Wakhan Valley, which forms the conduit connecting the
two countries. This valley was historically a rugged section of the Silk Road
through which Marco Polo passed in 1271 on his way to the court of Kublai
Khan. As Britain became concerned about the threat of Russian expansion
toward India in the late 1800s, it encouraged China to assert greater control
in the Pamirs, but China, exhausted by the Taiping Rebellion and in decline,
was defeated by both Afghan and Russian forces and its ability to control
the region slipped away. In 1891, Britain persuaded the ruler of Afghanistan
to take control of the Wakhan region, and Britain sought to engage both
Russia and China in negotiations to establish a boundary. The Great Game
between Russia and Great Britain in Central Asia ended in 1895 when the
two empires negotiated a treaty that established the Oxus (Amu Darya) River
as Afghanistan’s northern boundary and extended the boundary eastward
along the Wakhan Valley. Although invited to join the negotiations, the
Qing Dynasty demurred, having just been defeated by Japan. Afghan leaders
did not participate in the negotiations either, nor did they seek control over
the Wakhan Valley. Russia and Britain agreed on a boundary but, because
of the rugged terrain, its description was not precise. The treaty stipulated
that this would “enable the two Governments to come to an agreement with
the Chinese Government as to the limits of Chinese territory in the vicinity
of the line,” but “somewhere in that wild unknown country it would meet
the western limits of the Chinese Empire.”2 Subsequent governments of
China have maintained that this was a secret treaty, and Chinese maps
continued to show the boundary in the Pamirs as undetermined. 3 Fraser-
Tytler concludes that “it seems in fact certain had the Chinese taken part in
the Commission, they would have asserted a claim to possession of the
Taghdumbash Pamir, from Bayik [the Manchu outpost] for 40 miles west-
ward up to the watershed on the Wakhjir Pass … and I do not suppose anyone
would have contested their claim, however shadowy their authority might
be.”4 After 1950, Beijing effectively asserted control over the Taghdumbash
Map 8 Afghanistan
Pamir and, according to Prescott, “to anyone examining the physical and
political geography of this area there appears to be a measure of geograph-
ical inevitability about this line” that was accepted by both China and
Afghanistan in 1963 (see Map 8).5
Afghanistan became an independent kingdom after the First World War.
Although it recognized the People’s Republic of China in early 1950, China
did not reciprocate, mainly because of Afghanistan’s relations with the
United States. China was critical of Afghanistan for accepting US military
assistance when, to offset Soviet influence, the United States assumed
Britain’s role in Afghanistan after the Second World War.
China showed increased interest in Afghanistan beginning in the mid-
1950s. Diplomatic relations were established in January 1955 and ushered
in a period of closer cultural and economic cooperation. The Chinese press
reported in some detail the visits of Soviet leaders to Kabul and the Soviet‑
Afghan non-aggression treaty that was signed in 1955.6 In the late 1950s,
however, China began to fear US-Soviet “collusion” in Afghanistan because
of their cooperation on development projects.7 This led to a renewal of

the historical Sino‑Russian rivalry in the region.
Sino‑Afghan relations grew closer in January 1957, when Premier Zhou
Enlai made a five-day visit to Kabul. Zhou stressed China and Afghanistan’s
common experiences of colonialism, imperialist domination, and struggle
for independence. He also referred to the “common border” the two coun-
tries shared. In his farewell speech, he stressed the importance of direct
contacts to enhance cooperation.8 China considered closer Sino-Afghan
relations strategically important as a hedge against growing threats to
China’s security from Central Asia.9
While developing closer relations with Afghanistan, China was careful
to minimize the friction this caused with other countries. It did not support
Afghanistan’s call for an independent “Pakhtunistan,” an issue that caused
significant tension between Pakistan and Afghanistan.10 India and the
Soviet Union both supported Afghanistan on this issue. Visiting Kabul in
1960, Foreign Minister Chen Yi only alluded to the dispute and indicated
China’s unwillingness to become involved. He stated that Afghanistan’s
“just demands which accord with the Bandung Spirit will gain the sym-
pathy of the Chinese people.” He also emphasized that such problems were
“rooted in history” and “can be solved by peaceful means.” This, no doubt,
was also a signal to Afghanistan regarding China’s attitude toward boundary
disputes with its neighbours.11
Closer Relations and the Mutual Non-Aggression Treaty

Reciprocating Zhou’s January 1957 visit to Kabul, Afghan Prime Minister
Mohammed Daoud Khan travelled to Beijing at the end of the year. How
ever, Afghanistan continued to pursue a non-aligned policy on regional
issues, abstaining when the Tibet issue came to a vote at the United Nations
in 1959. Despite this lack of support on Tibet and Afghanistan’s even-handed
policy toward Sino-Indian differences, relations slowly improved. Real prog-
ress in developing closer relations began in 1959 when Afghanistan’s foreign
minister visited China and discussed issues of “major significance.”12 This
probably included mutual security concerns such as the March 1959 Pakistan-
United States mutual security agreement and Pakistan’s proposed joint
defence agreement with India. Friction between Afghanistan and Pakistan
over “Pakhtunistan” was also building and eventually resulted in the closure
of the border between the two countries in 1961.
Sino-Afghan discussions of mutual security concerns culminated in the

signing of a non-aggression treaty in Kabul on 26 August 1960. A Renmin
ribao editorial characterized the treaty as the opening of a new silk road,
and in his farewell speech, Foreign Minister Chen Yi stated that the treaty
symbolized the “crystallization” of Sino‑Afghan friendship. He also alluded
to the growing Sino‑Indian conflict and thanked Afghanistan for sup-
porting China’s struggle in defence of its sovereignty and territorial integ-
rity, even as he praised Afghan neutrality and emphasized the need for a
peaceful international environment.13 Despite this improvement in relations,
Afghanistan went to great lengths to remain neutral during the Sino‑Indian
border war in 1962. The Kabul Times did not publish any reports of the
outbreak of hostilities until a week later, and even then all news was based
on Beijing and New Delhi dispatches, with no editorial comment except to
welcome the ceasefire in November 1962.
Clearly, the impetus for the Sino‑Afghan non-aggression treaty was the
confluence of growing security concerns. The treaty was China’s response
to the growing Soviet and American influence in Afghanistan, coupled with
concern about the rupture in Sino-Soviet relations. China also felt threatened
by US-Pakistani military ties, which a Renmin ribao editorial characterized
as “directed not only against the socialist countries but are, in the first place,
a threat to such nationally independent countries as … Afghanistan.”14
The conclusion of the non-aggression treaty paved the way for closer eco-
nomic relations and a boundary treaty. It is important to point out that unlike
China’s non-aggression treaty with Burma, the Sino-Afghan non-aggression
treaty preceded the boundary treaty. The boundary issue was discussed in
1959 along with the non-aggression treaty, but it was not a big impediment
to closer bilateral cooperation, as was the case with other countries.15 As a
Renmin ribao editorial put it, no “conflict of basic interests” existed and
“certain problems left over by history … can be solved entirely by means of
peaceful consultations.”16

Eighteen months after the conclusion of the non-aggression treaty, Beijing
and Kabul announced negotiations on a boundary treaty on the same day,
2 March 1963, that the Sino-Pakistan boundary protocol was signed in
Beijing. The announcement said that although the “boundary was a bound-
ary of peace and friendship,” to ensure continued peace and friendship the
two countries would “conduct negotiations for the purpose of formally de-
limiting the boundary existing between the two countries and signing a
boundary treaty.”17
Both Afghanistan and China recognized the existing boundary with only
a few differences. Beijing’s position had evolved from one that included the
Wakhan Valley as part of China to an acceptance of the boundary negotiated
between Britain and Russia in 1895. Early maps produced by the People’s
Republic of China were reproductions of pre‑1949 maps and included
most of the Pamir plateau within Xinjiang Province. At the end of 1953,
these maps were amended to show the Wakhan corridor as part of Afghan
istan.18 As early as 1957, Beijing recognized the least expansive border with
Afghanistan, stating that it was only about forty-five miles long; Afghan
sources at the time maintained that it was seventy-five miles long.19
There were no significant hurdles when negotiations began in Kabul on
17 June 1963. China had already accepted the boundary established in 1895
by the Russians and the British and did not push for the more expansive
boundary claimed on earlier maps.20 Some delay in reaching complete agree-
ment may have been due to a related issue, however. China wanted to refer
to Kashmir as part of Pakistan, a position that Afghanistan rejected.21
However, after Premier Zhou Enlai discussed the issue with King Mohammed
Zahir Shah, a boundary agreement was concluded on 1 August and the final
treaty was signed in Beijing on 22 November 1963.22 The watershed principle
was applied to delimit the boundary, which corresponded to the 1895 Russo-
British boundary.23 In an official diplomatic history of the People’s Republic
of China, Chinese authors take a philosophical and magnanimous view of
China’s “concessions” to Afghanistan: “The Chinese Government decided
to give due regard to Afghanistan by delimiting the boundary on the basis
of the state of actual jurisdiction by each side, while declaring that this would
in no way affect the Sino-Soviet boundary questions.”24
The Sino-Afghan boundary corresponded to the Pamir boundary claimed
by the Soviet Union (and after 1991 by Tajikistan).25 While Beijing did not
vigorously assert its claims in the Pamir region when negotiating with Kabul,
the China-Afghanistan boundary treaty did make it clear “that this would
in no way affect the Sino-Soviet Boundary question.” Nevertheless, the
Sino‑Afghan settlement was de facto recognition by Beijing of the border
claimed by the Soviet Union at the time and later by Tajikistan, and indicated
Beijing’s willingness to compromise to reach a settlement.
Conclusion
The China-Afghanistan boundary treaty illustrates the influence of both
the Soviet Union and India on China’s behaviour: it was negotiated after the
Sino-Indian border war the previous year and before open acknowledg-
ment of China’s border dispute with the Soviet Union. Beijing wanted a
boundary settlement for two reasons: to enhance its prestige among non-
aligned neighbours, and to bolster Afghan neutrality in Sino‑Soviet-Indian
relations. China capitalized on the propaganda value of the Afghanistan
settlement just as it had with previous settlements, asserting that agreements
were possible if the “countries involved were willing to discuss the matter
in a friendly and reasonable manner.”26 This was no doubt directed toward
India, but the fact that China also had the Soviet Union in mind was made
clear by the publication, within a week of the announcement of the Sino‑
Afghan negotiations, of a Renmin ribao article on China’s boundary dispute
with Russia, the first public acknowledgment of such a territorial dispute.27
As the Sino‑Soviet dispute grew increasingly bitter, one of China’s ob-
jectives was to reduce Soviet influence among China’s other neighbouring
states. In the mid‑1950s, the Soviet Union began asserting greater influence
in Kabul, which led to competition for Kabul’s favour. Of course, China could
not match the Soviet Union’s economic or military assistance. In 1955, when
relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan were poor and Sino-Pakistani
relations were entering a period of difficulty after the rise of General
Muhammad Ayub Khan, China responded by establishing diplomatic rela-
tions with Kabul and initiating economic and cultural exchanges. When
Afghan‑Pakistani relations reached a crisis, the Soviet Union conducted a
massive airlift to save the Afghan economy, which was severely affected by
the closure of the border with Pakistan.28 Obviously, China could not com-
pete for Kabul’s favour on such a massive scale, but it bolstered relations
with Kabul by concluding the Sino‑Afghan non-aggression treaty.
Because of the open break in Sino‑Soviet relations and the border war
with India, a boundary agreement was strategically significant. Both the
non-aggression treaty and the boundary agreement were attempts by China
to preserve Afghanistan’s non-alignment in the face of historical and in-
creasing Soviet and Indian influence. China feared that Afghanistan might
become a hostile neighbour with Soviet and Indian support. Thus, the bound-
ary treaty was its way of discouraging closer Soviet-Indian-Afghan relations
and securing one corner of its southwestern frontier.
China had to manage its rapprochement with Afghanistan adroitly. The

boundary settlement with Pakistan had worsened relations with India
and could have led to the same result with Afghanistan because of the
“Pakhtunistan” issue. The Soviet Union supported both Afghanistan and
India in their territorial disputes with Pakistan, whereas China remained
neutral. The Sino‑Pakistani boundary treaty was quickly followed by a settle-
ment of the China‑Afghanistan boundary, and China did not press for the
boundary it had claimed historically.
China achieved its limited objectives in Afghanistan. King Zahir Shah was
committed to maintaining Afghanistan’s traditional neutrality and non-
aligned foreign policy, and in 1963 he dismissed Prime Minister Daoud, who
was responsible for closer relations with the Soviet Union and India begin-
ning in the mid‑1950s. This resulted in more amicable relations with Pakistan
and further development in relations with China. Zahir Shah visited China
in 1964, and during this visit the final boundary protocol was signed and
economic and cultural agreements were reached. An air link agreement had
been negotiated earlier.29 Various speeches reiterated the significance of the
non-aggression treaty and boundary settlement. Liu Shaoqi made Beijing’s
objective in Afghanistan clear when he praised that country’s foreign policy:
The Kingdom of Afghanistan has consistently pursued a nonalignment policy

of peace and neutrality, stood for peaceful coexistence between countries
with different social systems, persisted in maintaining friendship with the
socialist countries and actively upheld the Bandung spirit … The Afghan
Government’s independent foreign policy not only is in the interests of the
Afghan people but also is conducive to the lofty cause of … world peace. 30
For China, the boundary treaty with Afghanistan signed shortly after the
Sino-Indian border war was at least a reminder to India that, with the excep-
tion of India and Bhutan, China had now settled all its boundary disputes
with its South Asian neighbours. India was sensitive to the implications of
this; in fact, after the March 1963 announcement that China and Afghanistan
would negotiate a boundary treaty, Nehru travelled to Kabul to convince
Afghan leaders of India’s desire for a negotiated settlement with China.31 More
significant for China was the fact that Kabul did not respond to the Soviet
call for a collective security arrangement in South Asia, clearly demonstrating
that Beijing had achieved one of its major strategic objectives in the region.
PART 3
The Sino-Soviet/Russian Dimension
7 Sino-Soviet/Russian Relations
and the Boundary Settlement
The Sino-Soviet/Russian boundary dispute is complicated because it is only

one aspect of the larger conflict that led to the Sino-Soviet split in 1960 that
soured relations for nearly three decades. Historically, China and Russia had
a tenuous relationship that was made more difficult by their long and poorly
demarcated boundary. While territorial issues were a major issue in the
Sino-Soviet dispute, the larger strategic context defined the relationship and
the boundary issue was exacerbated by the broader political and ideological
context within which it was embedded.1
Long before the Chinese Communists came to power, the seeds of the
boundary dispute were germinating. The expansion of Czarist Russia into
regions claimed by the Manchu rulers in Beijing eventually led to confron-
tation along the Far Eastern frontier. The Treaty of Nerchinsk, concluded in
August 1689, delimited a portion of the Far Eastern Sino-Russian boundary
in order to avoid further conflict. The 1727 Treaty of Khiakhta (Burinsk)
delimited the middle sector (roughly the current Mongolia-Russia boundary).
During the continued decline of the Qing (Manchu) Dynasty following
China’s defeat in the First Opium War of 1839-42, Russia continued to ad-
vance into the Far East. The Czar’s representatives reopened the Far Eastern
boundary issue while the Qing court was facing additional challenges from
other Western powers. The 1858 Treaty of Aigun redrew the boundary along
the Amur and Ussuri Rivers, but it left territory east of the rivers in “joint
possession” pending future negotiations. Two years later, while allegedly
mediating an end to the occupation of Beijing by Great Britain and France
during the Second Opium War, Russia prevailed on China to negotiate the
1860 Treaty of Beijing. This treaty granted the territory between the Amur
and Ussuri Rivers and the Sea of Japan to Russia. During this period of do-
mestic unrest in China, Russia also advanced into the Ili region of Xinjiang.
132 The Sino-Soviet/Russian Dimension
Map 9 Russia
In 1864, the Chuguchak Protocol delimited the Central Asia–Xinjiang

boundary.2 China eventually quelled the rebellions in the region and re-
asserted control over Xinjiang, but when it demanded that Russia evacuate
the Ili Valley, Russia refused unless an acceptable settlement was reached
regarding trade and other issues. The Treaty of St. Petersburg (Treaty of Ili)
was concluded in 1881. Russia received territorial “compensation” for re-
turning the Ili region, and received trade and other rights in Xinjiang.
Following the 1881 treaty, many boundary commissions worked to delimit
the Sino-Russian boundary in Central Asia. This was completed except for
one sector in the Pamir Mountains that was delineated in 1884 by the
Sino-Soviet/Russian Relations and the Boundary Settlement 133
Protocol on the Sino-Russian Boundary in the Kashgar Region but never

demarcated. Russian troops occupied the area in the early 1890s, and in
1894 the Qing court sought in vain to negotiate a boundary treaty. China
then sent Russia a note stating that it retained its claim to the region despite
not maintaining a garrison.3 The boundary in the Pamir region was further
complicated by the Anglo-Russian factor. Eventually Great Britain and Russia
negotiated a settlement that established Afghanistan’s boundaries, but China
was not a party to the agreement.
The Chinese also accuse the Russians of encroaching further into Chinese
territory during the final weeks of the Qing Dynasty. Just days before the fall
of the Qing court, China was forced to sign the Qiqihar Treaty of 1911, which
ceded to Moscow several hundred square miles near the eastern trijunction
of Russia, Mongolia, and China.
Following the Bolshevik Revolution, the new Soviet government issued
the Karakhan Manifestos of 1919 and 1920, renouncing “all the treaties
concluded by the former Government of Russia and China … [and] all the
annexations of Chinese territory.”4 During negotiations in 1924 to imple-
ment the declarations, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China agreed
that while a new boundary treaty was being negotiated, the earlier treaties
would be observed but considered “invalid.”5 A new boundary treaty was
not a high priority during subsequent negotiations; the boundary question
was overshadowed by the issues of Mongolia and the Chinese Eastern Rail
way, and a new treaty was never concluded. Initially, the new government
of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) considered the 1689 treaty an “equal
treaty.” However, although the PRC considered all subsequent treaties un-
equal, the Soviets changed their position to argue that the 1689 treaty was
unequal whereas subsequent treaties were equal.6
The Boundary Dispute

Before the breakup of the Soviet Union, the Sino-Soviet boundary extended
more than 4,000 miles from Afghanistan in Central Eurasia to the Sea of
Japan in Northeast Asia. Bisected by the Mongolian People’s Republic
(MPR), the boundary can be divided into the Eurasian sector and the
Northeast Asian sector. The boundary dispute involved two major areas.
Ownership of hundreds of islands in the Amur and Ussuri Rivers was con-
tested because of disagreement over the location of the riparian boundary.
Initially, Moscow claimed the Chinese bank of the rivers as the international
boundary, but Beijing maintained that, according to international practice,
the thalweg, or main channel, was the boundary. The Soviets eventually
accepted China’s position on the riverine boundary and settlement of
the Northeast Asian sector was concluded in 1991 with the exception of a
few islands. Ownership of Heixiazi and Yinlong (Bolshoi Ussuriysky and
Tarabarov) Islands (approximately 375 square kilometres), located at the
confluence of the Amur and Ussuri Rivers, and Abagaitu (Bolshoi) Island
in the Argun River was eventually resolved and a supplementary boundary
treaty was signed in November 2004 (see Map 9).
The second area of dispute was in Central Eurasia and the Pamir Moun
tains, an area never delimited before the breakup of the Soviet Union (see
Map 16 in Chapter 11). After 1991, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan,
as newly independent states depending on the technical assistance of
Moscow, conducted joint boundary negotiations with Beijing. Boundary
agreements were concluded with Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan without sig-
nificant difficulty. In the case of Tajikistan, however, progress toward a
settlement was slow due to a rather complex boundary and domestic political
issues.7 By 1997, negotiators had only reached an agreement “confirming
the undecided boundary” and a final settlement was not reached until 2002.8
Problems Left Over by History

The Soviet Union assumed that it was not responsible for the historical
controversies in pre-1917 Sino-Russian relations, and that a new page had
been turned in its relations with China, based on socialism and class solidar-
ity. China, however, remained haunted by its past colonial domination and
claimed that through the various unequal treaties, it had been forced to cede
more than 1.5 million square kilometres of territory to Russia. To support
its argument that the old treaties were unequal and invalid, Beijing cited
both the Karakhan Manifestos that renounced Czarist treaties with China
and Moscow’s agreement in 1924 to “re-demarcate” the boundary. The Soviets
argued that the boundaries had been historically established and that Beijing
misinterpreted the earlier Soviet declarations, and accused China of being
historically expansionist.
Even before 1949, the Chinese Communists’ irredentist views regarding
territory along the Sino-Soviet border were clear and concerned the Russians.
Moscow made inquiries and on 10 March 1949 Mao stated: “Concerning
the establishment of the border signs on the Amur River, we agree with your
opinion and ask that you send technicians … The signs will be on both banks,
and we promise to abide by the appropriate rules.” This was the first Chinese
Communist Party and Soviet communication on boundary delimitation.9

Later it became obvious that serious differences over the boundary existed,
but it was not until several years after the Sino-Soviet split that this became
public. On several occasions, China approached the Soviet Union quietly to
seek a resolution of the boundary question, but to no avail. Even after ten-
sions began to hamper their relationship, China continued to quietly seek a
negotiated settlement while at the same time adopting rather pragmatic and
conciliatory positions in its negotiation of new boundary treaties with other
neighbouring states. The boundary dispute was first mentioned publicly by
Zhou Enlai in 1961 in response to a question he was asked at a press confer-
ence in Kathmandu, where he had gone to exchange documents ratifying
the Sino-Nepali boundary treaty. Zhou dismissed the Sino-Soviet boundary
dispute as “a very small discrepancy on maps and … very easy to settle.”10 In
1962, following the outbreak of the Sino-Indian border war and Soviet
support of India, China did not raise the Sino-Soviet boundary issue as a
polemical cudgel against the Soviet Union. It was not until after the con
clusion of the boundary treaty with Afghanistan in 1963, the last of the
treaties negotiated in the early 1960s, that Beijing publicly mentioned the
“unequal” treaties that the Qing Dynasty had signed with Czarist Russia.11
Beijing repeatedly stated, however, that it was willing to accept the bound-
ary established by the unequal treaties, with some minor adjustments:
Considering the fact that the areas involved have long been inhabited by
Soviet working people and proceeding from a desire to maintain friendship
between the Chinese and Soviet peoples, the Chinese Government is ready
to let the entire alignment of the boundary line between the two countries
be determined on the basis of those unequal treaties.12
But Beijing insisted that Soviet Russia had occupied additional territory even
in violation of the unequal treaties.13 Speaking before the United Nations
General Assembly in 1973, Deng Xiaoping stated that China only sought
the return of some “few square kilometers here and there.”14 This included
20,000 square kilometres in the Pamir Mountains, 140 square kilometres
along the Russian bank of the Amur River in the Blagoveshchensk area
that encompassed sixty-four Chinese villages, and 375 square kilometres
near Manzhouli (Mongolia-PRC-Russia trijunction) ceded in 1911 by the
Treaty of Qiqihar two weeks before the fall of the Qing Dynasty. Numerous
disputed islands in the Amur and Ussuri Rivers (approximately 1,500 square
kilometres) were a very sensitive issue. The rivers were delimited as the
border at the end of the nineteenth century, but in 1930 Stalin unilaterally
asserted that the Chinese bank of the rivers was the international bound
ary.15 The sum total of “lost” territory China claimed was approximately
33,000 square kilometres.
Territorial Issues in Sino-Soviet Relations

Mao Zedong raised the territorial issues in early 1950 while he was in
Moscow negotiating the Sino-Soviet alliance. During the Mao/Stalin nego-
tiations, the status of Mongolia was also discussed and Mao expressed his
desire for the eventual “reunion” of the Mongolian People’s Republic with
China. It was clear long before this, however, that Mao dreamed of eventu-
ally regaining Chinese sovereignty over Outer Mongolia, since he had raised
the issue of Mongolia in the 1940s. Mao and Stalin discussed other boundary
issues as well, but Mao did not allow the territorial questions to get in the
way of a Sino-Soviet treaty.16 The MPR and the Soviet Union were apprehen-
sive about China’s territorial ambitions and Stalin insisted on a declaration
that acknowledged the MPR’s independence.
In early 1951, the underlying boundary questions did not preclude a
Border Rivers Navigation Agreement.17 Given Chinese dependence on Soviet
assistance, however, China acquiesced to Soviet control of the Amur and
Ussuri Rivers that required Soviet authorization before Chinese could use
the rivers and the hundreds of islands along the border. Although this
may have implied that the Chinese accepted the existing boundary, Zhou
Enlai raised the boundary issue in October 1954, while Nikita Khrushchev
was in Beijing concluding agreements on liquidating Soviet interest in joint
stock companies in China. According to Soviet reports, Khrushchev refused
to discuss the matter.18 China raised the Sino-Soviet boundary question a
third time in January 1957, when Zhou mentioned the issue to Khrushchev
in Moscow. According to Zhou’s account of the meeting:
At the interview with Premier Khrushchev … I requested that the USSR make
proper arrangements for the territorial issues covering … China. I could not
get a satisfactory answer from him then, but the announcement of the issue
was kept secret because the Sino-Soviet dispute was not public at that time.19
In Moscow in 1960, Liu Shaoqi again attempted to discuss boundary ques-

tions, but he was rebuffed.20
As ideological and political tensions escalated, the boundary issue moved

closer to the surface. When questioned about it, Zhou continued to mini-
mize the dispute, stating that “there is a very small discrepancy on maps
and it is easy to settle,” but these historically sensitive territorial issues
fuelled Sino-Soviet tensions.21 Although not publicized until after relations
had deteriorated further, border incidents began to occur as early as 1959.22
In early 1962, many people from Xinjiang began to cross the border into
the Soviet Union, which increased tensions along the boundary. Beijing and
Moscow also traded accusations regarding repatriation when many refused
to return to China.23
The public tit-for-tat polemics on territorial issues began when, in a speech
to the Supreme Soviet in December 1962, Khrushchev obliquely chided
China for tolerating colonialism by accepting the status quo in Hong Kong
and Macao. He praised India as an example of anti-imperialism in action;
the previous year, India had dislodged the Portuguese from their colonial
enclave in Goa.24 Hong Kong and Macao were very sensitive issues for China,
and a Renmin ribao editorial on 8 March 1963 responded to Khrushchev’s
remarks by enumerating the unequal treaties that the Soviets had refused
to disavow, and asking: “In raising questions of this kind, do you intend to
raise all the questions of unequal treaties and have a general settlement?”25
The Soviets no longer viewed the Czarist Russia-Manchu boundary treaties
as unequal and, surprised by the Chinese reaction to Khrushchev’s statement,
retorted that no boundary dispute existed with China and tried to deflect
the issue with a warning:
The artificial creation, in our time, of any territorial problems, especially

between socialist countries, would amount to entering on a very dangerous
path. If, today, countries began making territorial claims on one another,
using as arguments certain ancient data and the graves of their forefathers,
[and] if they start fighting to revise the historically developed frontiers, this
will lead to no good … The Soviet Union has no frontier conflict with any of
her neighboring states.26
Khrushchev believed that the “theory of historical borders is nonsense,” a

“dead issue,” and he correctly surmised that, if raised, the border issue would
result in a “hopeless tangle of historical confusion and political quarrels.”27
By early 1963, as tensions grew, the Chinese and Soviets escalated the public
accusations that eventually provoked border incidents.
The Soviets were no doubt concerned that the boundary question was
becoming such a salient issue in relations with China. In May 1963, they
proposed boundary “consultations.” At the talks, which began in February
1964, according to some accounts, Liu Shaoqi and Khrushchev were mak-
ing progress toward an agreement, but Mao made this impossible for the
Soviets when he accused Moscow of defending Czarist “expansionism.”28 In
a 10 July 1964 interview with members of the Japan Socialist Party, Mao
enumerated examples of such expansionism at the expense of China and
stated ominously: “This list is too long and we have not presented our bill
for this yet.”29 This statement alarmed and angered the Soviets, who took
it as a sincere revanchist claim on 1.5 million square kilometres of Soviet
territory.30 Pravda accused China of having gone too far in the “cold war”
against the Soviet Union. In talks with members of Japan’s Diet, Khrushchev
accused China of being historically expansionist, especially in Mongolia,
Xinjiang, and Tibet.31 Beijing retorted that during the Czarist period, China
had ceded more territory to Russia than to any other imperialist country.
Beijing insisted that it sought only Russian recognition of this historical
fact in principle, and not any major readjustment of the current boundary.
Moscow rejected this assertion and responded inflexibly. Beijing reacted
by characterizing the Soviet leadership as the “new czars.” The Soviets began
to view the Chinese as reincarnated “Tartars” of the “Middle Kingdom”
determined to re-establish their historical empire. Later, Mao claimed that
he was “firing empty cannons” and had no intention of reclaiming territory
taken by unequal treaties, and Foreign Minister Chen Yi tried to minimize
Mao’s “cannon shot” by blaming the flare-up on the “very confused” foreign
press and characterizing the issue as really “only a struggle by pen.” Never
theless, this outburst derailed negotiations until after the 1969 Zhenbao
Island confrontation.32
A lull followed this spike in boundary tensions until the late 1960s, when
the issue flared up again during the Cultural Revolution. The dramatic in-
crease in tension along the border was preceded by the conclusion of a
Soviet-Mongolian security treaty in January 1966 and the stationing of
several Soviet divisions in the Mongolian People’s Republic. China began to
enforce strict rules of navigation along the Amur and Ussuri Rivers, and
the Soviet Union responded by enforcing what it maintained was the inter-
national boundary – the Chinese bank of the rivers.
In March 1969, a military confrontation at Zhenbao (Damansky) Island
in the Ussuri River proved that the boundary dispute could very well ignite
a larger conflagration. 33 In the wake of the March clashes, tensions also

arose along the border in Xinjiang, and in August 1969 several incidents
culminated in military confrontation in the region. Moscow was alarmed
and even contemplated a pre-emptive strike against China’s nuclear facili-
ties.34 China became deeply concerned over the deterioration in its relations
with the Soviet Union, tensions along the border, and the real possibility of
escalation, and sought renewed boundary negotiations.
Early Initiative to Settle the Boundary

In late 1960, before the boundary dispute dissolved into polemics following
the Sino-Soviet split, China attempted to initiate a discussion of outstanding
boundary issues with Moscow. This initiative on the part of Beijing conforms
to the Chinese pattern of behaviour toward its South and Southeast Asian
neighbours at the time – an effort motivated by Beijing’s larger strategic
concern over growing tensions with the Soviet Union, India, and the United
States at a time when China was also facing a very difficult domestic eco-
nomic situation in the wake of the Great Leap Forward calamity.
China approached the Soviets quietly through diplomatic channels, re-
questing negotiations to settle “pending issues regarding … boundary de-
lineation.”35 The Soviets argued that the boundary was delimited and “firmly
fixed” by treaty and historical fact. They insisted on the legitimacy of the
nineteenth-century treaties and contended that reconsidering the boundary
line was impossible. Moscow asserted that during the Qing Dynasty, “China’s
state frontier on the north, for example, was marked … by the Great Wall of
China.”36 Zhou Enlai responded by wondering aloud: “Must China give away
all the territory north of the Great Wall to the Soviet revisionists in order to
show that we favor relaxation of world tension and are willing to improve
Sino-Soviet relations?”37
Moscow rejected China’s contention that there was a boundary dispute,
and obviously wanted to downplay what they considered to be only minor
questions regarding territorial issues. Nevertheless, after initially resisting
China’s attempts to negotiate the boundary, Moscow took measures to defuse
the dispute once it became public. Following the 1962-63 public exchanges,
the Soviets proposed “consultations” on the boundary question on 17 May
1963. Negotiations began in Beijing on 25 February 1964, but broke down
in August after the Mao/Khrushchev exchange via the Japanese. From the
beginning, the negotiating atmosphere was highly charged due to the earlier
bitter exchanges between Russia and China.38
At the outset of negotiations in 1964, Beijing proposed to maintain the

status quo and to take measures to avoid conflict pending an overall settle-
ment. It insisted, however, that issues of “principle” be discussed first. China
expected Russia to recognize the unequal nature of the nineteenth-century
boundary treaties, and was willing to negotiate a new boundary agreement
using these earlier treaties as the basis for establishing the boundary:
The rights and wrongs of history should be assessed by affirming that the
treaties relating to the Sino-Soviet boundary signed by the Government of
China’s Qing Dynasty and Tsarist Russia were unequal treaties … Never
theless, … China is willing to take these treaties as the basis for an overall
settlement of the Sino-Soviet boundary question and would not ask for the
return of the more than 1.5 million square kilometers of Chinese territory
seized by Tsarist Russia by means of the unequal treaties. The territory of
one side occupied by the other in violation of these treaties should, in prin-
ciple, be returned unconditionally to the other side.39
From the outset, Moscow was unwilling to negotiate a new boundary treaty,
arguing that adequate treaties already existed and that only minor technical
adjustments were necessary:
The Soviet Government has taken the initiative in proposing consultations

to clarify the frontier line between the USSR and the People’s Republic of
China at certain points. In so doing, we are proceeding on the assumption
that there are no territorial differences between the USSR and the People’s
Republic of China; that the Soviet-Chinese frontier was formed historically;
and that it can only be a matter of clarifying the frontier at certain points
where this is necessary.40
Following this early initiative, no further discussions took place until after
the March 1969 Zhenbao/Damansky Island incident. Obviously, the pos-
itions on issues of principle and conflicting objectives made any resolution
very difficult. Still, China made it clear that it wanted to avoid conflict along
the border and that there was no reason to go to war over the boundary
dispute.41 In fact, the armed clash on Zhenbao Island, left Moscow “nothing
less than stunned over the fact that the Chinese had departed from the long-
established practice of resolving border violations short of firefights.”42
In the wake of this incident, the situation along the boundary remained
tense and minor armed conflicts continued throughout the summer. In one
such incident, Moscow used regular military forces and easily defeated
Chinese border guards. Moscow’s willingness to risk escalation signalled
its resolve to Beijing. China continued to call for recognition of the unequal
nature of the old treaties, Soviet acceptance of the thalweg principle for
delimiting river boundaries, and an end to provocations and armed threats.43
Moscow rejected these “preconditions” and accused Beijing of attempting
to “substantiate its claim to 1.5 million square kilometers of land that prop-
erly belongs to the Soviet Union” by using a “far-fetched pretext of righting
the ‘injustices’ of past centuries.”44
Alarmed by the growing number of military confrontations, Moscow took
steps to renew negotiations. Zhou unexpectedly agreed to an airport summit
with Premier Alexei Kosygin on 11 September 1969, a meeting, however,
that later became a point of dispute.45 Returning from the funeral of North
Vietnamese president Ho Chi Minh, Kosygin made an unplanned stop in
Beijing and met with Zhou at the airport. China later asserted that Kosygin
had not been welcome but had the “gall to insist on coming.” Beijing main-
tained that the two had reached “verbal agreement” on procedural issues.
According to China, they agreed: (1) that the issue was a “historical” one;
(2) to maintain the status quo pending an overall agreement; (3) to withdraw
troops from the contested areas; and (4) to convene negotiations. China
claimed, however, that the Soviets later “went back on their word.”46
The Soviets gave a very different account of the agreement. They asserted
that the discussions were about more general bilateral concerns and that
there was no agreement on the boundary question. Russian scholars now
admit that Kosygin’s last-minute detour to Beijing was a mistake and created
misconceptions that eventually were one cause of a breakdown in the nego-
tiations.47 The sudden nature of Kosygin’s visit meant that he had received
no advance briefing and was not accompanied by technical experts. He was
not skilful in such situations and misunderstood Chinese intentions. He
mistakenly used the term “disputed territory,” and suggested that Russia was
willing to discuss the matter. China interpreted this misstatement as an
indication that Moscow was prepared to enter regular boundary negotiations.
There was also disagreement over various nuances in terminology. China
insisted on recognition of “boundary problems” (bianjie wenti), but the Soviet

Union insisted on recognizing only “questions on the border” (bianjieshang
de wenti). The Soviets were willing to consider “re-demarcation” (implying
simply reconfirming the existing boundary), but translated the term into
Chinese as chongxin huading (delimit anew), whereas the Chinese translated
it as chongxin dingli (define anew), giving the nuance of “re-establishing” a
boundary (according to the historical boundary agreed to by treaty, despite
the unequal nature of these treaties). As a result, the Soviets became increas-
ingly skeptical of China’s motives.48 This ill-fated renewal of boundary nego-
tiations overshadowed talks for the next decade.
Nevertheless, talks were held on 20 October 1969 and continued until
June 1978. Conducted at the deputy foreign minister level, each round lasted
for several months. They achieved no breakthroughs, however, and a short
round held in 1979 also ended in deadlock. China tabled a five-point pro-
posal at the outset of the negotiations.49 The proposal called for the dis
cussion of issues of principle first: the old treaties must be recognized as
“unequal” and “imposed” on China, but used as the basis for delimiting the
present boundary, not the return of territory “annexed” by Czarist Russia.
However, territory occupied in violation of these treaties must be returned
and any “necessary adjustments” should be made through consultation,
followed by the conclusion of a new “equal” treaty and the demarcation
of the boundary. The final point called for a disengagement of troops from
the border area and maintenance of the status quo pending negotiation
of a new treaty.
Beijing argued that if Moscow would first consider issues of principle
such as the recognition of unequal treaties, and even the violation of these
treaties in some cases, China was willing to make necessary adjustments
along the boundary to make the boundary more manageable and to cor-
respond to natural features. The issues of principle were, in China’s view,
only preconditions for discussing specific questions. Beijing was concerned
about many issues, such as the militarization of the border, but considering
the consistent pattern in China’s negotiating behaviour in other cases, it is
clear that it viewed moving beyond this problem “left over by history” and
negotiating a legitimate boundary as a major element in improving Sino-
Soviet relations. Beijing made this clear by stating: “It is really quite simple.
If the Soviet revisionists genuinely desire an improvement of Sino-Soviet
relations and a solution to the border question, then why not just … negoti-
ate a status quo agreement?”50
The Soviets were truly apprehensive of Chinese irredentism, and the

Chinese delegation exacerbated this fear by refusing to disavow Mao’s July
1964 statement on Czarist expansionism, arguing that since it was not part
of any official government statement, it should not be an issue in the nego-
tiations. Moscow feared, however, that this would allow China to press
for territorial concessions.51 Negotiations were deadlocked from the outset
because Beijing insisted on first addressing issues of principle whereas
the Soviets maintained that an agreement to normalize relations first was
necessary, before specific technical questions could be addressed. The im-
passe was primarily due to very different interpretations of the Zhou/
Kosygin meeting: China believed that Moscow was reneging on commit-
ments made by Kosygin to Zhou.52
Despite this deadlock, negotiations continued because Beijing wanted to
continue the dialogue in hopes of lessening tensions along the boundary:
The Chinese government has never covered up the fact that there exists
irreconcilable differences of principle between China and the Soviet Union
and that the struggle of principle between them will continue for a long
period of time. But this should not prevent China and the Soviet Union
from maintaining normal state relations on the basis of the Five Principles
of Peaceful Coexistence.53
Although they reached no settlement, China and the Soviet Union achieved
some meeting of the minds on at least one substantive issue. The Soviets
initially rejected the thalweg principle, contending that “there exists no
norms that automatically establishes the border on border rivers as passing
through the middle of the river’s main stream.”54 In 1970-71, the Soviets
suggested their willingness to accept the thalweg principle, in effect acknow-
ledging China’s ownership of hundreds of islands in the Amur and Ussuri
Rivers, but serious discussion of this substantive compromise was blocked
by China’s insistence on Soviet recognition of unequal treaties and Soviet
objections to including the islands at the confluence of the Amur and Ussuri
Rivers.55 A short round of negotiations held in 1979 ended when the Soviet
Union invaded Afghanistan.
Boundary Settlement
Despite continued resistance within the Soviet Foreign Ministry, where
some high-ranking officials insisted that “our two countries are geopolitical
enemies and this factor will never go away,” relations did begin to improve.56
The Soviets paved the way with speeches by Leonid Brezhnev, one in Tashkent
in March 1982 followed by one in Baku in September in which he appealed
for improved relations.57 Boundary negotiations resumed in October 1982,
and a major stumbling block was removed in 1983 when China stopped
insisting that the Soviet Union acknowledge the unequal character of the
nineteenth-century treaties.58 A compromise agreement began to take shape
and several areas where compromise was most likely were identified.59 Beijing
stood firm on the boundary in the Pamir Mountains, but compromise was
possible, as indicated by the fact that the Sino-Afghan boundary was de-
limited to correspond with the boundary claimed by the Soviet Union. Its
seemingly inflexible stand on the Pamir boundary could very well have been
a bargaining chip that Beijing was willing to give up for a possible Soviet
concession in the very complicated task of delimitating the riparian bound-
ary at the confluence of the Amur and Ussuri Rivers near Khabarovsk.
By 1982, leaders in Beijing had decided to seek better relations with
Moscow, both as part of China’s new independent foreign policy and because
of deteriorating relations with the United States over the Taiwan issue fol-
lowing the election of Ronald Reagan. Beijing concluded that its strategic
interests were better served by striking a balance in its relations with the
two superpowers. In line with this, Deng Xiaoping turned the focus from
ideological differences to substantive issues in Sino-Soviet relations. On
the eve of the Twelfth Party Congress in September, the Chinese Communist
Party decided to “distance China from the US and relax relations with the
Soviet Union” (dui Meiguo lakai juli, dui Sulian songdong guanxi).60 In Nov
ember, Foreign Minister Huang Hua attended Brezhnev’s funeral in Moscow
and met his counterpart, Andrei Gromyko, the first such high-level meeting
in twenty years.
Soviet thinking also was undergoing transformation. Premier Li Peng
attended General Secretary Konstantin Chernenko’s funeral in March 1985,
and Igor Rogachev, a pro-China high-level Russian sinologist who became
deputy foreign minister over Asian affairs in early 1987, acted as translator
for Li and Mikhail Gorbachev. Although others continued to oppose con
cessions to China in boundary negotiations, Gorbachev wanted Sino-Soviet
relations freed from the albatross of the twenty-five-year-long boundary
dispute and took the initiative in these discussions on the sidelines of
Chernenko’s funeral. This was an important turning point on the road toward
an eventual boundary agreement. Resistance came primarily from Foreign

Minister Gromyko; Deputy Foreign Minister Mikhail Kapitsa, who oversaw
Asian affairs; and Central Committee China policy czar Oleg B. Rakhmanin,
who argued that any concession to China would weaken Soviet control of
the border and require a change in the Russian interpretation of nineteenth-
century treaties. Nevertheless, Gorbachev accepted the thalweg principle
as customary international law when redrawing the eastern riverine bound-
ary. His rationale was that the Soviet Union was simply accepting inter-
national legal principles in agreeing to delimit the boundary along the
thalweg, thereby deflecting the criticism that he was “capitulating” to Chinese
demands. This “new thinking” was possible because the emerging Russian
leadership moderated their “attitudes toward the Chinese version of the his-
tory of Sino-Russian relations and even to the historical ownership of some
disputed regions,” focusing more on the possibility of “non-confrontational
… consensus on sensitive questions” like the boundary.61
Gorbachev’s re-examination of Soviet ideology and his personal leadership
were crucial in paving the way for rapprochement.62 A significant break-
through occurred in Vladivostok in July 1986, when, publicly for the first
time, Gorbachev stated that Moscow was willing to delimit the eastern
boundary using the main channel of the Amur and Ussuri Rivers. At a press
conference on 8 August, the Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson spoke
of Beijing’s recognition that Gorbachev had offered new ideas on improving
Sino-Soviet relations and settling the boundary question, and on 13 August
1986, Foreign Minister Wu Xueqian met with Soviet embassy officials in
Beijing and signalled China’s desire to reopen boundary negotiations.63
Gorbachev pushed aside the hard-line Sinophobes and agreed to restart
the negotiations.64 After a nine-year hiatus, negotiations resumed in February
1987. Both sides agreed to use the old treaties as the basis for determining
the entire border and, according to internationally accepted principles of
international law, re-delimit the boundary beginning with the eastern sector.
During a session that ran from 20 to 31 October 1988, they reached general
agreement on the alignment of the boundary in the eastern sector; sub
sequently, a group was organized to work on demarcation issues. From
20 February to 9 March 1989, negotiations on the western sector made
significant progress. According to the joint communiqué issued during
Gorbachev’s May 1989 trip to Beijing, the two countries agreed to settle the
dispute “on the basis of the treaties concerning the present Sino-Soviet
boundary,” which implied Chinese acceptance of the boundary established

by the historical treaties, but with the obvious adjustments based on contem-
porary international practices. Negotiations proceeded rapidly, and in June
1990 both sides decided to sign a treaty covering areas where agreement had
been reached and to begin the work of surveying and demarcating the bound-
ary. Work on a draft treaty covering the eastern sector was completed in
March 1991, and the treaty was signed when Jiang Zemin travelled to Moscow
in May.65 During Jiang’s September 1994 trip to Moscow, a treaty delimiting
the short fifty-three-kilometre boundary to the west of Mongolia was con-
cluded. The following month, China, Mongolia, and Russia jointly drafted a
protocol and map of the eastern and western boundary junctures.66
After achieving an agreement on principles, the boundary negotiations
became more of a technical question of demarcation for the Chinese, and
the political atmosphere did not dictate progress. During this final stage,
Chinese negotiators were straightforward and flexible.67 Nevertheless, a
pivotal issue arose to complicate a final agreement. The dispute centred on
Heixiazi and Yinlong (Bolshoi Ussuriyskyy and Tarabarov) Islands, located
in the confluence of the Amur and Ussuri Rivers. An island in the Argun
River, Abagaitu (Bolshoi) Island, was also disputed. Although the thalweg
principle was the basis for demarcating the riparian boundary, Beijing and
Moscow disagreed over which channel around the islands was the main
channel of the Amur River. This outstanding issue was further complicated
by questions of historical occupation. Beijing contended that according to
the 1858 Treaty of Aigun and the subsequent 1860 Treaty of Beijing, Moscow
had recognized that the islands at the Ussuri-Amur confluence were Chi
nese territory, and that in 1927 Soviet officials also acknowledged this bound-
ary. As Japan expanded into Manchuria in the early 1930s, however, the
Soviets took control of the islands for security reasons.68 Foreign Minister
Eduard Shevardnadze favoured recognition of China’s historical claims
in order to settle the boundary. The minister of defense and Prime Minister
Nikolay Ryzhkov strongly opposed this concession, arguing that it was stra-
tegically unwise because of the islands’ proximity to Khabarovsk and because
it would set a dangerous precedent in the dispute with Japan over the Kuril
Islands. In Beijing in May 1989, Gorbachev explained to Deng Xiaoping that
domestic political constraints made it impossible for him to accept China’s
claim to these islands. Deng appreciated the situation and suggested post-
poning a final settlement of this particular issue so that all other issues
could be settled.69
Map 10 Heixiazi and Yinlong Islands
China had stood firm on the river boundary for thirty years. This stance
proved to be successful and in 1991, before the breakup of the Soviet Union,
Moscow and Beijing reached an agreement that settled the Amur and Ussuri
River boundary, an agreement made possible by Deng’s willingness to shelve
the issue of the few remaining islands during the final stages of negotiations
(see Map 10). Besides islands in the Amur and Ussuri Rivers that were trans-
ferred to Chinese sovereignty, Beijing also pushed for the transfer of fifteen
square kilometres of territory near the mouth of the Tumen River, at the
China-Korea-Russia trijunction, to provide China with access to the Sea of
Japan (see Map 11). China claimed that this territory had been taken by
Russia through the unequal 1860 Treaty of Beijing.70 Despite the fact that
Chinese territory no longer extended to the Sea of Japan, China’s right to
navigate the Tumen River to the Sea of Japan was recognized by Russia in
an 1886 treaty settling this section of the eastern boundary. However, this
right was rescinded in 1938 after the occupation of northern China by Japan,
and was never restored by the Soviet Union after the Second World War.
China was only asserting a historically recognized right, but was willing to
compromise to reach the boundary agreement.71
According to some Chinese sources, Jiang Zemin actually offered to rec-

ognize Russian sovereignty over Heixiazi Island in exchange for a Russian
concession of this territory along the Tumen River, but Russia rejected the
proposal.72 Beijing’s failure to recover this territorially small but strategically
important tract of “lost territory” at the mouth of the Tumen River infuriated
Chinese nationalists, who accused the government of capitulating and trad-
ing acceptance of the humiliating and unequal nineteenth-century treaties
for minor economic and strategic benefits. The newly established Supreme
Soviet of the Russian Federation ratified the treaty on 3 February 1992, and
the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress ratified it on
25 February.73 The protocol on the trijunction of the boundary between Russia,
China, and North Korea was signed in 2002.74
Opposition to the treaty was strong among conservative nationalists.
Fuelling suspicions about Russian concessions to China was the fact that
local officials in the Russian Far East and China experts had not been con-
sulted about the proposed territorial concessions and the details of the treaty
had not been publicized. Evgenii Nazdratenko, the governor of Primoria,
publicly stated that he would refuse to comply with the border agreement
and would block the transfer of any territory to Chinese control.75 At a news
conference in May 1994, the governor of Khabarovsk, Viktor Ishaev, called
the boundary treaty “unfair and an infringement of Russian interests”; as
late as October 1999, he was asserting that the few remaining islands that
were yet to be settled “always will be Russian land.” He complained that ac-
cording to the boundary treaty, the territory transferred to China could
amount to as much as ten thousand square kilometres of fertile pastureland.76
Vladimir Podoprigora, chair of the Federation Council International Affairs
Committee, argued that regional interests should not have been neglected
by Moscow when determining Russia’s China policy, and underlined the fact
that border-area residents opposed transferring land to China as Moscow
had agreed. Russian nationalists called for a review of the treaty even though
it had already been ratified.77
Actual demarcation of the boundary presented significant challenges.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991, Sino-Russian
relations entered a brief period of uncertainty. China worried that Moscow
would adopt an anti-China policy based on its new democratic paradigm.
China was also ranked below the West and Japan in importance in Russia’s
foreign policy. Moreover, after the exacerbation of Sino-Russian relations
due to a sudden and alarming influx of Chinese traders in the Russian Far
East, local governments resisted any territorial concessions during the

process of demarcation. However, an uptick in tension between Russia and
the West set the stage for a quick return to cooperative Sino-Russian rela-
tions. Encouraged by pro-China foreign policy advisers such as Sergei N.
Goncharov, President Boris Yeltsin began to adjust Russia’s pro-Western
foreign policy. To “overcome the legacy of … confrontation and to dismantle
the confrontational structures” required a quick conclusion of the boundary
demarcation process to prevent historical suspicions and animosity from
bubbling up and turning back the clock on the improved relations with China
initiated by Gorbachev before the collapse of the Soviet Union.78
In the Russian Far East, local opposition continued as Moscow’s territorial
concessions became known to local political leaders, who complained that
improved relations with China were being pursued at the expense of local
interests. This complicated the demarcation process. Major General Valery
Rozov, leader of the Russian demarcation commission, resigned in protest
over what he alleged was the transfer of “several strategically important
Russian lands to a rival power,” arguing that documents could “indisputably
prove Russia’s right to the lands around the Tumen River, which China is
eager to get.” 79 Beijing demanded that demarcation proceed according to
the 1991 agreements, and Yeltsin urged local authorities to stop dragging
their feet. In Beijing in March 1995, Russian Foreign Minister Kozyrev made
it clear that Moscow “held the decision-making power” and would fully imple-
ment the boundary accord.80 Nonetheless, to appease local leaders during a
stopover in Khabarovsk on his way to the April 1996 Beijing summit, Yeltsin
said that “there are instances in which we agree to no compromise … With
regard to this our position remains firm: the border should be where it lies
now.” He denied that demarcation was an insurmountable problem, and
issued a decree to accelerate the process.81 Possibly in an attempt to mollify
local opposition in Russia and pave the way for an eventual compromise, the
two sides agreed to initiate parallel negotiations for “joint economic exploita-
tion of the individual border areas incorporated into the other side after the
boundary survey.”82 Moreover, perhaps to appease the Chinese over the delays
in demarcation, Yeltsin proposed, on the eve of summit, the establishment
of a Sino-Russian “strategic partnership.”83 Nevertheless, during demarcation
China was compelled to make some minor concessions because it dreaded
an acrimonious boundary dispute if the 1991 settlement was not finalized.
Russia’s regional politics would create new hurdles if renegotiation became
necessary.84
Despite the complications of domestic politics in Russia, demarcation of

the eastern sector was completed in November 1997 and demarcation of
the short western sector in November 1998. The entire 4,300-kilometre
Sino-Russian boundary was finally demarcated (except for the confluence
of the Amur and Ussuri Rivers), and the protocols were exchanged in April
1999.85 Following final demarcation, of the 2,444 disputed islands, 1,281 were
determined to be Chinese and 1,163 Russian, but a five-year joint-use agree-
ment was appended that allowed Russians to continue using some islands
transferred to China; approximately 14 square kilometres of territory in
Primorskii Krai was transferred to China, but Beijing agreed to Russian
retention of approximately 1.5 square kilometres of land in the Khasanski
district along the Tumen River that was a Russian military cemetery dating
from Russo-Japanese conflict in 1938 (but had been Chinese territory ceded
to Russia by the 1860 Treaty of Beijing); 2,084 boundary markers were erected,
and the detailed maps and comprehensive documentation weighed over one
hundred pounds.86 An additional agreement dealt with cooperation to resolve
the dispute over the few remaining islands.
After the signing of a treaty of friendship and cooperation in 2001, work
on the unsettled islands gained momentum. The ownership of these islands
– Heixiazi and Yinlong (Bolshoi Ussuriysky and Tarabarov) Islands in the
Amur River and Abagaitu (Bolshoi) Island in the Argun River – was finally
resolved and a supplementary treaty was signed in November 2004 (see Map
10). This agreement on the Eastern Section of the China-Russia Boundary
divided the islands, with China establishing sovereignty over all of Yinlong
Island and about half (174 square kilometres) of Heixiazi Island, and gaining
control of 337 square kilometres of the disputed territory.87 A joint statement
by Presidents Hu Jintao and Vladimir Putin called the agreement a “balanced
and rational plan for the political win-win” that would promote the “develop-
ment of China-Russia strategic partnership of cooperation.” No doubt in a
hint to India, the Chinese embassy in New Delhi issued a statement saying
that “the experience of the two sides demonstrate [sic] that the correct and
effective way in settling complicated and sensitive issues like border issues
lies in peaceful dialogue, fairness, equal consultations, mutual understanding
and concessions and balance in each other’s interests.”88 After ratification
by the Russian and Chinese parliaments, the final treaty was exchanged on
2 June 2005, during the Russia-China-India trilateral summit in Vladivostok
– a less than subtle jab at the Indians.
Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov stated that the settlement removed
“serious irritants in bilateral relations” and was possible because bilateral
relations were on “a level of strategic partnership.”89 The final concession by
Russia – ceding sovereignty over islands that border the strategic city of
Khabarovsk – eliminated the long drawn out territorial irritant in Sino-
Russian relations. According to one Chinese scholar, the Chinese also ap-
preciated the domestic political difficulty of the Russian concession and
realized that “resolving minor issues [when implementing the treaty] will test
the level of mutual trust, openness, and understanding of mutual benefit.”90
However, Chinese nationalists chastised the government for trading terri-
tory for “good neighborly relations,” calling the settlement a “meaningless
and symbolic” treaty to buy Russian friendship at the expense of Chinese
territory.91 China assumed formal control of the disputed islands in October
2008, when the newly established boundary markers were unveiled.92
The present boundary may be more favourable to China than the agree-
ment nearly concluded in 1964, before Mao’s outburst, but is not significantly
different. The Russians were apprehensive that Deng willingly shelved the
issue of the three outstanding islands because he believed that time was on
China’s side and that Beijing would raise the issue in the future, when China
was even stronger and could extract additional territorial concessions from
Russia.93 And despite President Yeltsin’s April 1996 assurance to residents of
Khabarovsk that the islands would never be surrendered to China, in reality
the final settlement required Russia to surrender to Chinese control a large
portion of the disputed islands.94
Despite the boundary agreements, Russian nationalists still harbour a deep
paranoia that in Chinese minds the present boundary agreement is only a
provisional settlement, and that once China is a strong world power, it will
reassert its “historical claims.” According to one veteran Russian sinologist:
Chinese border policy has to this day remained an essential means whereby
China puts pressure to bear on neighboring states, Russia included. Existing
in mass conscience and sustained by pertinent publications are the ideas of
“Russia’s historical territorial debt to China.” Mao Zedong skillfully played
that card in the 1960’s and the 1970’s. And there are no guarantees that a
similar problem will never recur and this presents the most sensitive historical
problem which may affect the relations between Russia and China for many
years to come.95
China has unwittingly fuelled such fears because of its own internalized
historical image of Chinese geography, which requires a ritualistic re-
presentation of the “history of China’s lost territory” at the hands of imper-
ialism. Deng’s comments to Gorbachev at the historic May 1989 summit
leading to the final boundary settlement exemplify this:
In the past, the great powers have divided and humiliated China … The
Czarist Empire and the Soviet Union – during a certain time – had taken
great advantage [of China’s weakness]. Through inequitable treaties, includ-
ing the understanding at Yalta and the treaties with the Kuomintang, the
Russians took from China … about three million square km [including
Mongolia].
In The Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, published in 1993, which recounts

this conversation, a footnote is added that glosses the various “unequal treat-
ies” by which “Czarist Russia occupied over 1.5 million square kilometers
of Chinese territory.”96 From Russia’s perspective, a boundary treaty put an
end to these vast territorial claims.97
Conclusion
The fundamental change that made the eventual settlement of the Sino-
Russian border possible was the shifting strategic context of the bilateral
relationship that both Gorbachev and Deng understood so well. Despite
the friction caused by the controversies over the final demarcation, as Moscow
and Beijing’s relations with Washington became strained, a “strategic re-
assessment” required better relations between China and Russia, and this
became a key component of both countries’ foreign policy.98 A “strategic
partnership” was in the interests of both countries.99
Beijing’s shift to an independent foreign policy in 1982 was an important
factor in generating momentum toward a boundary settlement. With the
collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, it faced a new
international system dominated by the lone superpower, the United States.
This sudden and fundamental shift in the global balance of power made
it imperative for China to develop closer relations with Russia and the newly
independent Eurasian states in order to, in the words of one Chinese scholar,
“change the disadvantageous geostrategic situation.”100 Beijing’s view of the
importance of a boundary treaty in facilitating closer relations with Russia
was clear when the communiqué issued after the signing of the boundary
treaty criticized “hegemonism of whatever form in international politics”

and a Renmin ribao editorial stated that Moscow and Beijing had “opened
up a new prospect for strengthening Sino-Soviet friendship.”101
The pattern followed by China in its dispute with Russia is strikingly
similar to the pattern it followed with other states, except that China took
the initiative and raised the issue early with the Soviets, whereas it resisted
discussing the issue with other states until its strategic environment changed
in 1960. In the Russian case, it was China that was seeking redress; in the
other cases, China’s neighbours were asking for concessions. As in other
cases, China made it clear that it expected acknowledgment of the unequal
nature of the nineteenth-century treaties and would not accept them as
legitimate, although China agreed that these treaties corresponded to a
“historical and customary” boundary and formed a basis for the negotiation
of new treaties.102 The Soviet Union rejected this position, as India continues
to do today.
Following the Sino-Soviet split, and particularly after the 1969 border
incidents, Beijing was clearly concerned by the direct security threat pre-
sented by general tensions, but was still unwilling to drop its demand that
a discussion of the historical question of unequal treaties precede any nego-
tiation of technical questions. As Sino-Soviet tensions diminished in the
1980s, however, Deng Xiaoping downplayed ideological issues, the strategic
context changed, and negotiations to solve the boundary dispute along the
Amur and Ussuri Rivers made significant progress. The second major Sino-
Soviet boundary issue involved the Pamir Mountains in Tajikistan. By the
late 1980s, Moscow was willing to accept the watershed principle and estab-
lish the boundary, but both sides agreed to leave the issue until after the
eastern sector had been settled. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the
venue for negotiations over the Pamir boundary changed, and China eventu-
ally came to an agreement with the newly independent and nationalistic
Tajikistan.
With the new strategic context and imperatives, China no longer insisted
on recognition of the “unequal treaties” as a “principled precondition” and
negotiations moved directly to the consideration of specific geographic issues
and the conclusion of a new boundary treaty with Russia.
Sino-Korean Boundary Questions

Before considering other settlements that fall within the Sino-Soviet/Russian
dimension, a brief discussion of the Sino-Korean boundary is appropriate.
Although data are scarce, fragmentary evidence does make some conclusions
possible. In fact, in the twelve-volume compendium on boundary affairs and
treaties published by China in 2004-5, an introductory “survey of the bound-
ary” is included in each country volume, with the exception of the Korea
volume. The only published boundary treaties are the 1998 and 2002 agree-
ments regarding the China-Russia-Korea Trijunction along the Tumen River.103
The modern Sino-Korean boundary is complicated by the contemporary
esoteric debate over the ancient Korean kingdom of Koguryo (37 BC – 668
AD) that extended into Manchuria, China’s northeastern region. Koguryo’s
ancient capital of Guonei was along the Yalu River but moved to Pyongyang
in 427 AD. Koguryo rivalled China as a culturally sophisticated and politic-
ally well organized empire on the periphery of China. The attempt of the Sui
Dynasty (581-618) to conquer Koguryo so weakened the Sui court that this
military misadventure led to its downfall. The Tang Dynasty (618-907) did
eventually defeat Koguryo and for a few years dominated Korea before the
kingdom of Silla unified the entire Korean peninsula under its rule in
668 AD and eventually drove Chinese troops out of Korea. The successor
Korean kingdom of Parhae (Balhae) (698-926) emerged as a powerful entity
incorporating the area of Manchuria previously controlled by Koguryo and,
though fiercely independent of the Tang Dynasty, did adopt Tang culture
and political institutions.
The contemporary debate between Chinese and Koreans is over whether
Koguryo and Parhae were independent kingdoms and hence imply an an-
cient historical claim to northeastern China by Korea, or were vassals of
Chinese dynasties, as Chinese historians argue. North Korea asserts that
“Koguryo was a sovereign state without doubt, far from … a tributary of any
state power’’ and “firmly maintained its national independence … crushing
any attempts to trespass on its sovereignty.” China’s building of the Great
Wall “proves that Koguryo … posed a grave threat to China from the begin-
ning.’’104 But even this historical narrative oversimplifies the ethnic history
of the region. Until the eighteenth century, Khitan and Jurchen/Manchu
nomads inhabited the Yalu-Tumen frontier and were not yet subject to
Korean or Chinese conquest.105
Such historiographical issues continue to be contentious in Sino-
Korean relations and overshadow the debate over historical boundaries. The
present Korea-China boundary demarcation remains an issue fraught with
strong irredentist discontent in Korea, and many Koreans believe they should
Map 11 Korea
reclaim this “lost former territory” as well as territory on the north bank of
the Tumen River that Japan ceded to China as recently as 1909.106
Along the 880-mile border dividing China and Korea, the Yalu and Tumen
Rivers mark the border for all but a 20-mile segment (see Map 11). Certain
islands remained a source of friction, but during the Qing Dynasty, the
natural riverine boundary was generally undisputed, although an approxi-
mately 600-square-mile triangular area between the headwaters of the Yalu
and Tumen Rivers, including Mount Changbai (Paektu/Baekdu) and the
crater lake Tianchi (Ch’onji) continued to be a source of tension between
China and Korea. Chinese and Koreans both claimed Mount Changbai
and Tianchi, nationalistic symbols for Koreans and a sacred place for the
Manchus. Following an expedition to the headwaters of the Yalu and Tumen
Rivers in 1712 ordered by Emperor Kangxi, a marker was erected just south
of Mount Changbai to demarcate the boundary between China and Korea
in that area.107 According to an account of the expedition by a Korean in-

terpreter, the Manchu envoy stated: “I have come here on the order of the
emperor … You say your country’s border is there, but has this been brought
before the emperor and decided by him?” The Korean responded: “Our small
country has of old taken this to be the border; the children all know it. How
could it be brought before the emperor and what need is there for docu-
ments as proof?” At the time, Korean officials were worried about Qing
expansionism: “The large empty space south of Paektu-san is not filled with
people of our country: if they designate this region as being within their
border, there are no written documents with which to refute their claim.”108
These 1712 negotiations essentially established the modern Sino-Korean
boundary, but some sectors were not clearly demarcated. As Koreans began
settling north of the Tumen River, a joint Qing-Korean survey of the region
in 1887 demarcated the boundary east of Mount Changbai in the Dong
Jiandao (Kando) region and pushed the boundary north of the Tumen River.
However, China entered into negotiations with Japan, then the colonial
power in Korea, in 1909, and Tokyo accepted the Tumen River as the inter-
national boundary.109
Despite these early boundary settlements in the remote area between
the Yalu and Tumen Rivers, this border continued to plague the People’s
Republic of China and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. Initially,
in the early 1950s, China rebuffed Pyongyang’s appeal to discuss the
boundary.110 The Beijing/Pyongyang dispute was rooted in differing inter-
pretations of the historical treaties. Early PRC maps showed Mount Changbai
and Tianchi within Chinese territory. In early 1961, China surveyed the area,
and in October published a map that placed the boundary about thirty
kilometres south of the mountain. In August 1961, Pyongyang published
material describing the mountain and lake as Korean territory. Beijing then
published a map with a short article in the November issue of Zhongguo
huabao claiming the area as Chinese territory.111 In addition to the Mount
Changbai dispute, several islands in the Yalu and Tumen Rivers were in-
habited by Korean farmers who, China claimed, had displaced Chinese
settlers during the Japanese occupation of Korea and Manchuria. Despite
these differences, thirty agreements on boundary issues were signed between
1954 and 2002. The earliest published document specifically regarding the
boundary was the 8 June 1955 “Minutes from the Meeting Resolving Issues
along the Contiguous Boundary,” which primarily dealt with cross-border
relations and controls, implying that there was some understanding on the
location of the border.112
In early 1960, as the Sino-Soviet dispute unfolded, Beijing decided, “in
light of developing circumstances,” to reduce friction in Sino-Korean rela-
tions. One issue that was clearly a bone of contention involved overlapping
claims to the sacred mountain and lake. While Kim Il-sung was in Beijing
to sign a treaty of friendship and cooperation in July 1961 Premier Zhou
Enlai took the opportunity to raise the boundary issue and proposed divid-
ing sovereignty over Mount Changbai and Tianchi. North Korea was reluc-
tant to discuss the boundary dispute but responded positively to Zhou’s
proposal and agreed to begin substantive negotiations.113
Although documentation is sparse, a clear pattern is evident. As in earlier
boundary disputes, China sought a boundary settlement with North Korea
in order to improve bilateral relations in response to an unfavourable shift
in the balance of power. Zhou instructed Chinese negotiators “to be sympa-
thetic and accommodating because of the overriding importance of the
burgeoning Sino-Soviet dispute.” Formal negotiations began in the Chinese
border town of Dandong in April 1962, but soon hit a snag. They settled
the division of Tianchi without any problem, but disagreement over the land
boundary in the Changbaishan region created tension. China proposed that
the boundary run through the peak of Mount Changbai (2,744 metres), but
Korea responded angrily, accusing China of still dealing with Korea with a
“national chauvinistic attitude like the Manchu” (Qingchao de daguo taidu).
Zhou recalled the Chinese delegation led by Deputy Foreign Ministry Ji
Pengfei and elevated the level of the negotiations, instructing Peng Zhen,
who was in Pyongyang at the time, to raise the boundary issue directly with
Kim Il-sung, who agreed to continue negotiations according to the original
principle of dividing overlapping claims.
Zhou personally presented Beijing’s proposal for a comprehensive bound-
ary settlement to a Korean delegation that travelled to Beijing in June 1962.
The proposal divided Tianchi (DPRK controls approximately 60 percent)
and accepted Korea’s claim to the peak of Mount Changbai out of “con-
sideration” (zhaogu) for Korean national sentiments. The riverine boundary
was complicated by the islands in the Yalu and Tumen Rivers inhabited by
Korean and Chinese farmers, but China agreed to recognize these islands
as Korean territory “based on the principle of respect for historical reality”
(genju zunzhong lishi xianzhuang yuanze). Neither the thalweg principle nor
the mid-channel could be used to delimit the rivers due to complications

this would create, since many islands were on the Chinese side of the main
channel of the river. China proposed a solution of “mutual sovereignty, mutual
control, and mutual use.”
Shortly after Zhou’s personal intervention, Pyongyang accepted China’s
proposed boundary settlement. In September, Ji Pengfei returned to Pyong
yang for a final round of negotiations that concluded on 3 October 1962.
On 12 October, Zhou and Kim signed the China-Korea boundary treaty.
Following a boundary investigation, demarcation, and mapping, the final
protocol was signed in March 1964. The Yalu River and Tumen Rivers have
468 islands; these were allocated not according to the thalweg principle but
rather by determining the dominant ethnic group inhabiting each island at
the time of the treaty. North Korea received 280 islands and China 187 (one
island at the mouth of the Tumen belongs to Russia). Two of the largest
islands in the Yalu River, Hwanggumpyong (Huangjinping Dao) and Bidan,
are actually adjacent to the Chinese bank of the river and the Chinese border
town of Dandong. At the time of the 1962 treaty, a narrow flow of the Yalu
River divided the Chinese bank from the islands, but sediment has reduced
this to a very small flow.114 This delimitation resulted in the DPRK’s control
of approximately 90 percent of the Yalu estuary. They agreed not to publicize
the treaty, but maps were changed to reflect the new boundary. According
to one analysis, Chinese concessions were so significant that officials from
the bordering provinces of Jilin and Liaoning protested the settlement.115
Initially, North Korea leaned toward China following the Sino‑Soviet split
in 1960 and supported China in the Sino‑Indian boundary war in 1962.116
Beginning in 1964, however, after the fall of Khrushchev, Pyongyang began
to pursue closer relations with Moscow. Sino-Korean relations deteriorated
and tension increased along the border. A North Korean diplomat in Moscow
suggested that Mao raised the territorial issue anew and demanded that
North Korea recognize Beijing’s claims, justifying the demand for 250 square
kilometres of territory around Mount Changbai as “compensation” for the
support given to North Korea during the Korean War.117 As relations declined
further during the Cultural Revolution, Sino-Korean cultural exchanges
were almost entirely discontinued and Kim Il-sung lamented China’s pro-
clivity for “big-power chauvinism.” Several People’s Liberation Army divisions
were stationed along the Yalu River and border incidents occurred as China
continued to assert its territorial claims.118 According to one account, Zhou
travelled to Pyongyang in 1966 and again raised the issue of sovereignty over
Mount Changbai. Armed confrontations continued and North Korea eventu-

ally closed the border. Kim even turned to Moscow for support in resolving
the issue.119
In response to the growing Soviet threat, Beijing made conciliatory moves
toward North Korea after 1969. Zhou travelled to Pyongyang in April 1970
to repair relations, the first high-level visit in many years. Beijing dropped
its demands and one of the issues discussed during Zhou’s visit was a final
settlement of the boundary dispute.120 A treaty on navigation of the Yalu and
Tumen Rivers was concluded and, according to “reliable intelligence reports,”
a final boundary settlement was reached in October. Maps reflected this
agreement beginning in 1970.121
Accounts of the boundary settlement are contradictory but generally
corroborate the foregoing version. Deep feelings about the boundary de-
marcation remain, however. A North Korean representative attending a
conference in Bandung, Indonesia, in April 1985 said that North Korea
“mistakenly decided to split Mt. Paektu with China.” In South Korea in
October 1985, a North Korean Red Cross representative said that Mount
Paektu was divided between China and North Korea, and that this was
the “result of the courageous political decision made by Kim Il-sung.” A
North Korean map published in 1977 shows the boundary running through
the peak of Mount Changbai, and a PRC map published in 1998 draws
the boundary through Tianchi.122 In fact, the problem may be the scale of the
maps, which makes it difficult to determine with any accuracy exactly where
the line runs.
In any case, suspicions persist, and in 1979, following China’s invasion of
Vietnam, North Korea fortified the border in the Mount Changbai area,
suggesting lingering concern about China’s intentions.123 The border was
reopened in the mid-1980s and treaties on cross-border trade and travel
were renewed. Some further details of the boundary were resolved by a 1998
agreement on the boundary line in the Tumen River dividing China,
Russia, and North Korea, a 2001 agreement on joint management of border
ports, and a June 2002 protocol on the alignment of the eastern trijunction
along the Tumen River between Russia, China, and North Korea.124
The timing of various phases of the Sino‑Korean boundary negotiations
and settlement are significant. As in the other cases, China took steps in the
early 1960s to reach a settlement and reduce tensions along its border with
Korea. This was both a response to deteriorating relations with the Soviet
Union and, more generally, a reaction to the overall shift in the strategic
environment. As relations with North Korea deteriorated in the mid‑1960s

following Pyongyang’s tilt toward Moscow, China again raised the boundary
issue, possibly to chastise Pyongyang and exact a price for its changing policy
toward the two feuding communist giants. In 1970, however, after the Soviet
Union emerged as China’s primary security threat, Beijing again took steps
to cultivate better relations with Pyongyang and concluded boundary
agreements.
Unification of the Korean peninsula may precipitate a new border dispute.
Seoul was not a participant in the negotiations, and by many indications
does not support the accords between Beijing and Pyongyang. As early as
1978, some South Koreans began to claim that Yanbian, a Chinese-Korean
autonomous area, was part of the ancient Korean kingdom of Koguryo, and
in 1991 a Chosen ilbo article urged the reassertion of Korean control over
Yanbian. In 1983, a proposal to affirm that Mount Paektu (Baitoushan) was
Korean territory was introduced in the South Korean national assembly, and
in August 1992, three days after South Korea normalized relations with
China, South Korean newspapers raised the territorial issue. As recently
as 2004, a bipartisan group of legislators in the South Korean national as-
sembly introduced a bill to nullify the 1909 Sino-Japanese agreement that
recognized Chinese sovereignty north of the Tumen River.125 Despite the
formal settlement of the boundary, the Sino-Korean border remains con-
tested, at least in some academic, popular, and even political circles. The
2014 Russian annexation of Crimea and the lack of a muscular international
opposition to Russian expansion touched a nerve for many Koreans, raising
concerns over Chinese irredentism in Korea.126
8 The Sino-Mongolian Boundary
Settlement
One of the deeply rooted historical causes of the Sino‑Soviet schism was
China’s revanchist claims to Mongolia. Despite Mao Zedong’s early state-
ments supporting self-determination, he sought ultimately to restore the
multi-ethnic Chinese empire of the Qing, and these ambitions exacerbated
Russian and Mongolian fears of Chinese irredentism.1 By establishing a de
jure boundary between China and Mongolia for the first time in history with
the 1962 boundary agreement, Beijing attempted to dampen what had his-
torically been a cause of Mongolian apprehension regarding China. Because
of Mongolia’s geopolitical and historical relations with China, significant
insights regarding China’s revanchism and boundary settlements are gained
by carefully studying the circumstances surrounding this dispute and its
resolution. The timing of the boundary settlement fits the larger pattern.
Taking place when hostilities between Beijing and Moscow were escalating
and Sino‑Mongolian tensions were increasing, this case clearly illustrates
the thesis that Beijing’s settlement of boundary disputes in the early 1960s
correlates with China’s deteriorating security situation and that Beijing at-
tempted to use boundary settlements to shift the balance of power and
enhance China’s security.
The Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu (the Living Buddha of Urga), leader of Mon
golia when it declared independence from China in 1911, characterized his
country as “a lonely and isolated spot, in a critical condition, like piled up
eggs, in the midst of neighboring nations.”2 Since Russian expansion into the
Far East ran up against the Manchu empire, Mongolia had been an arena of
Sino-Russian geopolitical rivalry. Historically, whereas the Russians viewed
Mongolia as a classic buffer state, the Chinese have considered it to be an
integral part of China. Russia supported Mongolia’s bid for full independence
following the 1911 revolution and the collapse of the Manchu empire. Later,
to counterbalance Chinese hegemony, the Mongolian People’s Republic
(MPR) allied itself closely with the Soviet Union until the end of the Cold War.
The 1911 Revolution and Mongolian Independence

Resentful of Manchu colonialism and taking advantage of the chaos in China
following the October 1911 revolution, the Mongols declared the independ-
ence of Outer Mongolia in December and proclaimed the Jebtsundamba
Khutukhtu leader of an independent Mongolian nation. Mongolians main-
tained that they had enjoyed a special relationship with the Manchu court
and that Mongolia was not part of China. Because of the weakness of the
new central government, the Republic of China was unable to bring about
the integration of Outer Mongolia through military force.
Yuan Shikai, president of the new republic, personally appealed to the
Jebtsundamba for unity. His arguments are interesting because they reveal
not only his naive Han (Chinese) chauvinism but also the Urga Khutukhtu’s
understanding of Mongolia’s precarious position and of realpolitik. After
several unanswered telegrams from Yuan, the Khutukhtu responded:
Mongolia and China differ in customs and in religion. Their written and
spoken languages are entirely unlike. We are in a far corner and there is
no mutual understanding of one another … If the poor stupid Mongols
were to dwell in the same house with the cultured sons of Han, there would
be likelihood of feuds arising which would result in conflict … Therefore we
should establish ourselves in amity and peace as neighboring states each
adhering to its own territory and preserving its integrity. As to the matters
of trade and those of travel and delimitation of boundaries, it will be to our
mutual advantage to invite a neighboring state to act as intermediary.
Yuan Shikai countered:
We are men of the same race … For many centuries our peoples have shared
the same roof and have grown and become one family … There is danger
and peril to you and to us if Outer Mongolia is severed from China. Look at
the territories around us and say if there be any … which has escaped an-
nexation after its separation from China. Verily, the relation that lies between
Mongolia and China is like that of the “lips to the teeth,” of the “entrance
hall to the main building.” Your Holiness will doubtlessly be able to perceive
The Sino-Mongolian Boundary Settlement 163
where danger lurks and where safety lies. Thrust not incalculable harm on
the people of Outer Mongolia.
It is earnestly hoped that you will appreciate rightly my frank and open
presentation of the actual situation …
The Living Buddha responded:
As to whether happiness or disaster shall result, will depend upon the con-
siderate treatment of Your Excellency. If we may hope for your assistance in
establishing internal government, peaceful foreign relations, a satisfactory
arrangement of boundaries and in firmly laying the foundation of the states,
then not only will Mongolia be preserved intact, but China herself will have
no cause for anxiety on her northern borders. I, the lama, am by nature
stupid, but I understand the duties of a neighbor … Truly Outer Mongolia
is a lonely and isolated spot, in a critical condition, like piled up eggs, in the
midst of neighboring nations … Thus placed between strong powers we find
it alike difficult to advance or retire. If we do not maintain independence
how shall we escape the fisherman’s net? As the situation now stands our
preservation or destruction depends upon the attitude of Your Excellency. If
you hold to a course too severe, I cannot be responsible for the consequences.
Will it not be driving us to desperate courses?
Yuan’s final telegram appealed to the Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu to rescind

Mongolia’s declaration of independence:
Today when the five races are united in an effort to form a new government,
I, the President, and you, Reverend Sir, are like the hand and foot of the same
body, like elder and younger brother in the same family, sharing together
good fortune or ill … Why should we trouble others to meddle in the affair
to the loss of sovereignty? I earnestly hope that you will with broad charity
consider the general welfare and cancel the declaration of independence
very soon and unite with us as a single nation. Thus the threatening danger
may be averted and the foundation of the state made strong.
The Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu responded:
Your work in uniting the five races and laying the foundation of the republic
has aroused the admiration of all, at home and abroad. But we of the
Mongolian Banner in this period of wrangling and contest find ourselves

living on the dangerous frontier and are in circumstances quite unlike those
of the other races … With regard to your statement about “troubling others
to meddle in the matter to the loss of sovereignty,” although I am not intel-
ligent, I have a general understanding of your meaning. Under the pressure
of present conditions, however, no other course is open. Otherwise it is dif-
ficult to conjecture “in whose hands the deer will die.”3
Yuan’s appeal to the Jebtsundamba failed and China turned to Russia as

a last resort. Moscow’s objective was to preserve Mongolia’s autonomy,
much as Britain had done in Tibet, but it was willing to sacrifice Mongolia’s
complete independence in order to ensure Russia’s commercial and other
rights, which had been granted earlier by the Manchu government.
Sino-Russian negotiations on the status of Mongolia began in November
1912. China sought recognition of its “sovereignty” over Outer Mongolia.
Russia insisted on three conditions: no Chinese occupation, administra-
tion, or colonization in Outer Mongolia. An agreement was reached after
nearly a year of difficult negotiations and bitter debate among the Chinese.
Russia recognized Chinese “suzerainty” over Outer Mongolia in exchange
for Beijing’s recognition of Mongolian “autonomy.” They also agreed that
Russia would facilitate the establishment of relations between Urga and
Beijing and that the boundaries of Outer Mongolia would be negotiated
at an early date.4 In 1913, Beijing did agree to delimit the boundary, but this
was never done.
Whereas China was disgruntled with the agreement, Mongolia felt be-
trayed. Its prime minister sent a protest to Beijing stating that the Mongolian
government considered “relations with China severed forever.”5 Nevertheless,
a tripartite agreement was signed in June 1915 that included agreements
on trade, taxes, and other matters. Although the boundary was not settled,
a neutral zone between Outer and Inner Mongolia was established. The
political conditions surrounding this agreement changed dramatically two
years later, after the overthrow of the Czar and the October Revolution in
Russia.
Beijing made its intentions clear when it dismissed the tripartite agree
ment as “nothing but a diplomatic trick of a temporary character” and
eventually reasserted control over Outer Mongolia.6 Russia’s new Bolshevik
government was unable to help Mongolia. Under tremendous pressure from
Beijing, the Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu “petitioned” for the abolition of
Mongolia’s autonomy in November 1919, and China gladly “complied.”

China’s renewed hegemony did not last long, however. Mongolia became a
battlefield of the Russian civil war, and in 1921 the Chinese were driven
from Urga by the White Russians, who in turn were soon defeated by the
Bolsheviks.
Establishment of the Mongolian People’s Republic

Mongolian Marxists Sukhe Baatar and Choybalsan, with the blessings
of the Jebtsundamba and the support of the Soviet Union, established a
communist regime in Urga in 1921. Nevertheless, the Soviet Union, like
Czarist Russia, still used Mongolia as a bargaining chip in its relations with
China. In May 1924, it recognized China’s full sovereignty over Outer
Mongolia, but a month later, following the death of the Jebtsundamba
Khutukhtu, Mongolia declared its independence as the Mongolian People’s
Republic (MPR). The capital, Urga, was renamed Ulaanbaatar (Red Hero)
and Choybalsan eventually became premier. China’s internal problems
prevented it from reasserting control; the most it could do was protest Soviet‑
Mongolian agreements.7
The independence of the MPR was ensured two decades later at the Yalta
Conference. The Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain agreed
that the status quo in Mongolia should be preserved after the Second World
War. The Nationalist Chinese government concluded a Treaty of Friend
ship and Alliance between the Republic of China and the USSR in August
1945; the treaty stipulated: “In view of the desire repeatedly expressed by
the people of Outer Mongolia for their independence, the Chinese Govern
ment declares that after the defeat of Japan should a plebiscite of the Outer
Mongolian people confirm this desire, the Chinese Government will recog-
nize the independence of Outer Mongolia with the existing boundary as its
boundary.” Held on 20 October 1945, the vote for independence was virtually
unanimous. The Republic of China officially recognized the Mongolian
People’s Republic within the “existing boundary” the following January, but
no boundary settlement was negotiated by the two governments.8
China Attempts to Reassert Its Power

Even the Chinese Communists, reluctant to accept the independence
of Mongolia, harboured irredentist sentiments. In an interview with
Edgar Snow in 1936, Mao expressed the view that “when the people’s
revolution has been victorious in China the Outer Mongolian republic will
automatically become part of the Chinese federation, at their own will.”9

Even before establishing a new regime, Mao raised the issue of Mongolia
with his Soviet interlocutors. He seemed to assume that the 1945 recogni-
tion of Mongolian independence was simply a short-lived phase that would
end with the collapse of the Republic of China, when Stalin would agree
to the “reunification” of Mongolia with the People’s Republic of China. In
January and February 1949, Stalin sent a high-level delegation to Xibaipo,
the interim headquarters of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in Hebei,
to discuss Soviet assistance. Anastas Mikoyan, one of Stalin’s closest advisers
and a member of the Politburo and vice chair of the Council of Ministers,
and Ivan V. Kovalev, Stalin’s personal liaison with Mao, met with Mao, Zhou
Enlai, and other top CCP leaders. Mikoyan reported:
Mao Zedong himself raised the question of our attitude towards the unifica-
tion of Outer and Inner Mongolia. I replied that we did not support such
unification since it would lead to the loss of considerable Chinese territory.
Mao Zedong said that he was of the opinion that Outer and Inner Mongolia
could unite and become part of the Chinese Republic … In connection with
this information, Stalin sent me a telegram to give to Mao Zedong, which
stated:
“The leaders of Outer Mongolia support the unification of all of the

Mongolian regions of China with Outer Mongolia to form an independ-
ent and united Mongolian state … We do not think that Outer Mongolia
would agree to surrender its independence in favour of autonomy within
the Chinese state, even if all the Mongolian regions were united in one
autonomous entity. Clearly the final word on this issue belongs to Outer
Mongolia itself.”10
According to Kovalev, Mao asked him in early 1949: “But why shouldn’t
we unite Inner and Outer Mongolia into an autonomous entity and incorpor-
ate it into the People’s Republic of China?” Kovalev dismissed the query,
saying he was not authorized to discuss the question because “this was an
internal matter of the Mongolian People’s Republic, and that the Mongolian
people would hardly be in favor of such an arrangement.”11
Mongolia was again discussed during Liu Shaoqi’s visit to Moscow in July
1949, but the Chinese were careful not to provoke Stalin and conceded the
MPR’s independence. Liu gave Stalin a “Report of the CCP Central Commit
tee Delegation” dated 4 July 1949. The document stated:
Some persons from democratic parties, students and workers raised the issue
… about the independence of Mongolia … We said that the Mongolian people,
in keeping with the principle of national self-determination, had demanded
independence and thus we ought to recognize Mongolia’s independence. But
if the MPR wishes to join China, we would welcome that. It is the Mongolian
people alone that have the right to decide this issue … Are these explanations
of ours correct?
Stalin wrote “yes” in the margin. The document hints at the reasons for the
CCP’s change of mind: “The strong friendship between the great peoples
of the USSR and China is of paramount importance … It is crucial particu-
larly for the independence of China and its constructive development. The
CPC [CCP] Central Committee is fully awake to the importance of this
matter.” Continuing to push the issue of Mongolia only heightened tensions
between the CCP and the Soviet Union, and the CCP conceded that it “sub-
mits to the decisions of the Soviet Communist Party.”12
Despite these discussions of the Mongolia question, Mao again raised
the issue with Stalin during his historic trip to Moscow from December 1949
to February 1950 to negotiate the Sino-Soviet alliance. Although little has
been written, Mao clearly expressed his desire for the eventual reunion of
Mongolia with China, but did not allow his irredentist dreams to prevent
the conclusion of a Sino-Soviet treaty. According to Russian documents,
although Stalin anticipated that Mao would push for Mongolia’s unification
with China, the Russians were surprised when Zhou broached the issue but
indicated that the PRC recognized the independence of the MPR. That the
MPR and the Soviet Union were apprehensive about China’s revanchist
attitude toward Mongolia was shown by Stalin’s insistence on a declaration
that acknowledged the MPR’s independence.13 At the conclusion of the ne-
gotiations on 14 February, a communiqué announced the exchange of “notes
to the effect that … both Governments affirm a full guarantee of the in-
dependent position of the Mongolian People’s Republic.”14
Sensitive to popular Chinese feelings regarding the status of Outer
Mongolia, the CCP published a statement explaining the rationale for the
agreement:
To each and every truly patriotic Chinese, our recognition of Mongolia as

an independent state was a right and proper act, but to the reactionary bloc
of the Kuomintang, which was somewhat compelled to accord recognition
to Mongolia, it has always been a bitter memory … “The independence of
Mongolia is the loss of Chinese territory,” they said. Among our people, there
are some who are not familiar with the actual conditions and who have been
contaminated with the sentiments of “suzerainty,” and they think the map
of China appears out of shape and unreal without Mongolia. These are the
people who have been intoxicated by the poison of “Hanism.” While the
various ethnical [sic] groups within China were still under the oppression
of both imperialism and feudalism and while their liberation was still very
far off, Mongolia found rightful assistance from a socialist country – the
Soviet Union – and by its own hard struggle achieved liberation and independ-
ence. Such liberation and independence we Chinese should hail, and we should
express our respect to the Mongolian people. We should learn from them,
we should not oppose their independence, we should not drag them to share
our suffering. They attained liberation twenty‑eight years ago and now march
forward to socialism; as for us, we have just liberated ourselves … Therefore,
our attitude should be one recognizing its independence and not one pulling
them back to our fold and making them follow us again.
In regard to Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and other ethnical groups [sic], the
present question is not how to divide ourselves and each try to become in-
dependent, but to unite our efforts to build a strong, new, democratic China
since we all have been liberated more or less during the same period.15
Despite this official declaration affirming Mongolia’s independence,

China raised the issue again after Stalin’s death. The first time was in October
1954, during Khrushchev’s first trip to Beijing. One Chinese account indi-
cates that Zhou Enlai resisted raising the question because he understood
the strategic importance of the MPR to the Soviet Union, but under intense
pressure from Mao, he reluctantly broached the issue. According to
Khrushchev’s memoirs, Zhou queried: “What would you think if Mongolia
became part of the Chinese state?” Khrushchev claims he declined to speak
for Mongolia but did not voice strong opposition.16 According to other Soviet
accounts of the meeting, Khrushchev insisted that the status of Mongolia
was not negotiable. Pravda reported:
The existence of an independent Mongolian state which maintains friendly

relations with the USSR and other countries of socialism does not suit the
Chinese leaders. They would like to deprive the Mongolian People’s Republic
of independence, to make it a Chinese province. The CPR [PRC] leaders
proposed to N.S. Khrushchev … that they “reach agreement” on just this.17
However, according to Mao’s interpreter, Shi Zhe, “Nikolai Bulganin pro

posed that Mongolia be returned to China,” and in Khrushchev’s memoirs,
“he did not tell the truth and said that it was we who raised the issue.”18 But
Khrushchev’s rebuff of Mao, if in fact that was the case, did not end Mao’s
persistent efforts to reopen the Mongolian question. Khrushchev claims
that as he departed China, Mao, holding up one finger, remarked that “one
question remained unsolved – Mongolia,” thus setting the stage for future
discussions of Mongolia’s status.19
The next time the Chinese raised the issue (according to Soviet sources)
was in April 1956, while Mikoyan was in Beijing. Zhou Enlai recalled the
1949 Xibaipo meeting at which Mongolia’s relationship with China was
first discussed, and asked whether the Soviet refusal to reconsider Mongo
lia’s independence was “one of Stalin’s mistakes.” Liu Shaoqi commented
that the Chinese people were “very deeply pained by the fact of Mongolia’s
secession from China,” and said that the Chinese “consider Mongolia, like
Taiwan, a part of their territory.” Liu and Zhou hedged by saying that “they
are not raising the question of reuniting Mongolia with the PRC, this
could be done later [!], but they considered it expedient to express ‘the opinion
of the Chinese people on the question.’” Mikoyan rejected the argument
that Mongolia was equivalent to Taiwan, saying that Mongolia was a “com-
pletely different nation” and that Mongolians would not surrender their
independence.20
Following Choybalsan’s death, the new Mongolian leader, Umjagin
Tsedenbal, met with Zhou and, with Moscow’s tacit agreement, ushered
in an era of cooperation.21 During the mid-1950s, the PRC and Mongolia
concluded more than twenty-five agreements on all aspects of bilateral
relations. A rapid increase in Chinese aid to Mongolia followed. A 1955
agreement for Chinese labourers to work in the MPR even gave them the
option of permanent settlement and citizenship along with their families.22
“Tens of thousands” of Chinese labourers reportedly went to the MPR.23 In
1956, additional agreements provided increased economic and technical

assistance. One allowed the mutual use of grasslands by herders in both
Mongolia and the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region (IMAR) of China.24
At the same time, Soviet aid and trade decreased. Between 1952 and 1957,
trade between China and Mongolia grew nearly fiftyfold, whereas trade
between the Soviet Union and Mongolia decreased by about 20 percent.25 If
China had continued at that rate, the Soviets’ dominance would have been
threatened. An article in the Far Eastern Economic Review quoted an Asian
diplomat in Ulaanbaatar who characterized the situation: “The momentum
of Chinese initiative is so great, the attractive force of Chinese dynamism
so overpowering, that it is hard to see how, in the long run, Russia can main-
tain her position here.”26
During the mid-1950s, the Mongolian domestic political situation also
became more favourable for China. A pro‑Beijing leadership began to
emerge in Ulaanbaatar.27 Jargalsaihen, the first ambassador to China, be-
came foreign minister; other individuals who favoured a balanced or pro‑
China position also began to gain influence. At the Twelfth Party Congress
of the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP) in 1954, the Chinese
representative, Ulanfu, an ethnic Mongolian, emphasized closer Sino‑
Mongolian ties. In 1956, Soviet soldiers stationed in the MPR withdrew
completely, and civilian advisers also returned home.28 Later, as the Soviet
Union wavered in its support of China during the 1958 Quemoy‑Matsu
crisis, the Mongolian Minister of the Army and Public Security travelled to
Beijing and “supported the firm measures adopted by the Peking Govern
ment over Quemoy.” Ulaanbaatar issued a statement that “aggression against
China is aggression against Mongolia.”29
China also encouraged pan‑Mongolian nationalism. Beijing offered to
help the MPR write a history of Mongolia and undertake archaeological
excavations. A Chinggis Khan mausoleum was constructed in Inner Mongo
lia although his birthplace was in Outer Mongolia. The Cyrillic alphabet was
adopted in Inner Mongolia to ease communication with the MPR; under
pressure from Moscow, the Cyrillic alphabet had been adopted by the MPR
in 1941, replacing Mongolian script.
As Sino-Soviet relations deteriorated in the late 1950s, however, Soviet
complacency turned into alarm over Chinese ambitions in Mongolia.
Bulganin and Tsedenbal issued a joint statement in May 1957 that signalled
the reassertion of Soviet domination in the MPR. 30 Khrushchev allegedly
commented to a Vietnamese delegation in Moscow that China’s assistance
to Mongolia, and especially its encouragement of the revival of Chinggis

Khan, smacks of the “yellow peril.” The Soviets responded to the Chinese
challenge and would not be outbid: “Soviet generosity seemed to increase
in direct proportion to analogous Chinese efforts.”31 The Soviets proved their
ability to outbid the Chinese by seeing and then raising the Chinese offers
of aid to the MPR. The bidding war peaked by the end of 1958, and in 1962
Mongolia became the first Asian state to be made a full member of the
Council on Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).32
Mongolia was caught in the middle of an escalating dispute between the
Soviet Union and China. Its initial wish was to remain neutral because it
had benefited greatly from the Sino‑Soviet competition for several years,
but its precarious geopolitical circumstances made it impossible to remain
neutral for long. Following the open split between the Soviet Union and
China after the Twenty‑Second Congress of the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union in October 1961, Mongolia adopted a pro-Soviet position.33
Boundary Dispute and Settlement

In the wake of the escalating Sino‑Soviet dispute, Beijing announced on
16 December 1962 that Zhou Enlai had invited Tsedenbal to Beijing to
sign a boundary treaty. Two days later, Tsedenbal agreed to travel to Beijing
and on 26 December China and Mongolia signed a boundary treaty.34 This
was the first public acknowledgment of Sino‑Mongolian boundary negotia-
tions. As with its other international boundaries, throughout the 1950s, China
was reluctant to settle this boundary quickly because of inadequate knowledge
of the geography of the region and confusion concerning the boundary’s
historical location. Irredentist sentiments also kept Beijing from negotiating
a boundary treaty earlier. However, with the deterioration in Sino-Soviet re
lations, an increasing number of boundary incidents, and clear concern over
the general deterioration of China’s security, Beijing moved to settle the
boundary.
That a Sino‑Mongolian boundary dispute existed first became widely
known in 1957 when Beijing rejected Mongolia’s assertion that the bound-
ary had been delimited in 1945.35 According to Mongolian maps, the bound-
ary was clearly established and demarcated. The basis for this claim was
a boundary settlement regarding Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and the
MPR negotiated with Japan after the conclusion of the 1941 Soviet‑Japanese
Neutrality Pact, and the Republic of China’s recognition of the MPR in 1945,
including the current boundary of the MPR.
Map 12 Mongolia
Disagreement over the boundary was not publicly debated, but discrep
ancies on published maps made it undeniable (see Map 12). Chinese,
Mongolian, and other maps showed significant differences, and Beijing
considered the boundary a “complex question left over by history” that had
“never been formally delimited.” 36 Nevertheless, officials on both sides
referred to the discrepancies as “alleged boundary differences,” refusing to
call the issue a boundary dispute.
Chinese maps showed the approximate location of the boundary with
the notation “undemarcated.” More than 1,000 miles of the 2,900-mile
border was delineated differently on the two countries’ maps. The boundary
overlapped as much as 100 miles in places, and Mongolia claimed that
Chinese maps incorporated as much as 12 percent of Mongolian territory.
Of the approximately 44,000 square miles of disputed territory, much was
uninhabitable desert, but a great deal included valuable grasslands. Most
of the disputed territory was in the eastern sector, which was important
to China’s livestock industry. 37 Differences had always existed, but it is
important to note that the discrepancies diminished when China’s claims

were adjusted between 1951 and 1960, the period of increased Chinese
influence in Mongolia.
Several incidents resulted from the discrepancies during the 1950s, but
there were no serious confrontations. In 1957, Mongolia sought to initiate
boundary negotiations but was rebuffed by Beijing. As Sino-Mongolian rela-
tions deteriorated, however, the scope and the seriousness of incidents
escalated, especially during early 1962. 38
On 13 April that year, Beijing initiated boundary talks with Ulaanbaatar.
At the same time, it suggested that in the “spirit of proletarian international-
ism,” measures be taken to avoid confrontations along the boundary. On
12 October, negotiations began quietly in Ulaanbaatar, and agreement on
all outstanding issues was reached on 13 November, with a memorandum
of the negotiations being signed on 17 November. A treaty was drafted in
Beijing from 10 to 23 December, and was completed just before the arrival
of Tsedenbal.39
At the signing ceremony, Liu Shaoqi told Tsedenbal that China had settled
the boundary in a “spirit of mutual understanding and mutual accommo-
dation,” and “hopes to settle its boundary with other socialist countries on
the basis of the same principles.” Editorials pointed out that the settlement
marked “a further consolidation and growth” of Sino‑Mongolian ties and
that it was “an important contribution to the strengthening of the unity of
the socialist camp.” Beijing stressed that this also “set a good example for the
socialist countries in the handling of their mutual relations,” and proved the
ability of “fraternal socialist countries” to settle disputes peacefully. This
was a clear signal to Moscow that China was willing to settle their bound-
ary dispute (which was not yet publicly acknowledged). In his speech at
Tsedenbal’s farewell banquet, Zhou said that China had solved “complicated
boundary questions with other countries, including Burma and Nepal.” He
mentioned the “agreement in principle” reached between China and Pakistan
that same day and, in a clear reference to India, went on to say that “it has
been repeatedly proved by facts that, given sincerity on both sides, the dif-
ferences in social systems does not in any way hinder the peaceful settle-
ment of issues.” Zhou told Tsedenbal that the “reasonable settlement of the
border question between China and Mongolia will be an example and an
encouragement for border negotiations with other countries.” In the midst
of the Sino-Indian border war, this was a clear message to New Delhi that
Beijing wanted to reach a boundary settlement.40
Liu Shaoqi signed the treaty on 8 March 1963 and the exchange of the
instruments of ratification took place in Ulaanbaatar on 23 March.41 A joint
commission was created to survey the boundary and establish permanent
markers. The commission met several times over eighteen months, but work
slowed as Sino-Mongolian relations deteriorated further. Despite this, the
final demarcation of the boundary was completed and documents were
signed in Ulaanbaatar on 2 July 1964.42 Mongolia received approximately
31,000 square miles of the disputed territory. According to a Mongolian
scholar, China accepted almost all of the Mongolian claims, settling the
boundary dispute in a way “highly favorable to Mongolia.”43 Neither country
has raised questions regarding the final settlement.44
As Sino-Mongolian relations deteriorated and polemics became sharper,
Mongolia reminded China of its historical irredentism. In 1967, the
Mongolian Communist Party newspaper, Unen, linked the PRC with
other modern Chinese regimes, arguing that the “Maoists inherited their
venomous intentions and vain ambitions from the Manchu conquerors and
the reactionary Chiang Kai-shek clique. This has been repeatedly confirmed
by the public pronouncements of Mao Tse-tung himself and his supporters
with regard to the state sovereignty and national independence of the
Mongolian People’s Republic.”45 A Mongolian scholar continued this line of
reasoning, arguing that:
Underlying the foreign policy doctrine of the Maoists were temporarily veiled
hegemonistic and chauvinistic designs … Although the Chinese leaders
had time and again declared their respect for Mongolia’s independence and
integrity … Mao Tse-tung questioned Mongolia’s independence almost as
soon as he took over the leadership of the CPC [CCP] … As time passed, it
became quite obvious that Mao Tse-tung was in effect pursuing towards
People’s Mongolia the traditional policy that had been enforced after the
revolution of 1911-1912 by China’s landowner-bourgeois rulers. They sought
to decide the destiny of Mongolia’s independence behind the backs of the
Mongolian people and reduce the country to the status of a colony.46
China’s Grand Strategy and the Boundary Settlement

The broader strategic context and the pattern the settlement followed illus-
trate Beijing’s efforts to counterbalance the growing Soviet threat and alliance
with Mongolia by salvaging deteriorating Sino‑Mongolian relations. One
Russian concluded as much, arguing that a “more important reason for China
to sign a border treaty with Mongolia was to use it as a lever in winning

Ulaanbaatar’s support for the Chinese position in the Sino-Soviet quarrel.”47
This settlement follows the clear pattern in China’s policy toward boundary
settlements at the time that viewed them as part of a grand strategy.
As late as 1957, relations between Beijing and Ulaanbaatar showed no
sign of deteriorating, although the Soviet Union had begun to reassert its
influence in Mongolia. In the May 1957 Bulganin‑Tsedenbal joint state-
ment, the PRC was mentioned in a positive context: “Relations among the
USSR, the CPR [PRC]and the MPR have created even more favorable con
ditions for the building of socialism in the Mongolian People’s Republic and
for the peaceful development of the country. Both the great fraternal neigh-
boring states ensure peace and tranquility on the MPR borders.”48 As the
Sino-Soviet dispute intensified, however, it became clear that the MPR was
tilting toward Moscow and that Ulaanbaatar was beginning to abandon its
even-handed policies of the mid-1950s.49 During the initial stages of the
Sino‑Indian boundary dispute, Mongolia followed the Soviet Union in ob-
liquely criticizing China, and in September 1959, Tsedenbal made a timely
and significant state visit to India.50
The preamble to the new Mongolian constitution adopted on 6 July 1960
stated that “the Mongolian People’s Republic grew and gained strength with
the fraternal socialist aid of the Soviet Union.” It did not mention China’s
assistance but alluded to the Sino‑Soviet debate and indicated its own position
in Article 89: “It is the duty of … the MPR … to promote the unity and soli-
darity of the peoples of the socialist camp, headed by the Soviet Union, to
struggle with determination against all manifestations detrimental to the
sacred friendship and unity.”51
Military developments in the MPR also alarmed China. After 1960, a
regular exchange of military delegations began and Soviet military advisers
and troops returned to the MPR. The Mongolians “repeatedly stated that
the [Soviet] troops were present at their request as a measure against China’s
aggressive territorial ambitions.”52 In January 1966, a new treaty included
“military measures” to defend Mongolia, and secret agreements permitted
Soviet missile bases in Mongolia.
China was unable to compete with Moscow for Ulaanbaatar’s favour. After
its unsuccessful bid to enhance its influence in Mongolia through aid and
trade agreements, and in the wake of the acrimonious Sino‑Soviet split,
China’s recognition of a delimited boundary dividing China and Mongolia
was Beijing’s last card. Thus, any irredentist claims China may have asserted
in the past would be renounced and a major cause of bilateral friction re-
moved in an attempt to maintain amicable relations with the MPR. No doubt
China hoped that a flexible approach to the boundary dispute would induce
Mongolia to at least take a more neutral position in the Sino-Soviet dispute.53
The Chinese repeatedly expressed the hope that the boundary treaty would
improve Sino‑Mongolian relations. A Renmin ribao editorial published on
25 December 1962, the day Tsedenbal arrived in Beijing to sign the treaty,
stressed the intimacy of their friendship and then stated: “We are convinced
that … the signing of the Sino‑Mongolian Boundary Treaty will be a positive
contribution to the strengthening of fraternal friendship and solidarity be-
tween the Chinese and Mongolian peoples.”54 Zhou Enlai’s speeches, both
at the signing ceremony and afterwards, emphasized the same theme.55 Mao
did not participate in the signing ceremonies or banquets. Even Tsedenbal
did not meet with Mao when he was in Beijing. This may indicate how per-
sonally painful it was for Mao to recognize Mongolia’s independence. What
ever the case may have been, no boundary treaty could have been concluded
without Mao’s personal approval.
Conclusion
The Sino‑Mongolian boundary treaty is unique because of China’s long his-
tory of dominating Mongolia. Clearly, even the Chinese Communists, despite
their earlier rhetoric supporting self-determination and independence for
the various nationalities that inhabit the frontiers of China, harboured
a desire to recover areas once controlled by China’s imperial dynasties.
Nevertheless, the Communists were willing to trade territory for an illusory
alliance, just as the Nationalists did in 1945. China’s desire to recover “lost
territory” was left unfulfilled because of the strategic imperatives to which
it was forced to respond – in this case, by playing its boundary settlement
card once again.56 The boundary treaty was a desperate, unsuccessful attempt
by China to win favour with Mongolia and encourage Mongolian neutrality
in the Sino-Soviet dispute. Even as Tsedenbal was in Beijing to sign the treaty,
while the Chinese used terms such as “intimate,” “unbreakable,” and “trad-
itional, profound friendship” to describe Sino‑Mongolian relations, he fully
supported the Soviet position on peaceful coexistence and in the Cuban
Missile Crisis, and lauded Soviet actions to avoid nuclear war. He emphasized
the fact that Mongolia was the first Asian member of COMECON. Referring
to the ongoing Sino‑Indian border war, he supported India and indirectly
criticized China by stressing that such disputes “should be settled only by
peaceful means – that is, through negotiations.”57 At a Conference on the

Question of Ideological Work held in Ulaanbaatar in January 1963, just two
weeks after the signing of the boundary treaty, the Chinese did not participate
and Tsedenbal used his keynote address to criticize China:
It must be forcefully emphasized that dogmatism and left opportunism are

becoming an ever‑greater danger in the world Communist movement. It is
impossible not to see that, hiding behind ultra-revolutionary phrases and
taking into its arsenal the ideology of nationalism and left opportunism
[China] tries to attack the … line of the world Communist movement on all
important questions.58
His pride in Mongolia’s “senior” status over China among socialist countries
was evident, and he pointed out that Mongolia was “the first in the Far East
to break away from colonial rule and build socialism.” He reminded the
Chinese of their past domination over Mongolia, which was ended with
Russian assistance, making it possible for Mongolians to realize their “dreams
of freedom, independence and happiness.”59
Strong criticism of China continued. Tsedenbal openly and directly criti-
cized China as “wrong and extremely destructive,” and accused Beijing
of “conducting schismatic subversive activities in the Communist move-
ment.” In October 1963, the second secretary of the Mongolian People’s
Revolutionary Party and chair of the Great Khural (national assembly) stated
bluntly: “We believe that the recent lying statements of the Chinese leaders
constitute an attack on Mongolia, as well as on our best friend, the Soviet
Union.”60
Beijing responded that such statements would be “an item on the account.”61
Mao personally responded on 10 July 1964, just a week after the ratification
of the boundary treaty. He said that under the guise of helping Mongolia
gain independence, the Soviets had in fact begun to dominate the MPR.62
Economic relations between China and Mongolia also deteriorated. Air
service between Beijing and Ulaanbaatar was suspended by the Mongolians
in January 1963.63 Relations became so tense that street fights between Chin
ese workers and local Mongolians broke out in Ulaanbaatar, and the Chinese
workers were asked to leave in April 1964. The following month, China
banned the transit of goods across China to Mongolia. This meant that Mon
golia’s only access to the world was through the Soviet Union, which increased
costs and made trade with other nations much more difficult. Very little was
being shipped to China from the Soviet Union through Mongolia, but
Mongolia had relied on the transit fees paid by China to finance its importa-
tion of essential goods from the PRC. This made it significantly harder for
Mongolia to pay for imports from China. This was Beijing’s first act of
economic retaliation against the Mongolians for supporting Moscow in its
dispute with China.
The Mongolians issued a statement that they depended on the Soviet
Union “to protect it from the ‘sinister schemes by the Chinese.’” The Soviets
sent five thousand workers to help them finish the projects left incomplete
by the Chinese, and as the Sino‑Mongolian border grew tense, Moscow and
Ulaanbaatar negotiated closer military cooperation and a larger Soviet mil-
itary presence in Mongolia. At a special, first-ever observance of the 1939
battle in which Mongolian troops, with the aid of the Soviet Union, defeated
the Japanese army at Nomonhan (Khalkhin-Gol), speeches emphasized
Soviet‑Mongolian solidarity in the face of a Chinese threat.64
Beijing did attempt to reduce bilateral friction. In March 1964, despite
Mongolian criticism of China, Zhou Enlai offered ten tons of corn and
200,000 yuan to Mongolia following a crop failure, and the Chinese Red
Cross sent medicine. In mid-June, an agreement on cultural cooperation was
signed despite the release one week earlier of a lengthy MPRP Central
Committee resolution that condemned China in the strongest terms to date.65
Despite the passage of time since the boundary settlement, both China
and Mongolia remain extremely sensitive about their historical relationship,
and China continues to exhibit latent irredentism. During the historic
May 1989 Sino-Soviet summit in Beijing, Deng Xiaoping couldn’t resist
resurrecting China’s historic obsession with territorial issues. He told
Gorbachev that “in the past great powers have divided and humiliated
China … the Czarist Empire and the Soviet Union – during a certain time
– had taken great advantage [of China’s weakness]. Through inequitable
treaties, including the understanding at Yalta … the Russians took from
China … the present day Popular Republic of Mongolia, territory which
is [rightfully] China’s.”66 In 1992, the State Security Ministry also gave voice
to China’s historical irredentism: “As of now, the Mongolian region com-
prises three parts that belong to three countries” – the Russian republic of
Buryatia, Mongolia, and China’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region – but
“the Mongolian region has from ancient times been Chinese territory.”67
Following Mongolia’s transition to democracy, Beijing has also become very
sensitive to the possibility that Ulaanbaatar will emerge as an advocate of
reinvigorated pan-Mongol nationalism. In 1992, Chinese Defense Minister

Qin Jiwei called for a strengthening of defences against “international
hostile forces” along the border between Inner Mongolia and Mongolia.
Among Chinese, there is growing concern that the democratic movement
in Mongolia could spill over into Inner Mongolia, inflaming anti-Chinese
nationalist sentiments among China’s ethnic Mongolian population.68 Clearly,
although the PRC has recognized Mongolia and negotiated a boundary treaty,
the legacy of the Chinese empire lingers in popular sentiment and in the
minds of China’s elite. And despite the assertions of Chinese officials that
historical questions have all been resolved, Mongolian suspicions of Chinese
expansionist ambitions persist to this day.
9 The Sino-Japanese Senkaku/Diaoyu
Islands Dispute
To understand China’s approach to the dispute over the Senkaku Islands

(“Diaoyu” in Chinese), it must be placed within the larger context of the
change in China’s grand strategy between 1969 and 1978.1 This makes it
possible to explain why a flotilla of armed Chinese fishing boats sailed to
the Senkakus in April 1978 during a crucial juncture in negotiations on the
Sino-Japanese Treaty of Peace and Friendship. It will also illustrate how this
dispute follows a pattern similar to the other territorial disputes, demon-
strating the importance of strategic calculations in China’s behaviour.
Although the spike in tensions over the islands beginning in 2010 raises
some new questions about Beijing’s policy, the general strategic patterns in
China’s behaviour remain consistent.
Following the Second World War, Sino-Japanese relations were negli-
gible during the 1950s due to Japan’s support of the US effort to isolate
the People’s Republic of China. During this period, only small-scale non-
governmental trade relations were established and agreements were nego
tiated for other programs, such as repatriating Chinese and Japanese and
cultural exchanges. Beijing viewed Japan’s China policy as derivative of
US China policy. Zhou Enlai told a delegation of visiting Japanese that “China
cannot but suspect that Prime Minister [Nobusuke] Kishi is deliberately
creating difficulties for China and cursing China to please the United
States.”2 In 1957, Mao Zedong told a Japan Socialist Party delegation that “if
Japan would only cancel the US-Japan security treaty and close American
military bases in Japan … then it would be possible to revise the clause on
preventing the reemergence of Japanese militarism or a third country taking
advantage of Japanese militarism in the Sino-Soviet treaty of friendship and
alliance.”3
Beginning in 1960, Tokyo sought better relations with China. Prime
Minister Hayato Ikeda stated that he did “not think it necessary to adopt an
attitude exactly the same as that of the United States with regard to China.”4
The Sino-Japanese Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands Dispute 181
Map 13 Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands
Relations improved, but in the mid-1960s, with the onset of the Cultural
Revolution and the pro-Taiwan inclinations of Eisaku Sato’s government
in Japan, they deteriorated once again and Beijing accused Tokyo of reviv-
ing Japanese militarism. At the height of the Cultural Revolution, Sino-
Japanese relations were further exacerbated by the Senkaku Islands dispute
(see Map 13).
In a 1953 People’s Daily article supporting Okinawans’ resistance to US bases,
the Senkaku Islands (the article used the Japanese name) were included in a
description of the Ryukyu chain.5 Previously mostly ignored, the tiny islands
(five uninhabited islets and three rocky outcroppings located about 120 miles
northeast of Taiwan on the continental shelf) gained attention when the
United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific publicized
the potential for offshore oil in the surrounding waters. This 1969 report
based on a geophysical survey of the seabed surrounding the islands con-

cluded that “a high probability exists that the continental shelf between
Taiwan and Japan may be one of the most prolific oil reservoirs in the
world.” Foreshadowing the intensity of the dispute that would emerge within
a few years, the report went on to say: “It is also one of the few large contin-
ental shelves of the world that has remained untested by the drill, owing
to military and political factors.”6
The People’s Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) began
to assert claims to the Senkaku Islands. The United States was indirectly
involved because Washington administered the islands as part of the
Ryukyus until mid‑1972, when it returned administration to Tokyo. The dis
pute grew when the ROC passed legislation in 1970 allowing oil exploration
in waters surrounding Taiwan that included the Senkakus, and Chinese
from Taiwan landed on the islands and planted the ROC flag, sparking a
confrontation with Japanese authorities. In late 1970, Japan and the ROC
initiated negotiations, including the Republic of Korea, in an effort to reach
agreement on joint exploration in the waters bordering Japan, Taiwan, and
South Korea. Beijing remained silent during the early stage of public po
lemics, but on 4 December it broke its silence and condemned the Taiwan/
Japan/South Korea negotiations, declaring that “this ‘new act of aggression
committed by the … Japanese reactionaries in league with the Seoul and
Taipei regimes would provoke ‘great indignation’ in China and North Korea.”7
The dispute got more attention when the United States made it clear that
the Senkaku Islands would be included in the territory returned to Japanese
administration under the terms of the US–Japan Okinawa reversion treaty.
China asserted that the island group had been Chinese territory since ancient
times and was occupied by Japan only during the 1895 Sino-Japanese War,
and so should be returned to China according to the terms of the Cairo
Declaration and the 1951 San Francisco Peace Treaty. Japan, on the other
hand, asserted that the islets were terra nullius when Japan discovered them
in 1884 and subsequently included them as part of its Ryukyu territories in
1895. In fact, the Republic of China New Atlas published in 1933 does list
the Senkaku Islands as Japanese territory. Moreover, Tokyo pointed out that
Beijing had never challenged Japan’s claim after 1945 until the potential for
resources became known and the US-Japan negotiations over the reversion
of the Ryukyus to Japanese administration commenced.
Conflicting historical claims are not the only thing that complicates the
dispute over these uninhabited islands; differing interpretations of the law
of the sea do too. The United States administered the islands as part of
Okinawa following the Second World War but, sensitive to the conflicting
claims by Beijing, Taipei, and Tokyo, Washington declared that it did not
intend to “prejudice any underlying claims” when it returned the islands
to Japanese jurisdiction in May 1972.8
China issued an official statement on 30 December 1971, asserting: “Like
Taiwan, they have been an inalienable part of Chinese territory since ancient
times … [The Chinese people] are determined to recover the Tiaoyu and
other islands appertaining to Taiwan!”9 China denounced the Okinawa
reversion treaty as a “fraud” and an attempt to create a “pretext to carve
off China’s territory and plunder the sea resources belonging to China.”10
Around the time of formal reversion on 15 May 1972, China published
several articles supporting its position.11 Tokyo responded by claiming that
the Okinawa agreement had settled the matter completely as far as Japan
was concerned.12
Following the historic shift in the United States’ China policy and Richard
Nixon’s trip to China in February 1972, Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka moved
quickly to normalize relations with the People’s Republic of China. One
outstanding issue was the Senkaku Islands dispute. In preliminary negotia-
tions, Zhou made it clear that Beijing wanted to set aside the sovereignty
issue and move forward with normalization. He responded to Tanaka’s query
about the islands by saying: “I do not want to talk about the Senkaku Islands
… It is not good to discuss this now. It became an issue because of the oil
out there. If there wasn’t oil, neither Taiwan nor the United States would
make this an issue.”13 It was clear that normalization of relations with Japan
was an important component in China’s grand strategy to offset the growing
Soviet threat to China. To accomplish this, according to Deng Xiaoping, the
“two sides agreed not to touch upon this (Diaoyu Island) question when
diplomatic relations were normalized.” Beijing was willing to “seek common
ground on major issues while reserving differences on minor ones” (qiu
datong cun xiaoyi).14 Beginning in 2010, Tokyo has claimed that while Beijing
was willing to sidestep the issue, “Japan never recognized the existence of
an issue to be solved on the territorial sovereignty over the Senkaku Islands,”
and Japan did not make any agreement “about ‘shelving’ or ‘maintaining
the status quo’ regarding the Senkaku Islands,” but other accounts of the
negotiations contradict this position.15 On 29 September 1972, after over
three decades of strained relations, China and Japan established normal
diplomatic relations. Since there was no formal peace treaty ending the
Second World War, a communiqué that included an anti-hegemony clause

called for the conclusion of a peace treaty.
Treaty of Peace and Friendship Negotiations

Negotiations on a peace treaty began on 11 November 1974, after the sign-
ing of trade, airlines, and shipping agreements earlier that year. This was
the beginning of nearly four years of difficult negotiations leading to the
Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed on 12 August 1978.
Disagreement over China’s demand that an “anti-hegemony” clause be
included resulted in an early breakdown in negotiations. Concerned that
including an “anti-hegemony” clause would provoke the Soviet Union, Japan
opposed it without broadening its scope and interpretation. Beijing argued
that not including an anti-hegemony clause would constitute a “retreat” from
the communiqué on normalization of relations.
After several years of impasse, a breakthrough appeared to be near in 1978.
After coming to power in December 1976, Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda
initiated high-level contacts with Beijing and indicated his willingness to
observe “faithfully” the communiqué signed when diplomatic relations were
established. In an important policy speech on 21 January 1978, he stated
that it was time to resume negotiations and called for a Liberal Democratic
Party (LDP) consensus. In July 1977, Deng Xiaoping told visiting Japanese
politicians that the Sino‑Soviet alliance, in which Japan was singled out as
the raison d’être, had “naturally ceased to exist.”16 These important develop-
ments cleared the way for final negotiations. However, on 12 April 1978,
when a breakthrough in reaching the necessary LDP consensus appeared
imminent, the appearance of armed Chinese fishing boats around the
Senkaku Islands surprised and shocked Japan.
China’s Changing Negotiating Position

The eruption of the territorial dispute with the publication of the UN
Economic Commission report in 1969 coincided with China’s campaign
against the re-emergence of “Japanese militarism.” Japan’s offer to negotiate
a joint development agreement was characterized as “merely an established
practice of the Japanese militarist pirates in unscrupulously plundering
others,” and a tactic by which “Japanese militarism will tighten its control
… while striving to realize its ambition of annexing China’s territory.” At
the time, “postponing” a resolution of the territorial dispute was rejected as
a “vicious trick” or “wicked tactic,” which really meant that the “people of
China … should surrender their sovereignty and let Japanese militarism

plunder and occupy the islands and resources at will” to speed up the
militarization of its economy.17 On 29 December 1970, Renmin ribao
quoted Mao as stating: “The Chinese people will defend their territory and
sovereignty and absolutely will not permit encroachment by foreign
governments.”18
Criticism of Japan continued throughout 1971. The tone, however, was
less shrill than it had been throughout 1970, and Beijing framed the sover-
eignty issue in the context of the legitimacy of the US-Japan Okinawa rever-
sion agreement rather than implying a Japanese militarist motivation. China
sent a formal protest to the secretary general of the United Nations pro-
testing the inclusion of the Senkakus in this agreement. Following reversion
in 1972, China began framing its position on the dispute within the context
of the debate over the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS). China supported the two-hundred-mile territorial water limit
and linked this with its claim to the Senkakus.19 But as the two countries
moved quickly to establish full diplomatic relations, the Japanese public and
press supported the government’s stand on the Senkaku Islands dispute,
and China was forced to be flexible when asserting its claim. In July 1972,
Zhou Enlai indicated China’s willingness to “shelve” the territorial dispute
and move forward with normalization.20 When Prime Minister Tanaka
raised the sovereignty question again during the final stage of negotiations
on normalization, Zhou downplayed the issue, saying: “Let’s not argue over
it here. They are, after all, tiny specks you can hardly spot on maps and
they have become a problem just because oil was found around them.”21 In
September, despite the dispute, Beijing normalized relations with Tokyo.
China’s initial unyielding position changed because of Beijing’s concerns
over larger strategic issues such as the growing Soviet threat. Its willingness
to subordinate the territorial dispute to more fundamental national security
considerations, such as an entente cordiale with Japan, was clear when China’s
UN representative stated that the “Chinese people absolutely will not permit”
the territorial dispute to “sow discord in the friendly relations between the
Chinese and Japanese people.” 22 With Beijing’s changing perception of
Japan’s role in China’s grand strategy, the “wicked tactic” of “postponing”
resolution of the dispute now became a virtue of flexibility, completely ac-
ceptable when pursuing an entente with a former enemy, Japan, to confront
a former ally, the Soviet Union, which had become the pre-eminent threat
to China’s security.
As the Treaty of Peace and Friendship negotiations commenced in 1974,

China again expressed its willingness to sidestep the territorial issue and
further strengthen relations with Japan. That October, Vice Premier Deng
Xiaoping told a Japan‑China Friendship Association delegation in Beijing
that delaying settlement of the Senkaku sovereignty issue would be best.
Later that month Hua Guofeng, who had succeeded both Mao and Zhou
after their deaths in 1976, suggested that the treaty should take precedence
over the territorial dispute and that the Senkaku Islands issue could be re-
solved gradually after conclusion of the treaty.23 With increased anxiety over
Soviet encirclement, Beijing, as in earlier cases, felt compelled to set aside
the territorial dispute in order to conclude the treaty and establish closer
relations with Japan.
The Fishing Boat Incident

As negotiations over the treaty came close to fruition, a flotilla of armed
Chinese fishing boats appeared in the disputed waters around the Senkakus,
jeopardizing both the treaty and the achievement of an important Chinese
foreign policy goal. Approximately 140 boats were involved in the incident
that occurred over a one-week period beginning on 12 April 1978. Fishing
boats came from as far away as Qingdao and Tianjin, nearly one thousand
miles north of the Senkaku Islands, but most of the boats were from Shanghai.
Many were armed and carried camera crews who filmed the incident.
Approximately forty boats carried large signs that read “The Diaoyu Islands
are the territory of the People’s Republic of China.”24
When questioned soon after the boats first entered the disputed waters,
a Chinese Foreign Ministry official refused to comment.25 Questioned by a
Japanese reporter two days later, China’s ambassador to Japan, Fu Hao, said
he was informed of the facts but had received no instructions from Beijing
and “expected the situation … would be clarified shortly.”26 That same day,
in response to Japan’s demand that China withdraw its fishing boats, Deputy
Director of the Foreign Ministry Asia Bureau Wang Xiaoyun, citing the
30 December 1971 Foreign Ministry statement, asserted that the islands
belonged to China but said that he would “check about the presence of
Chinese fishing boats off the islands.”27
Japan demanded an investigation and on 15 April Chinese Vice Premier
Geng Biao, in the first real response to Japan’s protests, stated that the inci-
dent was obviously “neither intentional nor deliberate” and that the Chinese
boats were simply “chasing fish around the island at that time.” He added
that “we should not argue the island problem and we should resolve that
problem in the future.” The following day, Liao Chengzhi, who was both
president of the China‑Japan Friendship Association and vice chair of
the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, stated that
Geng Biao’s comments were a “satisfactory reply.” The fishing boats with-
drew that same day.28
Tokyo rejected Geng Biao’s explanation, calling it not a “satisfactory
reply.” On 17 April, Japanese Foreign Minister Sonoda Sunao said, “It is
regrettable that China gave its explanation in such a way while official
contact was underway through the embassies in Tokyo and Peking,” and the
following day he “expressed strong dissatisfaction with the Chinese atti-
tude.”29 The Japanese embassy in Beijing lodged a formal protest and asked
to see the results of Beijing’s promised investigation. Meanwhile, Chinese
boats re-entered the disputed waters despite the presence of seven Japanese
naval vessels and four planes on patrol.
Following a second Japanese protest and China’s “investigation” and “of-
ficial response,” the incident was resolved. On 21 April, Wang Xiaoyun stated
that the “final” conclusion was that the incident was an accident and China
would “deal with the problem.”30 That evening in Tokyo, Sonoda said that
such a response was “not unexpected” and Japan would accept China’s “of-
ficial explanation.” Sonoda opined that this would “put an end to this inci-
dent,” but added that the “government would determine how to react to
China’s reply after taking all factors into consideration.”31
During discussions with Japanese officials in Beijing a few days later, Liao
Chengzhi commented that “if China had planned the incident, naturally I
ought to have been informed of it. But I had no knowledge of the incident”;
he added: “Personally, I think the issue has already been settled.”32 Japanese
Ambassador Sato Shoji and Chinese Vice Foreign Minister Han Nianlong
agreed not to discuss the issue again before concluding the Treaty of Peace
and Friendship. Sato told reporters that the “question … was officially closed
for the moment.”33
Treaty negotiations resumed and a final agreement was reached on
9 August. Sonoda felt that raising the territorial issue would complicate
the negotiations; nevertheless, he reluctantly broached the subject during
discussions with Deng Xiaoping. Deng merely reiterated China’s official
position.34 Although Sonoda would not give details of the negotiations at his
news conference after signing the treaty, he did say that “much hard work
occurred before the final agreement was reached” and some “very delicate
issues” were settled.35 No doubt, the Senkaku Islands issue was one of the
most delicate issues, but was not allowed to delay the signing of the Treaty
of Peace and Friendship. Beginning in 2010, Japan has asserted that it “never
recognized the existence” of a dispute over the Senkaku Islands and it “is
not true that there has been an agreement with the Chinese side about
‘shelving’ or ‘maintaining the status quo’ regarding the Senkaku Islands”
during negotiations over diplomatic relations in 1972 or the Treaty of Peace
and Friendship in 1978. Other accounts of the negotiations claim that there
was a mutual agreement to sidestep the sovereignty issues.36
Although China maintained that the entire fishing boat incident was
“accidental and not ordered by the Chinese Government” and Japan accepted
this explanation, the veracity of Beijing’s explanation is dubious. Japan’s
acceptance of Beijing’s explanation was due to the nature of the dispute.
Foreign Minister Sonoda pointed out that since Japan controlled the Senkaku
Islands, the issue was quite different from the Takeshima (Dokdo) quarrel
with South Korea and the Northern Territories dispute with Russia, where
Japan did not control the disputed territory.37
China’s Grand Strategy and the Senkaku Islands Dispute

To understand why Beijing undertook the fishing boat demonstration at
such a critical juncture in the negotiations, it is necessary to place the incident
within the broader strategic context and also the context of Sino-Japanese
rapprochement. China’s behaviour was determined by the shift in the
regional balance of power and Japan’s changing role in China’s grand strategy.
Throughout the 1970s, the Senkaku Islands dispute was a salient issue in
relations between the two countries. The fishing boat incident, on the other
hand, was only an acute crisis that, if not handled adroitly, could have
aborted the treaty and led to greater Sino-Japanese tensions at a time Beijing
was acutely concerned about the growing Soviet threat.
Between 1969 and 1978, Japan’s role in China’s grand strategy changed
significantly. Prompted by the armed confrontation with the Soviet Union
at Zhenbao Island in 1969, China began to view the Soviet Union as the
greatest threat to its security. Speaking to foreign leaders in the early 1970s,
Mao made it clear that the guiding principle during this period was the
“Three Worlds Theory,” which, using a united front strategy, called for closer
relations between China and capitalist, industrialized countries, of which
Japan was the primary one in East Asia, to offset the Soviet threat. 38 In the
early 1970s, one of China’s strategic objectives was to form an entente with
Japan, along with economic, political, and even strategic ties with the United
States. The practical effect of China’s changing grand strategy is evident in
the establishment of diplomatic relations with Japan in 1972 and the signing
of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1978. This is a significant change in
policy from one that, until the early 1970s, considered Japan, allied with the
United States, as China’s primary security threat.
Given China’s changing perception of strategic imperatives during the
1970s and the impact this had on Beijing’s foreign policy, its handling of the
Senkaku Islands dispute fits a larger pattern in its security strategy. Japan
was a key Second World country, and forming a united front with it against
Soviet hegemony was vital to China’s security, so Beijing felt an urgency to
normalize relations with Japan.
The dispute over the Senkakus was a source of tension between the two
countries with no simple resolution at hand. China decided to set aside
the issue and move ahead with normalization despite its earlier refusal to
do so, because to press its claim to sovereignty under such circumstances
would have risked delaying or giving up a higher foreign policy objective –
counterbalancing the growing Soviet threat.39 During the negotiations over
the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, China again indicated its desire to set
aside the territorial dispute. As its fear of Soviet encirclement increased and
relations with Soviet-allied Vietnam became more acrimonious, Beijing
again subordinated the Senkaku sovereignty issue to the more important
objective of concluding a peace treaty with Japan.
However, pro-Taiwan and anti-treaty members of Japan’s Diet insisted
on raising the territorial issue. Anti-treaty forces fully understood that the
status quo favoured Japan, and the Foreign Ministry had determined that
pressing the issue would complicate treaty negotiations.40 Nevertheless, on
7 April 1978, while meeting with Foreign Minister Sonoda, anti-treaty pol-
iticians demanded that the territorial issue be resolved before conclusion of
the treaty.41
The gauntlet was thrown and China could hardly overlook it without
asserting its counterclaim. Following the fishing boat incident, Chinese
ambassador Fu Hao stated that the situation “might have something to do
with statements some Japanese were making,” indicating China’s concern
over the anti-treaty factions’ proposals regarding the islands.42 Based on
statements by Wang Xiaoyun, Sonoda concluded that it was an “act of protest
… against hawkish elements … who have raised the Senkaku territorial dispute
as a means of blocking the Japan‑China peace treaty.” Wang regretted that
they had done this despite China’s decision not to raise the issue during
treaty negotiations, and suggested that it was an act of protest against Japan
for bringing up the issue itself.43 Wang also said that China recognized that
the two countries’ positions differed but that China had not intended to
contest the issue under the circumstances; however, failure to act after the
anti-treaty faction raised the question could be viewed as tacit recognition
of Japan’s claim.44 At a later meeting, Wang stressed that “China had taken
the necessary steps in order for the dispute to be seen in the context” of
overall relations between the two countries.45 More than a year after the
incident and the conclusion of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, Deng
Xiaoping opined that Japan had exaggerated the Senkaku dispute and that
the “Chinese Government was forced to make clear its views” when Japan
raised the issue.46
The problem China faced was how to demonstrate its territorial claim
without thwarting conclusion of the treaty. Boundary disputes with other
countries were, no doubt, also a consideration, especially the disputes with
the Soviet Union and Vietnam, both of which were reaching critical points
at this time. Soviet negotiators would be returning to Beijing on 4 May 1978
to resume negotiations, and tensions along the Vietnamese border were
quickly escalating. Failure to react to Japan’s claims would have sent the
wrong signal to both Moscow and Hanoi.
The size, duration, and logistical support for the operation indicate that
it was someone like Deng Xiaoping, who controlled the military through
the Central Military Commission, which orchestrated the incident.47 This
forceful demonstration of China’s claim in the face of a challenge is not
surprising when one recalls China’s behaviour in other territorial disputes.
Beijing’s dilemma was how to assert its claim to the islands and then deal
with the post‑demonstration fallout and also conclude the Treaty of Peace
and Friendship.
Still unclear about the nature of Japan’s reaction, China’s initial response
was to reject Japan’s protests and assert its own claim to sovereignty.48 Chinese
officials claimed that Japanese actions precipitated the demonstration,
but, not anticipating Japan’s strong, unified response, Beijing faced a quan-
dary. It is unclear whether asserting that the incident was accidental was a
contingency plan or was adopted as the “official” explanation only after Geng
Biao offered it to the visiting Japanese delegation. Whatever the case, China
was able to avoid cancellation of the treaty negotiations while dramatically
asserting its claim to sovereignty over the islands.
The Beijing-controlled press in Hong Kong offered its view of the territorial
issue in a 19 May 1978 Xinwanbao article arguing that China “can only wait
until conditions are ripe. We cannot act recklessly.” The article supported
China’s decision to delay the question of sovereignty because “neither side
wants this problem to affect the negotiating and signing of the peace treaty
… Peking wants both the peace treaty and Tiaoyutai [the Senkakus]. China
has nothing to lose in negotiating and signing the peace treaty first and then
negotiating and reaffirming Tiaoyutai later.”49 No doubt echoing Beijing’s
views, the article underscores China’s changed attitude toward the Senkakus
because of the changing strategic environment and Japan’s new role in China’s
security strategy. As for Deng’s assurances to Sonoda during the final nego-
tiations that such an incident would not be repeated, a Xinwanbao article
argued that the assurance did not recognize Japanese sovereignty, as some
Japanese politicians had argued. Rather, it asserted that the assurance had
“nothing to do with giving consent to ownership of the controversial land
… As far as China’s stand is concerned, it will fight for every inch of its
land. This was China’s stand before and is China’s stand after the signing of
the treaty … Tacitness may sometimes occur (it is just impossible to shout
all day long). However, tacit consent will never be given.”50
The delicate nature of the Senkaku Islands dispute, the fishing boat inci-
dent, and Beijing’s handling of these problems was influenced by China’s
domestic political situation. With the change in China’s strategic calculations,
gaining popular support for rapprochement with Japan required dropping
public coverage of the territorial dispute while quietly insisting on China’s
claim. China was in the difficult position of being unable to assert its claim
publicly because this would have inflamed public opinion and complicated
subsequent compromise. Coverage given to other territorial disputes con-
trasts markedly with that given the Senkaku Islands at the time.
No reports of the fishing boat incident were ever published in the PRC.
Renmin ribao reported the meeting between Geng Biao and Japanese polit-
icians on 15 April 1978, but made no mention of the ongoing incident or
Geng’s explanation of it. Liao Chengzhi’s meeting with a Japanese delegation
the same day was also reported without mention of the fishing boat incident.
The press reported the meeting between Vice Foreign Minister Han Nianlong
and Ambassador Sato Shoji in mid‑May (which formally concluded the in-
cident), but did not mention the Senkaku Islands.51 The only Chinese publica-
tion that mentioned the dispute was Peking Review. It published excerpts
from a press conference held by Deng Xiaoping in Tokyo in October 1978,
at which he stated that “when we were negotiating the Treaty of Peace and
Friendship, the two sides again agreed not to touch on it” – an assertion
denied by Japan – and speculated that “our generation is not wise enough to
find common language on this question. Our next generation will certainly
be wiser. They will surely find a solution that is acceptable to all.” The report
did not mention the fishing boat incident, however.52 Not publicly pushing
the territorial dispute at this time, as Beijing had in the past, made it possible
for China to finesse the fishing boat demonstration and sign the peace treaty
with Japan, accomplishing a major foreign policy goal.
The Continuing Dispute

With the rise of Chinese nationalism in the 1990s and the conservative turn
in Japan, the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands dispute has had a new lease on life as
part of Chinese popular resentment of Japan and, in Japan, a symbol of Japan’s
concerns over a rising China. These developments as well as economic chan-
ges in both China and Japan have influenced the strategic calculations of
both Beijing and Tokyo and changed the dynamics of this dispute. During
demonstrations protesting Japanese history textbooks, the visits of Japanese
officials to the Yasukuni Shrine, and other issues related to the bitter legacy
of the Second World War and Japanese imperialism, the Senkaku Islands
issue is a persistent Chinese irredentist grievance. Protests have become a
regular occurrence and served to heighten popular awareness of the terri-
torial dispute. Incidents involving the islets have increased significantly since
1996, exerting pressure on Beijing to go beyond the war of words and take
action, but authorities have tried to stifle activists so that they do not hamper
Beijing’s flexibility in searching for a resolution.53 Tokyo is also pursuing a
more muscular foreign policy, and beginning in 2010, has adopted a more
rigid policy toward the Senkaku Islands by denying that there was any agree-
ment to shelve the sovereignty issue and asserting that the islands are Japan’s
“inherent territory” over which there “exists no issue of territorial sovereignty
to be resolved.”54 This uncompromising stand makes any concession by Tokyo
costly in terms of domestic politics. In September 2012, China responded
with a white paper detailing its historical case and refuting Japan’s claims.55
Tokyo’s more intransigent policy was exhibited in September 2010 when
a Chinese fishing vessel collided with a Japanese coast guard ship and Japan
detained the Chinese crew, causing a major diplomatic crisis; in earlier in-
cidents, Japan simply prevented Chinese fishing boats from entering waters
surrounding the islands or immediately released Chinese protesters at-

tempting to land on the islands.56 This incident heightened China’s vigilance
and marked the beginning of a much more “reactive assertiveness” on the
part of Beijing.
In April 2012, the nationalistic governor of Tokyo, Ishihara Shintaro,
proposed that the Tokyo municipal government purchase the islands in order
to enhance Japan’s “effective control” over them. This forced the Democratic
Party of Japan government to “nationalize” ownership of the islands by
purchasing them from their private owners that September, a move that
sparked a more persistent spike in tensions with China. In the view of the
Japanese government, nationalization was a proactive measure “aimed at
maintaining and managing the Senkaku Islands peacefully and stably on a
long-term basis,” to avoid complicating the dispute, and to reduce tensions
with Beijing and the popular outcry following the 2010 incident.57 However,
Tokyo’s increasingly intransigent language provoked government and popular
opinion in China, which framed “nationalization” as a tactic by Tokyo to
enhance Japan’s claim to the islands. Beijing responded by increasing the
frequency and duration of Chinese maritime enforcement vessels’ patrols
around the islands in a “tit-for-tat struggle (zhenfeng xiangdui di zuo dou-
zheng) to safeguard its territorial sovereignty.”58 At the same time, however,
Beijing has actively pursued crisis management at various levels.59
Even before the spike in tension since 2010, Beijing had pushed for negotia-
tions and proposed joint resource development around the Senkakus in 1990,
in 2006, and in 2010, shortly after the arrest of the Chinese fishing crew. In
June 2008, Beijing and Tokyo reached a “Principled Consensus on the East
China Sea Issue,” agreeing to jointly develop the Chunxiao oil and gas fields
located a few miles west of the unsettled median line and Japan’s claims. The
agreement was to “conduct cooperation in the transitional period prior to
delimitation without prejudicing their respective legal positions.” The con-
sensus was not a legal agreement but rather a concurrent press release with
no signatures, and differences over its meaning became apparent soon after
it was issued.60 The agreement raised Chinese expectations that Tokyo would
agree to joint development of the Senkaku Islands’ resources too, but Tokyo
nixed these proposals.61 Now, the objective of Beijing’s more assertive behav-
iour is to undermine Japan’s administrative control and to force Tokyo to
recognize that there is a dispute and engage in meaningful negotiations. The
Global Times, the populist and nationalistic newspaper published by the
Chinese Communist Party’s People’s Daily, ran an editorial in 2012 titled

“Backing Off Not an Option for China,” arguing that the “political dynamics
surrounding the Diaoyu Islands will surely be reshaped once China routinely
dispatches ships to patrol the islands … China should seek to gather mo-
mentum … to achieve these objectives … China should be confident about
strategically overwhelming Japan.”62
Despite this bombast, to Beijing a satisfactory resolution would be a
Japanese recognition that a dispute does exist and a settlement sometime in
the future when conditions are optimal, with joint development of resources
in the meantime. Beijing’s new, more assertive policy toward the Senkaku
Islands issue is also part of a larger goal to gain “more strategic space in the
western part of the Pacific, so that American strategic weapons will not be
able to pass through the … East China Sea” and China can break through
the barrier created by the chain of islands controlled by the United States
and its allies between China’s coast and the western Pacific Ocean.63
Conclusion
In the 1970s, China dropped its inflexible position on the Senkaku Islands
to achieve a foreign policy goal that was motivated by larger strategic ob-
jectives. Friendly relations with Japan, a key Asian power, became a Chinese
priority as the Soviet threat grew. In the late 1970s, an entente with Japan
was sought as China’s foreign policy came to rely on Japan and the United
States to maintain its security so that it could pursue its ambitious economic
development goals. Under the circumstances, China hoped to conclude a
Treaty of Peace and Friendship that included an anti-hegemony clause,
making it more politically significant as an anti‑Soviet treaty. This made
it necessary for China not to press its claim to the potentially resource-rich
Senkaku Islands and the surrounding seabed. When its claim to sovereignty
was openly challenged, however, Beijing felt unable to brush aside the issue
as it had in 1972, when relations between China and Japan were normalized,
and again in 1974, when the peace treaty negotiations commenced.
Allowing Japan to maintain control of the islands in practice while not
recognizing its sovereignty in principle became impossible once anti-treaty
Diet members linked the issue to the conclusion of the Treaty of Peace and
Friendship. The fishing boat demonstration reminded Tokyo of China’s claim
to sovereignty and possibly served as a signal to other countries that Beijing
would not back down if its sovereignty claims were challenged. Beijing did
not overplay its hand and signed the much-desired treaty, which included
the anti-hegemony clause, but it also asserted its claim to the Senkaku
Islands. A “premeditated accident” helped China accomplish these two
conflicting goals.
Although separated from the earlier territorial disputes and settlements
by over a decade, the influence of Beijing’s fundamental strategic impera-
tives on the handling of this territorial dispute is evident. That this dispute
fits within the context of China’s global strategy at the time is clear from the
following Chinese statement: “At the time of normalization of the diplomatic
relations between China and Japan and the conclusion of the peace and
friendship treaty, the two sides, taking the whole situation of Sino‑Japanese
friendship into account, had agreed to settle the question in the future.”64
The Senkaku Islands dispute remains unsettled and continues to be an
irritant in relations between the two countries. It flared up in 1990, when
the Japanese Maritime Safety Agency announced that it would formally
recognize the lighthouse, originally built in 1978 by a right-wing group, as
a “navigation mark.” This triggered a Chinese protest and Beijing asserted
that “we have always made it clear that China and Japan should place their
overall interests above everything else and handle the Diaoyu Islands issues
prudently, thus preventing it from affecting bilateral relations.”65 Two years
later, CCP General Secretary Jiang Zemin’s April 1992 visit to Tokyo was
complicated by the February promulgation of a new law on Chinese territorial
waters by the National People’s Congress; the law reasserted China’s claim
and authorized the use of military force to prevent foreign occupation of the
islands. The Foreign Ministry opposed the law, arguing that specific mention
of the Senkaku Islands would cause unwanted diplomatic friction with Tokyo,
but the military prevailed when it insisted that it would strengthen Beijing’s
hand in future negotiations.66 A year earlier, Foreign Minister Qian Qichen
had stated that China and Japan had “reached an understanding that this
issue should be set aside for the time being.” And despite the new law, Beijing
made it clear that it was still willing to be flexible and delay final settlement
to achieve more pressing and vital foreign policy objectives. In Tokyo, Jiang
Zemin reiterated China’s policy, stating that “Comrade Deng Xiaoping
thoroughly explained the Chinese government’s position and stand on the
Diaoyu Islands’ issue. This position and stand have not changed.”67 In 1993,
Beijing agreed to let Japanese oil companies participate in developing offshore
oil fields in the East China Sea, but only after Japan recognized the area as
Chinese territory. Tokyo agreed to these conditions, but differences soon
surfaced over the interpretation of the agreement. However, in June 2008,
following Hu Jintao’s visit to Japan the previous month, the first by a Chinese
president in a decade, the two countries finally concluded a joint development
agreement for the gas fields near the median line of the overlapping exclusive
economic zones. This establishes the precedent that Beijing will agree to
joint development if the territory in question is first recognized as Chinese
territory. A similar scenario in the South China Sea is possible.68
The “nationalization” of the islands by Tokyo in 2012 pushed tensions over
the islands to new heights and possibly signalled a new chapter in the ongoing
dispute. Public opinion and the rise of popular nationalism in both China
and Japan are relatively new factors. How these domestic political drivers,
which are deeply rooted in cultural and historical conflicts, and the evolving
military balance will affect any future settlement, or even an agreement
facilitating joint development, is a matter of speculation, but China has re-
strained popular nationalism in order to prevent the dispute from damaging
bilateral relations in other vital areas.69 China and Japan do profess to have
a “mutually beneficial relationship based on common strategic interests,”
something both governments consider key to improving their bilateral rela-
tions. In order not to hamper relations, the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands dispute
will have to be nested within the broader context of both countries’ strategic
and economic interests. To this end, on 7 November 2014, China and Japan
concluded a “four-point principled agreement.” The agreement “acknow-
ledged that different positions exist between them regarding the tensions
which have emerged in recent years over the Diaoyu Islands and some waters
in the East China Sea, and agreed to prevent the situation from aggravating
through dialogue and consultation and establish crisis management mech-
anisms to avoid contingencies.” 70 Beijing’s willingness to delay a resolution
of the dispute raises the question of why. First, the absence of a compromise
settlement is due to Japan’s persistent unwillingness to recognize that in fact
a dispute does exist. But China’s forbearance can be attributed to three fac-
tors: (1) the “shadow of the future,” or the anticipation of a more advantageous
settlement in the future; (2) “cost of compromise,” with possible exposure of
the regime to accusations of national betrayal (hanjian), a hypersensitive
concern in modern Chinese history; and (3) the “benefits of compromise,”
which do not yet outweigh the cost of the ongoing dispute to bilateral rela-
tions.71 A resolution of the dispute in the near term is unlikely, and China’s
larger strategic objectives still constrain Beijing to follow Zhou Enlai and
Deng Xiaoping’s earlier tactic of shelving the dispute in order to prevent it
from spiralling out of control and undermining those very objectives.
10 The Sino-Vietnamese Territorial
and Boundary Settlements
As was the case with India and the Soviet Union, for many years the Sino-
Vietnamese boundary dispute was masked by the close cooperation be-
tween China and North Vietnam in the face of a common threat, first from
France when it attempted to reassert control in Indochina after the Second
World War and then from the United States after the mid-1950s. However,
when Sino-Soviet tension grew in the late 1960s, the common strategic
imperative that had unified China and Vietnam also changed. Beijing began
to pursue rapprochement with the United States, still Hanoi’s major ad-
versary. Following the unification of Vietnam in 1975, there was a sig
nificant shift in the regional balance of power, and China witnessed the
“Soviet advance into the vacuum in Southeast Asia left by the withdrawal
of the U.S. … and [the unfolding of] Vietnam’s own ambitions in Indo
china.”1 Vietnam began to play an important role in what China considered
a Soviet attempt to encircle China. Eventually, Sino-Vietnamese tensions
escalated into open hostility when China acted to frustrate Vietnam’s bid
for regional domination.
Although treaties between China and France concluded in the final dec-
ades of the nineteenth century defined the entire boundary, it is helpful when
analyzing the dispute to divide it into three separate issues: the land bound-
ary, the delimitation of the Gulf of Tonkin (Beibuwan), and claims to the
South China Sea islands. The South China Sea disputes are considered in a
separate chapter. Here, we consider the land boundary and the delimitation
of the Gulf of Tonkin. Closely related to the Sino-Vietnamese land boundary
dispute is the Sino-Laotian boundary, also established by the same series of
treaties between China and France; this boundary settlement is considered
at the end of the chapter.
As in the cases already considered, the Sino-Vietnamese boundary dispute
must be framed in the broader context of China’s strategic concerns and
grand strategy. By the late 1970s, China’s relations with Vietnam took place
within the context of growing Soviet influence in Southeast Asia. The

growing tension between China and Vietnam in the late 1970s after several
decades of what appeared to be a close alliance culminated in a six-week
border war in February and March 1979. This enmity was merely a return
to the historical animosity between the two countries. The brief period of
cooperation was possible only because they faced a common threat from
the United States. Initially, in an attempt to reduce tensions, China quietly
sought a boundary settlement with Vietnam to eliminate territorial issues
as a source of friction. Failing to achieve this objective, China used the many
clashes along the border as a pretext to punish Vietnam for cooperating with
the Soviet Union and to “disrupt Soviet strategic calculation” and what Beijing
perceived as an attempt to encircle and contain China.2
Although Vietnam was often considered part of the Chinese empire
throughout the history of imperial China, Vietnamese resistance to Chinese
domination was consistent. In 938, during a period of disunity in China,
direct rule by China ended and Vietnam maintained its independence mil-
itarily; nevertheless, the Vietnamese court was still compelled to send tribute
missions to the Chinese court three times a year. Until the French coloniza-
tion of Indochina in the late nineteenth century, whenever a strong dynasty
emerged in China, it attempted to reassert direct control over Vietnam.
During the Ming Dynasty (1368‑1644), China re-established control for a
short period (1406‑27), but popular resistance forced it to retreat. The last
Chinese invasion, during the Qing Dynasty, was repulsed in 1789. Vietnam
celebrates these anti-China wars as great nationalist movements. More
recently, it has bitter memories of the post–Second World War Allied oc-
cupation of Vietnam by Chinese Nationalist forces. This historical legacy
leaves Vietnam wary whenever China is unified and strong.
During Vietnam’s postwar struggle for independence, the People’s Re
public of China extended assistance to the Vietnamese communists. Even
during this period of close cooperation, however, conflicting national inter-
ests caused tension. During the Geneva Conference of 1954, China supported
the proposal to partition Vietnam into North and South and pressured the
Vietnamese communists to go along. According to some reports, in an at-
tempt to bind North Vietnam to China, Ye Jianying, who led a military
delegation to Hanoi in December 1961, proposed the formation of a Sino-
Vietnamese military alliance, but Hanoi rejected the proposal.3 Sino-Soviet
The Sino-Vietnamese Territorial and Boundary Settlements 199
tensions and competition had an adverse impact on Vietnam; China rejected

a Soviet proposal for “united action” in Vietnam, and during the Cultural
Revolution it interrupted the flow of Soviet aid to Hanoi across China.
Chinese aid to the North during the Vietnam War is estimated to have
reached as high as $20 billion, making Vietnam the largest single recipient
of Chinese aid. The PRC also deployed many troops across the border from
1965 to 1971, and Chinese labourers maintained communication routes
during heavy American bombing.4 Perhaps most important, China deterred
the United States from a complete invasion of North Vietnam and therefore
played a crucial role in the North Vietnamese war effort.5 Vietnam acknow-
ledges the assistance rendered by China, but also feels that China’s real motive
was to deter the United States, not fraternal generosity.6
By the early 1970s, China and Vietnam’s strategic imperatives came into
conflict. The Soviet Union had emerged as China’s principal threat and China
began seeking rapprochement with the United States and Japan. The invita-
tion for President Nixon to visit China in 1972, while Vietnam was still
fighting a war against “American imperialism,” further strained Sino-
Vietnamese relations. Following the Paris Peace Accords in 1973, Vietnam
felt it could act more independently and no longer sought to strike a balance
between the Soviet Union and China. Thus, as relations between China
and Vietnam continued to deteriorate, territorial issues that had been down-
played historically began moving to the fore.
Although the territorial disputes have a long history, their re-emergence
in the mid‑1970s was a symptom of the underlying tension, which was
rooted in regional competition, alliance politics, and bilateral issues such
as the treatment of ethnic Chinese in Vietnam.7 This was clear during the
negotiations that followed the 1979 border war. Beijing often cited other
issues as the cause of the conflict and made it clear that issues that were not
even strictly bilateral, such as an anti-hegemony policy and Vietnam’s oc-
cupation of Cambodia, had to be dealt with before the territorial issues could
be settled.8 Beijing’s objective was to use a boundary settlement to improve
relations with Hanoi and undercut Moscow’s influence in the region.
Territorial Disputes
The territorial disputes were rooted in the interpretation of the boundary
treaty signed by the Qing court and France in 1887, which delimited the
land boundary (1,347 kilometres) and, according to Hanoi, the sea boundary
in the Gulf of Tonkin (see Map 14). A supplementary convention negotiated
Map 14 Vietnam
in 1895 also delimited the China-Laos boundary (see the discussion of

Laos below). The treaty was not subsequently challenged by China, but
Beijing’s reservations about the legitimacy of the treaty were announced
after the boundary dispute became public in the 1970s.9
Vietnam maintained that the treaties established a “complete borderline
which has a historical basis in the age‑old political life of the two nations,
a solid international legal value, and all practical elements for recognition
on the terrain.” At other times, however, Vietnam argued that the Sino-French
conventions “are too old and cumbersome to give guidance in defining the
frontier,” and contended that France “cut off” several pieces of Vietnamese
territory and gave them to China. A March 1979 Vietnamese statement raised
French territorial concessions and claimed that China had seized additional
territory prior to 1949; it accused the PRC of taking advantage of war-torn
Vietnam to move border markers, encroach into areas along the border, and,
in the guise of repairing the railroad, relocate the boundary 300 metres
further south in 1955.10
Although Beijing advocated using the Sino-French conventions as the

basis for a negotiated settlement, it considered them “unequal treaties.”
Beijing pointed out that while China was not defeated by France in 1885, the
“Qing Dynasty Government accepted France’s humiliating conditions and
signed an unequal treaty.” China countered Vietnam’s assertion that France
ceded Vietnamese territory with the query, “How could the Qing Dynasty
Government, corrupt and submissive to foreign powers as it was, ‘bring
pressure to bear on France’ and make the latter ‘concede’ land?”11
The dispute in the Gulf of Tonkin stemmed from the vagueness of the 1887
treaty. Article two of the treaty states:
The islands which are east of the Paris meridian of 105°43' east (108°3' east
of Greenwich), that is to say the north‑south line passing through the east
ern point of the island Tch’a Kou or Ouan‑Chan (Tra‑co), which forms the
boundary, are also awarded to China. The Gotho and other islands west of
this meridian belong to Annam.12
China maintained that this refers only to the islands and did not delimit
the gulf itself, while Vietnam argued that the treaty delimited the entire gulf
waters.
During a period of close cooperation between China and Vietnam in 1957,
it was understood that there were differences over the boundary, but Vietnam
proposed that the two countries maintain the status quo until a negotiated
settlement could be reached in “accordance with the existing legal principles
or with new ones defined by the two Governments.” In April 1958, the Cen
tral Committee of the Chinese Communist Party accepted this proposal.
Presumably as a show of good faith, Mao Zedong transferred control of Bach
Long Vi (Bailongwei or White Dragon Tail) Island, located west of the me-
ridian line, to Hanoi. Both Vietnam and China viewed the 1957‑58 exchange
of letters as being in “keeping with historical reality and international law,”
and constituting “the common basis for dealing with the boundary issues
prior to a negotiated settlement of the boundary question.”13
As Sino-Vietnamese relations deteriorated and China initiated boundary
discussions in 1973, Hanoi rejected the Sino-French treaty as the basis for
the boundary, arguing that it was “outmoded, too tedious, and not suitable
to mark the boundary,” but claimed that a “historical boundary line” existed.
Hanoi also claimed that the Gulf of Tonkin had never been delimited but
that a historical boundary existed. In 1974, an attempt to negotiate an agree-
ment on the Gulf collapsed after three months of negotiations. Beijing initi-
ated further boundary negotiations in 1975 in an attempt to stabilize relations
with Vietnam. After a June 1977 meeting between Li Xiannian and Pham
Van Dong, Vietnam agreed to enter formal negotiations that lasted from
October 1977 until August 1978.14
The basic disagreement was over the Sino-French conventions and China’s
assertion that they were unequal treaties and therefore a new agreement
must be negotiated. China accepted the earlier treaties, but only as a “problem
left over by history” and not binding in the ongoing negotiations. More
over, Beijing argued that since the original demarcation of the land bound-
ary, the passage of time had obscured the original markers, resulting in
confusion over the exact location of the boundary. Beijing would not accept
Hanoi’s position on the Gulf of Tonkin. Vietnam insisted that the entire
border was established and was reluctant to negotiate a new treaty for fear
that it would allow China to advance historical claims reaching beyond the
“borderline left by history.” These fundamental disagreements, especially
in the context of dramatically deteriorating relations, made mutual under-
standing and accommodation difficult.
Nevertheless, although negotiations were hampered by a dramatic rise
in tensions and although both sides maintained their basic positions, im-
portant procedural issues were settled. Beijing agreed that the alignment of
the boundary should be verified and adjusted as necessary according to the
Sino-French treaties, returning areas occupied beyond the boundary estab-
lished by the treaty. After differences were settled, a new treaty could be
concluded based on “respect for the borderline left by history” and the Sino-
French treaties. This new treaty would supersede the earlier ones. Vietnam
asserted that the treaties delineated the entire Sino-Vietnamese boundary,
including the Gulf of Tonkin, and that it was necessary only to replace
boundary markers that were destroyed or obscured.15 Agreement was eventu-
ally reached to deal with the land boundary first because of the ongoing
incidents and the real possibility of further military conflict. The Gulf of
Tonkin issue was much more complex and was therefore put off until after
resolution of the land boundary. The two sides agreed to a second round of
negotiations, but Vietnam’s treatment of overseas Chinese became the major
bilateral issue and the boundary was not discussed again until 1979, after
the six-week border war.
Prelude to War
As Sino-Vietnamese relations deteriorated, border incidents increased dra-
matically.16 As early as 1974, China accused Vietnam of “aggravating … ten-
sions along the Sino-Vietnamese border” by “inciting” incidents and violating
its territory. In the six months before the outbreak of hostilities in February
1979, China accused Vietnam of encroaching into Chinese territory in 162
locations, provoking 705 armed clashes, and killing or wounding more
than 300 people. One of the most serious incidents occurred in August 1978,
when, Beijing claimed, Vietnam attempted to force 2,000 Chinese across
the border, killing 4, and attacking PRC officials. Vietnam did not deny the
Chinese allegations of incursions, but also accused China of encroaching
on Vietnamese territory.17 China did not deny the Vietnamese allegations,
and in fact admitted that some incidents occurred when Chinese border
officials acted without government authorization.
Assuming that earlier cases demonstrate a clear pattern in China’s ap-
proach toward boundary disputes, I argue that Beijing was willing to settle
the boundary in order to improve relations with Hanoi in an attempt to
improve its strategic environment by curtailing the growing Soviet influ-
ence in Southeast Asia, China’s primary security concern at the time.
Nevertheless, tensions in Sino-Vietnamese relations continued to mount
as the Soviet-Vietnamese alliance became stronger. Vietnam joined the
Council on Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) in June 1978, and
China responded by cutting all economic aid and recalling its technical
advisers. Hanoi accused Beijing of anti‑Vietnam actions and collusion with
American imperialism. China began to portray Vietnam as the “Cuba of the
East.” In November, Vietnam signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation
with the Soviet Union. At this point, Beijing concluded that an improvement
in Sino-Vietnamese relations was unlikely and that closer Soviet-Vietnamese
cooperation to encircle China was inevitable.18 Despite efforts to solve
the boundary issues, Beijing concluded that any accommodation with Viet
nam was impossible while Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union.
Li Xiannian, the influential first-ranking vice premier at the time, made this
clear when he stated that “the Chinese people are very indignant at this. We
have time and again warned the Vietnamese not to turn a deaf ear to what
we have said.”19 By late 1978, China adopted a new, less conciliatory policy
toward Vietnam and began to consider actions to “punish” Vietnam and
thwart Soviet strategic objectives.
To prepare for such an eventuality, Beijing began to improve relations
with other states in the region. It retreated from its assertion of sovereignty
over the Senkaku Islands and concluded the Treaty of Peace and Friendship
with Japan in August, formalizing a Sino-Japanese entente, and then moved
quickly to normalize relations with the United States despite continued
arms sales to Taiwan. In the United States in January 1979, Deng Xiaoping
stated that “on questions of common interest and the current international
situation … there is much common ground between us.” He also clearly
indicated Beijing’s intentions to “teach Vietnam a lesson.”20
The 1979 Border War

China launched a “counterattack in self‑defense” against Vietnam on 15 Feb
ruary 1979, deploying an estimated 160,000 troops and carrying out air
strikes in Vietnam that destroyed military installations and industrial facili-
ties in the border area as well as bridges and roads. From the outset, Beijing
made its limited goals in the border war clear.21 After penetrating deep into
Vietnam, China proposed on 17 February that the two sides “speedily hold
negotiations to discuss the restoration of peace and tranquility along the
border and between the two countries and proceed to settle the dispute
concerning the boundary and territory.”22
Many scholars have argued that the February invasion was in retaliation
for Vietnam’s invasion of China’s ally Cambodia in December 1978 and
China’s perceptions of Soviet-Vietnamese collusion to dominate Southeast
Asia.23 These considerations are significant and all the issues were intertwined
as causes of the general deterioration in relations. However, placing too
much emphasis on these factors ignores the boundary issue itself as an
immediate cause of war, and neglects other factors such as the timing of
the Chinese invasion and Vietnamese provocations along the border.24
These provocations occurred while Vietnam was preparing to invade
Cambodia, and they provided Beijing with a pretext for invading, a dangerous
gambit that is difficult to explain. Months before the February invasion, China
had tried to discourage further provocation with clear warnings of possible
retaliation. A September 1978 Chinese Foreign Ministry statement warned
that Vietnam “must shoulder all responsibility for the consequences arising
from the … encroachment on Chinese territorial integrity and sovereignty.”25
This indicates that, as early as then, China had begun planning for war with
Vietnam as boundary incidents increased and relations deteriorated, even be
fore Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia in late December 1978. Renmin ribao gave
an unequivocal warning that “if it is attacked, it [China] will certainly counter-
attack,” and concluded with the assertion that “China means what it says.”26
If Beijing really wanted to deter Hanoi from invading Cambodia, China’s
“counterattack” would not have been launched after the Vietnamese inva-
sion of Cambodia. One must consider the opportunity presented to China:
with Vietnam preoccupied in Cambodia, it was an opportune time to settle
a score along the border and punish Vietnam for not settling the boundary
dispute earlier. That this was a major purpose of the “lesson” is demonstrated
by the fact that Deng Xiaoping, when presenting the case for China’s planned
invasion to the United States in January, cited China’s invasion of India in
1962 as a precedent.27 The Sino-Vietnamese border war also followed the
pattern set seventeen years earlier with India: if you fail to reach a com-
promise settlement in the boundary dispute, occupy disputed areas by
military force and then call for new negotiations. After the border war with
Vietnam, however, China clearly had several preconditions before the ter-
ritorial issues could be settled. Besides the boundary, Beijing was very con-
cerned about the growing Soviet-Vietnamese alliance and the direct threat
to China that it presented. In Beijing’s eyes, elimination of this strategic
concern was of primary importance, and, after the initial attempt to settle
the boundary failed, a boundary settlement became secondary.
Hanoi insisted that before negotiations could begin, China must with
draw its troops to the “other side of the historical frontier that the two sides
have agreed to respect.” 28 China withdrew its troops six weeks after the
invasion, although Vietnam protested that they continued to occupy areas
extending as far as ten to twenty kilometres inside Vietnam. China countered
that it was merely maintaining the “status quo border line” and that “those
places where there are Chinese troops are all on the Chinese side of the
boundary and have always been under China’s jurisdiction.” China accused
Vietnam of setting preconditions and called for the differences to be settled
during negotiations.29 Vietnam later dropped its preconditions and negotia-
tions began in Hanoi on 18 April 1979.
Renewed Negotiations
At the first session of this second round of negotiations, Hanoi offered a
three-point proposal calling for measures to secure peace along the border,
restore normal relations, and settle the boundary based on the historical
status quo and the Sino-French conventions of 1887 and 1895. Beijing sug-
gested an eight-point proposal during the following session.
China’s proposal made it clear Beijing now viewed the boundary dispute
in a much broader strategic context and wanted Vietnam to concede on
several issues of “principle” before actually dealing with the boundary dispute.
China wanted to restore relations based on the Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence; it also wanted an agreement on an “anti-hegemony” clause that
would forbid stationing troops in a foreign country or joining a military bloc.30
China agreed that the 1887 and 1895 Sino-French agreements should be used
as the basis for negotiating the land boundary, but insisted that modern
principles of international law be used to delimit the Gulf of Tonkin. China
also raised the South China Sea disputes and demanded that Vietnam revert
to its earlier position regarding the Paracel (Xisha) and Spratly (Nansha)
Islands and evacuate its troops from the latter. Previously Hanoi had not
asserted claims to the South China Sea islands and had not protested when
China drove South Vietnamese troops from the Paracels by force in 1974.
Clearly, Vietnam wanted to restrict the negotiations to the land boundary
issue and the recent military confrontation. On the other hand, China’s
earlier attempts to use boundary accommodation and conciliation to dis-
suade Hanoi from developing closer relations with the Soviet Union had
failed and unequivocal warnings had not deterred Vietnam from invading
Cambodia. China was now attempting to use a possible boundary settlement
to induce Vietnamese concessions on other issues of strategic concern.31 Most
important were the two issues of principle – anti-hegemony and the Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence – that required Vietnam to abandon its
new position of dominance in Indochina made possible by its alliance with
the Soviet Union. To reduce the tension along the border, Hanoi would first
have to curb that alliance and end its occupation of Cambodia. If successful,
China would achieve two important foreign policy goals: curtail Soviet influ-
ence in Southeast Asia and stop Vietnam’s growing domination of Indochina.
Despite having a basis for the settlement of the land boundary, moving
forward was difficult in the poisoned political atmosphere. Disagreement
over procedure caused negotiations to break down. China insisted on first
discussing the principle of not seeking hegemony. Vietnam denounced this
as an attempt by China to “evade its responsibility for the war of aggression
against Vietnam,” and accused China of “raising questions not belonging
to bilateral relations between the two countries.”32 China characterized

Vietnam’s three-point proposal as ignoring the “major issues of principle
leading to the dispute,” and therefore demonstrating Vietnam’s unwillingness
to “improve Sino-Vietnamese relations fundamentally.”33 Beijing remained
unyielding in its demand that “fundamental principles” be discussed before
dealing with the border dispute.
After several months of negotiations, it was clear that the two sides were
hopelessly deadlocked. At a press briefing on 28 June 1979, Han Nianlong,
the head of China’s delegation, rejected Vietnam’s proposals as “nothing
but an attempt to conceal the tense situation it continues to create along
the border.” In October, Hanoi published a white paper titled “Thirty Years
of Sino-Vietnamese Relations.” The document was so bitterly anti-China that
Beijing believed there was no hope of any progress in negotiations and
accused Hanoi of creating a new anti-China tide. At the thirteenth plenary
session of this second round of negotiations in Beijing on 19 October, Han
stated that “negotiations have reached a stalemate and it is difficult to make
any progress.” He reiterated that since a main cause of the poor relations was
the issue of regional hegemony, the two sides must therefore begin by dis-
cussing the “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and the principle of not
seeking hegemony.”34 Hanoi pressed for continued negotiation, but in March
1980 Beijing accused it of being insincere and rejected a new round, asserting
that Vietnam’s unwillingness to first discuss fundamental principles blocked
progress toward resolving the root cause of the conflict. Beijing stated that
it was “willing to wait patiently” and that “as soon as an active factor in favor
of talks emerges, even if it is a small one,” it would be willing to begin a third
round of negotiations.35
The negotiations broke down for political reasons, not because of dis
agreements regarding the Sino-French boundary conventions or the 1957‑
58 exchange of letters. Although China and Vietnam did not completely
agree on those issues, they were a basis for future negotiations. Beijing indi-
cated that maintaining the status quo, as had been agreed, did not mean that
they would determine disputed territory according to actual control, but
rather that minor adjustments should be made in a reasonable and fair
manner.36 In earlier boundary settlements with other countries, China had
adopted a similar position regarding treaties it considered unequal, but in
the end it had even ceded territory that had been China’s historically.
Technicalities or the interpretation of earlier treaties did not cause the
breakdown; rather, larger and more complex strategic issues surrounding

Sino-Vietnamese relations made progress toward a resolution unlikely at the
time. These relations deteriorated further when, in March 1988, China
wrested control of several islets in the Spratly group from Vietnam and es-
tablished its first foothold in the South China Sea (Chapter 12).
Negotiating a Settlement
With the collapse of the Soviet empire and the end of the Cold War, the
strategic environment changed quickly in Southeast Asia: Moscow curtailed
assistance to Vietnam and international pressure on Vietnam to leave
Cambodia intensified. With China’s preconditions for the restoration of rela-
tions largely satisfied, conditions were favourable for mutual accommodation.
Beijing moved quickly to adjust its policy toward Vietnam and take advantage
of the opportunity to enhance its influence in the region. It arranged a secret
summit with Vietnamese officials in Chengdu, China, in September 1990.
Although disagreements on many issues remained, the meeting paved the
way for a resumption of negotiations on the nettlesome boundary dispute. 37
Vietnamese Communist Party General Secretary Do Muoi and Prime Min
ister Vo Van Kiet travelled to Beijing in November 1991 to formalize normal
relations between the two countries. At the summit, they reached an eco-
nomic agreement and an agreement to resume boundary negotiations. 38
Although the South China Sea dispute caused a spike in tensions in February
1992, when China passed a law on territorial waters that asserted sovereignty
over all the islands of the South China Sea, Foreign Minister Qian Qichen
travelled to Hanoi that same month and the two countries agreed to renew
boundary talks at the working group level in October.
Negotiations on the land and sea boundaries took place in Hanoi in
February 1993 and in Beijing in August. During Foreign Minister Tang
Jiaxuan’s visit to Hanoi in October, preliminary agreements on principles
were reached and expert-level working groups were established. Meeting
in November, however, Chinese President Jiang Zemin and Vietnamese
President Le Duc Anh simply reiterated historical claims to the disputed
territory. The focus of the dispute was still the Sino-French treaties, both
their legitimacy and interpretation. Although “positive results” were claimed,
there was little indication that the two leaders made any substantive
progress.
Tension along the boundary continued to abate and the border was re-
opened in early 1992. By early 1995, twenty-one road links had been opened
and Vietnam had cleared thousands of mines along the border, allowing
nearly ten thousand families to return to the area; China also cleared
large minefields. In December 1995, during Do Muoi’s visit to Beijing, both
sides agreed in principle to re-establish rail links, and rail traffic resumed
the following February, although the three hundred metres of disputed
territory had not yet been resolved. Between 1992 and 1997, border trade
grew from $100 million to $360 million.39 An oral agreement was reached
to shelve the South China Sea dispute for the time being, and following a
second visit by Jiang Zemin in November 1994, a communiqué announced
the continuation of negotiations on the land boundary and the Gulf of
Tonkin. During Do Muoi’s 1995 visit to China, they finalized an agreement
to solve the boundary questions on the basis of international law and prac-
tice, using the Sino-French treaty as a basis for settling the land boundary
but modern international law to delimit the Gulf of Tonkin.40
Because the differences over the land boundary were less significant,
negotiations proceeded with relative ease as relations improved. In Bangkok
in February 1996 for the Asia-Europe Summit Meeting, Chinese Premier
Li Peng said that there was a consensus on the land boundary based on the
historical customary boundary with no significant adjustments, and that
negotiations on the Gulf of Tonkin would soon resume. In 1997, the two
sides agreed to conclude a land boundary treaty by 2000 and accelerated
the pace of negotiations, focusing on seventy specific disputed areas along
the border. The Gulf of Tonkin presented more complex challenges, and
so both sides agreed to put off negotiating this settlement until after the
conclusion of the land boundary agreement.41 In early 1999, the communiqué
following a visit to Beijing by Vietnamese Communist Party General Secre
tary Le Kha Pieu stated that “international law and reality” would be the
criteria for determining the final boundary. During Premier Zhu Rongji’s
visit to Hanoi in early December 1999, the boundary treaty was concluded,
with only a few technical issues left to be resolved before Foreign Minister
Tang Jiaxuan travelled to Hanoi later that month to sign the formal treaty.42
According to Vietnamese Foreign Minister Le Cong Phung, in the end, dis
puted territory was divided evenly, “ensuring fairness and satisfaction for
both sides.”43 Some details of the settlement were made public in 2002, in-
cluding the fact that of the 87.6 square miles of disputed territory along the
border, Vietnam received 43.6 square miles and China 44 square miles. A
ceremony in February 2009 marked the completion of demarcation and the
placement of 1,971 boundary markers along the border.44
Negotiations on the Gulf of Tonkin were complicated by recurring

incidents such as Vietnam’s seizure of Chinese fishing boats in July 1994
for “illegally” fishing in Vietnamese territorial waters and Hanoi’s solicitation
of foreign investment and development of gulf resources. Despite such
complications, however, the working group pushed forward.45 The major
dispute was over how to treat Bach Long Vi (Bailongwei) Island, located
midway between mainland Vietnam and Hainan Island, because the status
of this island was key to determining the location of the equidistant bound-
ary in the gulf.46
Meeting in Singapore in November 2000, Premier Zhu and Prime Min
ister Phan Van Khai agreed to accelerate negotiations and conclude a treaty
before the end of the year. In December, they signed the final agreement
delimiting the territorial waters, the exclusive economic zone, and the con-
tinental shelf in the Gulf of Tonkin. They also issued a joint statement de-
claring that outstanding issues (such as the South China Sea) would be
settled “in the spirit of tackling easier issues before difficult ones” and that
both countries would “not take actions to complicate or aggravate disputes.
Nor will they resort to force or the threat of force.”47
Conclusion
Despite the ongoing conflict over the South China Sea, China pushed for
ward with the settlement of the land boundary and the delimitation of the
Gulf of Tonkin. Clearly, the changing strategic environment played a critical
role. The collapse of the Soviet Union, Hanoi’s only patron, was a factor,
but even before this watershed, as Vietnam’s relations with Southeast Asian
nations began improving in the late 1980s, Beijing was anxious to eliminate
sources of friction in Sino-Vietnamese relations and pushed for normalizing
relations even before a resolution of the boundary and territorial issues – the
same position it had advocated during the initial negotiations following
the 1979 border war.48 Moreover, China did not want to allow the South
China Sea dispute with Vietnam to block the settlement of the land bound-
ary and the demarcation of the Gulf of Tonkin. The smouldering South China
Sea dispute would only alarm other countries and drive a wedge between
China and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Side
stepping the complex South China Sea dispute and quickly settling other
Sino-Vietnamese boundary and territorial disputes served Beijing’s broader
strategic interests in Southeast Asia.
As in previous boundary settlements, the historical boundary treaty

provided the basis for the conclusion of a new treaty. China conceded that
the nineteenth-century Sino-French treaties had established a boundary
and that this boundary simply needed to be restored and a new treaty con-
cluded, despite Beijing’s assertion that it was an unequal treaty. On the other
hand, China insisted that the treaty demarcating the Gulf of Tonkin was not
in harmony with modern principles of international law and therefore re-
quired negotiations to establish equidistant delimitation. In both cases, it
is clear that the broader international strategic context played an important
role in motivating Beijing to compromise and in facilitating a settlement
to eliminate causes of continuing friction.
The Sino-Laotian Border

The boundary between Laos and China should be considered in conjunction
with the Sino-Vietnamese boundary because it too is based on the Sino-
French treaty. Laos and China share a 260-mile boundary delimited by treaty
in 1895 and later demarcated (see Map 15). In the treaty, China renounced
any territorial claims to northern Laos. This treaty was a supplementary
convention to the 1887 agreement that delimited the Sino-Vietnamese
boundary from the Gulf of Tonkin to the Black River, near the present
Laos‑Vietnam border.
Following the rout of France from Indochina, China’s policy was to main-
tain Laos as a neutral buffer state. In 1958, it became very concerned about
US efforts to establish an anti-communist regime in Laos. An emerging
international crisis was defused by a second Geneva agreement in 1962 that
reaffirmed the neutrality of Laos, which China supported.
The People’s Republic of China and Laos established diplomatic relations
just before the conference held in Geneva opened in 1961, and China extended
economic assistance to Laos and began building a network of roads con-
necting China to northern Laos.49 Beijing’s real concern was the escalating
American presence in Southeast Asia, and its strategic objective at the time
of the second Geneva agreement was to decrease American influence in
Laos by supporting the neutralist forces. The Geneva conference established
a coalition government that included the Chinese-backed neutralist faction.
Beijing supported the proposal calling for Laos to “pursue a policy of neutral-
ity and refrain from joining military blocs, and the establishment of foreign
military bases on Laotian territory.” While the second Geneva conference
Map 15 Laos
reaffirmed Laotian neutrality, instability continued and Laos became a

theatre of the conflict in Southeast Asia for the coming decade. China became
increasingly involved by supporting the Lao People’s Democratic Govern
ment.50 However, following the end of the Vietnam conflict, Laos followed
Vietnam’s lead in tilting toward the Soviet Union and Sino-Laotian relations
deteriorated.
It is unclear why China and Laos did not negotiate a new boundary treaty
in the 1960s. In other cases, China’s neighbours took the initiative and Laos
may very well have been satisfied with the 1895 treaty. In fact, it was the
French treaty that initially established Laos’s present boundaries as a unified
state.51 China did not challenge the boundary’s legitimacy during the 1950s
and 1960s, and although Beijing was alarmed in 1975 when the Vietnamese-
backed regime came to power in Laos, it did not claim that a boundary
question existed.52 However, the Sino-Vietnamese boundary dispute, which
intensified in the late 1970s, was rooted in a fundamental disagreement
regarding the legitimacy of the 1887 and 1895 Sino-French boundary con-
ventions, and this directly affected the Sino-Laotian boundary. China began
questioning the boundary’s legitimacy because of the supplementary Sino-
French convention of 1895 that delimited the Sino-Laotian boundary, which
in the eyes of the Chinese was problematic for both historical and technical
reasons.53
Sino-Laotian relations began to improve in the mid-1980s and full diplo-
matic relations were restored in 1987. Laotian premier Kaysone Phomvihane
visited China in October 1989 and boundary issues were discussed. Bound
ary negotiations were held in August and November 1990. One area of
possible dispute was located near the China-Burma-Laos trijunction. The
area was recognized as Chinese by Britain in 1894 but was ceded to France
the following year.54 China may have raised the issue during negotiations,
but it posed no problem in reaching a settlement.55 Premier Li Peng travelled
to Vientiane in December 1990 and negotiations gained momentum.
During a third round of negotiations in September 1991, China and Laos
reached agreement on a border treaty based on the 1895 Sino-French con-
vention by “solving boundary problems through friendly consultation, in
the spirit of mutual understanding and mutual accommodation, and being
fair and reasonable.” With little fanfare, they signed a treaty in Beijing on 24
October, and exchanged instruments of ratification in Vientiane on 21 January
1992. Inspection and demarcation proceeded with no problems except
around a few villages where the boundary line was unclear, and were com-
pleted in April 1992.56 On 8 April 1994, China, Laos, and Myanmar (Burma)
signed an agreement delimiting the trijunction where their borders meet.57
After 1975, Laos was dominated by Vietnam and discussing the boundary
question was problematic. By the late 1980s, however, the time was ripe for
a settlement. The timing of the treaty, the basis for the delimitation of the
boundary, and the ease with which the treaty was negotiated are all signifi-
cant. As the balance of forces shifted in the region, Beijing adjusted to the
new power reality by pursuing better relations with Laos. The boundary
settlement led to the emergence of a pro-China tilt within the Laotian
government and a significant improvement in relations.58 Moreover, the treaty

sent a clear signal to Hanoi of Beijing’s willingness to solve their boundary
dispute based on the earlier Sino-French treaties; this set the stage for prog-
ress toward the settlement of the Sino-Vietnamese land boundary in the
coming years, and the subsequent settlement of the much more complex
Gulf of Tonkin dispute.
PART 4
Contemporary Settlements
and Disputes
11 Boundary Settlements with
Eurasian States
As early as the Han Dynasty, China attempted to project its influence into
Eurasia for strategic reasons, primarily to form alliances against the Xiongnu,
who threatened China’s northern frontier. Because of the importance of the
historical Silk Road, Eurasia was strategically important and historically
“Chinese strategy towards its Central Asian frontier was cognizant of the
fact that the power of the centre was linked to its ability to project its influ-
ence along the distant periphery.”1 China’s control over its western frontier
waxed and waned as its dynastic reach expanded and contracted.
The collapse of the Soviet Union was a watershed in China’s strategic
environment. Although the People’s Republic of China had extended firm
control over its western border after 1949, Beijing inherited a 2,800-kilometre
unsettled boundary with newly independent Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and
Tajikistan in 1991 (see Map 16). Beijing’s primary security concern was the
power vacuum in the region and what this meant for China’s security along
its western boundary. It was particularly concerned about the subsequent
increase in the influence of the United States in the region, perceiving Turkey,
a NATO member, to be a “conduit for the expansion of US interests in the
region.”2 On the other hand, China’s historical legacy made the Central
Eurasian states apprehensive about Beijing’s ambitions in the region. In fact,
“in the collective memory preserved in the oral epics of Central Asian peoples,
in particular among the Kazakh and the Kyrgyz, traditionally the Middle
Kingdom is presented as the historical enemy of peoples of the Steppe.”3
Quickly addressing the boundary questions left over by history was Beijing’s
first move to dampen any apprehension about China’s historical irredentism
in the region and establish a foundation for good relations with the newly
independent Central Eurasian states.
There is very little detailed information available on the exact nature of
China’s boundary differences with these states, except for the most conten-
tious boundary dispute, in the Pamir Mountains with Tajikistan. What were
218 Contemporary Settlements and Disputes
Map 16 Central Eurasia
the “problems left over by history” and how did resolving them facilitate
China’s grand strategy? To answer these questions, the Sino-Eurasian bound-
ary settlements and other economic, military, and cultural agreements
must be placed in the larger strategic context of China’s foreign policy toward
the region.
Beijing’s Grand Strategy and the Boundary Settlements

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, a new “Great Game” emerged in
Eurasia. Different from the nineteenth-century strategic competition that
pitted Great Britain against Czarist Russia, the major players today are the
United States (and its NATO allies), China, and Russia, with the vast natural
resources of the region as the prize. China seeks to establish a security per-
imeter in this crossroads by a “good neighbour policy” to ensure its strategic
and economic security.4 Beijing used boundary settlements to facilitate
improved relations in response to changing strategic imperatives, a pattern
consistent with earlier cases. Premier Li Peng made this policy clear during
Boundary Settlements with Eurasian States 219
his April 1994 Eurasian trip. Speaking before the parliament of Uzbekistan,
he stated that disputes should be settled “through peaceful negotiations, in
the spirit of equal consultation, mutual understanding and mutual accom-
modation.” However, “when conditions are not ripe, disputes can be shelved
temporarily, and efforts made to seek common ground. Disputes over some
issues should not hamper the development of normal nation-to-nation
relations.”5 In Kazakhstan, President Jiang Zemin expressed the view that
“historically boundary problems are very sensitive and complicated ques-
tions and if handled poorly, will result in conflict.” But, he concluded, the
“smooth resolution of this problem … will have a positive influence on the
resolution of boundary problems with other countries.”6
China’s relations with the Central Eurasian states are themselves a “prob-
lem left over from history.” Long before the establishment of the People’s
Republic of China, Russia had asserted control over Eurasia. Boundary and
other questions in the region became a subset of the larger Sino-Soviet re-
lationship. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Beijing faced the challenge
of managing bilateral relations with the newly independent states, for which
the long-smouldering boundary disputes were central concerns.
The Central Eurasian states perceived China as a potential economic
and demographic threat. Many analyses of China’s potential threat focus on
China’s dramatic population growth and energy needs and the pressure this
could generate for Chinese lebensraum.7 In 1989, only an estimated forty
thousand people crossed the border between China and Central Asia. In
1994, an estimated 300,000 Chinese lived in Kazakhstan, and this grew to
500,000 early in the twenty-first century. A senior Kazakh military official
concluded that “if we do not stop the flood coming to Kazakhstan, there
is no doubt that they will overcome us in ten to fifteen years.”8 Kazakh schol
ars were also apprehensive because parts of present-day Kazakhstan are
identified as historically part of China on some Chinese maps. Apprehension
grew over Beijing’s irredentist claims and the possibility of Chinese expan-
sion. In Kyrgyzstan, Chinese traders purchased considerable amounts of real
estate, alarming local officials.
Beijing took steps to allay such fears of Chinese revanchism. It too was
very apprehensive about the instability that developments in Eurasia could
cause in China, so it quickly uncoupled its foreign policy toward Moscow
from relations with Central Eurasian states because of the region’s strategic
importance to China.9 Beijing had a historic opportunity to re-establish Chin
ese influence in Eurasia at the expense of Russia, but also faced a potential
challenge to Beijing’s control over western China if ethnic unrest escalated

in Xinjiang.
After establishing relations with the Eurasian states in early 1992, China
signed within a short period of time over twenty agreements on economic
and cultural cooperation. At the same time, it “began to discuss some
issues that influenced the further development of relations” important to
China’s security, resulting in, for example, the September 1995 communiqué
announcing a unified stand in opposition to separatism.10
During the 1970s, this unsettled frontier had been a potential flashpoint
for Sino-Soviet military conflict. Negotiations on the reduction of military
forces along the frontier began in November 1989 and, after the breakup
of the Soviet Union, continued with the newly independent republics.
China initiated talks in Moscow with a united delegation from Russia and
the Eurasian states in late July and early August 1992. In September, China,
Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan signed an agreement to
proceed with negotiations on the mutual demobilization of forces along the
frontier.11
Beijing was no doubt alarmed when in July 1994 the Central Eurasian
states joined the US-sponsored NATO Partnership for Peace. Responding
to these growing security concerns, China pressed for closer security rela-
tions with its neighbours. On 26 April 1996, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Russia, and China formed the “Shanghai Five” and signed an
agreement on confidence-building measures along the border. Xinhua
emphasized that the agreement “shows that China is an important power
and a factor in safeguarding peace and stability,” and is a “repudiation of the
so-called ‘China threat’ theory spread in the world by those who have ulterior
motives.”12 The Hong Kong Wenhui bao editorial was more explicit:
The five nation agreement is aimed at safeguarding peace and reducing mil-
itary activity, whereas the NATO … security system was established during
the Cold War period. However, instead of ending itself after the Cold War, it
still operates with an overbearing air … NATO is actively expanding itself …
NATO constitutes a new threat … The revival of the military system of the
Cold War period indicates that instead of restraining its power politics and
hegemonism, the superpower [USA] is intensifying its efforts to continue
to pursue them. This cannot but evoke the concern and vigilance of various
countries in the Asia-Pacific region.13
On 24 April 1997, a second agreement was reached to withdraw military

forces 100 kilometres along the 3,000-kilometre boundary. On 3 July 1998,
a third agreement reaffirmed the first two agreements and emphasized
cooperation to dampen ethnic unrest in the region. These three agreements
were significant confidence-building measures and, for China, a reassurance
of its security. The agreements were also important adjuncts in the final
settlement of the boundary issues that eliminated barriers to further de-
velopment of relations.
The connection between larger geostrategic concerns and boundary
settlements was illustrated by a Chinese scholar, Zhang Wenmu. He argued
that the United States is driven by concerns over energy security and con-
cluded that the “trend in US foreign policy toward South and Central Asia,
will have an effect upon Tibet and Xinjiang. The military power of NATO
has already been extended to Central Asia, and as soon as the US forms a
military alliance … similar to the one it has with Japan, China will certainly
be deeply concerned about the security of the western region of Tibet and
Xinjiang.” The author goes on to argue that it is very possibly a goal of the
West, led by the United States, to divide western China and “use Tibet and
Xinjiang to establish a political buffer between China and the oil producing
countries of Central Asia and the Middle East.”14 Therefore, the author con-
cluded, China must
from a geopolitical perspective, recognize the strategic significance of the

Tibet/Xinjiang region to China’s development in the next century … The
Tibet/Xinjiang region is China’s geopolitical pivot … If Tibet and Xinjiang
become independent, it will certainly cause a chain reaction, and China’s
western front will not only lose the natural protection of the high plateau
buffer, but this also will threaten the industrial security of the southwestern
region … China must emphasize good neighborly relations with the Central
Asian states and, from a geostrategic perspective, recognize the far-reaching
significance of China’s involvement in the development of the oil resources
of Central Asia and the Middle East.15
This may represent an alarmist viewpoint, but the author was an analyst
at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations, an official
research institute under the State Council’s Ministry of State Security, and
then a professor at the Center for Strategic Studies at the Beijing University
of Aeronautics and Astronautics (now Beihang daxue). Strategy and Manage

ment, in which Zhang’s analysis appeared, is not an official publication but
is published by the China Institute for Strategy and Management, an organ-
ization with close ties to the People’s Liberation Army and strategic circles
in China.
Economic Context
Eurasia quickly became an important focus of China’s economic attention
as part of the “Great Islamic Circle” and the revival of the “Silk Road” econ-
omy in the wake of the disintegration of the Soviet Union and economic
reform in China that emphasized western China’s development. In 1992,
Xinhua promoted this new thinking, asserting that China would “boldly lay
down a new strategy” by promoting economic relations with the newly in-
dependent Central Eurasian states. Chinese economic reformers in Xinjiang
argued that the “geographical, human and cultural advantages” of Xinjiang’s
ethnic ties with other parts of Eurasia would facilitate western China’s eco-
nomic development due to “complementary resources and markets.”16 China
promoted trade and investment in all three of the neighbouring states, with
most of the investment going to the largest state, Kazakhstan, particularly
its energy sector.
Border trade is an important part of the growing economic ties. In 1989,
Xinjiang’s trade with Soviet Central Asia amounted to only US$118.5 million.
By 1994, trade through fifteen border towns totalled US$570 million, an
increase of 58 percent since 1992. By one estimate, by late 1992 Kazakhstan
imported 50 percent of its consumer goods from China. In 1995, total
trade between China and Eurasia was an estimated US$718 million, with
border trade accounting for $500 million. Trade with Kyrgyzstan grew by
85 percent in 1998, to US$200 million. With over sixty cross-border transport
routes, by 2004 Xinjiang’s trade volume reached US$3.7 billion, 65 percent
of the region’s total trade; of this total, Xinjiang-Kazakh bilateral trade was
US$3.3 billion, or 73 percent of China’s total. China became Kazakhstan’s
major trading partner, and 25 percent of Kyrgyzstan’s foreign trade was
with China. Trade with Tajikistan totalled only $2.7 million in 1992, but
expanded rapidly to $4.4 million in the first four months of 1993. China’s
exports to Tajikistan as a percentage of its total imports climbed from 0.3
percent in 1999 to 4.1 percent by 2004.
Trade potential was indicated by the numerous economic cooperation
agreements that were concluded. Following the boundary settlements,
China’s relations with its Eurasian neighbours continued to develop rapidly,

significantly displacing Russian influence in the region. In 2000, only 3.8
percent of the region’s trade was with China, but by 2010 this had grown to
24.4 percent, primarily at the expense of Russia. China-Eurasian trade was
only US$1 billion in 2000, but had leaped to US$459 billion by 2012, making
China Central Eurasia’s largest trading partner. China also became a major
lender, providing US$10-15 billion for Kazakhstan and over US$603 million
for Tajikistan, and setting up a US$10 billion loan facility for members of
the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (formerly the Shanghai Five).17
By 2004, Beijing had invested approximately US$4 billion in Eurasia, not
including Kazakhstan, which has been the primary target of China’s invest-
ment.18 In 2005, China pledged US$900 million to Kyrgyzstan to build a
transportation network, granted Tajikistan US$6 million in unattached
aid, and committed to investing over US$11 million in Gorno-Badakhshan,
the remote region of Tajikistan nearest the Chinese border, with fifteen joint
Tajik-Chinese projects.19 The China-Kazakhstan rail link was completed in
September 1990, and a new Central Eurasian transport artery – an Islamabad-
Kashgar-Bishkek-Almaty Highway – was opened in October 2004. In sub
sequent years, more roads were opened connecting Tajikistan with China,
such as the 700-kilometre Khorog-Karakoram Highway, which opened in
May 2004. Opening roads established important economic links and is a
significant part of China’s strategy to connect Eurasia to itself economically
and geopolitically.20
Oil and gas development is an important area of strategic cooperation. An
oil-importing country, China has turned to the Eurasian states as a reliable
source of energy. In 1994, China signed an agreement with Turkmenistan
to construct a Turkmenistan-China-Japan gas pipeline.21 In 1997, it won the
bid to develop Kazakhstan’s Uzen oilfield and construct a 3,000-kilometre
oil pipeline from Kazakhstan’s Caspian oilfields at Tengiz to Xinjiang, and
then to China’s eastern coast. During the bidding, China was in competition
with Russia, the United States, and other Southeast Asian nations for the
estimated $10 billion project.22 Pipeline construction began in September
2004, was completed in 2011, and now carries 20 million tons of oil a year
over its 3,000 kilometres. China also signed agreements with Kazakhstan
to develop the Aktyubinsk oilfields along the Russian-Kazakh border, and
built a 988-kilometre pipeline from Atasu to the Chinese border. Total Chin
ese investment in oil resource development in Kazakhstan is estimated at
US$9.7 billion, equivalent to 50 percent of Kazakhstan’s GNP. In 2003, a
natural gas pipeline project alongside the oil pipeline was undertaken. The
commitment to the two pipelines was reaffirmed in July 2005 along with
the establishment of a strategic partnership. In total, China has invested
approximately US$9 billion to build a network of pipelines linking the
region.23
These agreements are a clear indication that China and Central Eurasia
are developing important strategic economic links. In particular, the pipe-
lines, which will form a “steel umbilical cord” between China and the
region, will greatly influence the balance of power. By 2008, the region pro-
vided China with approximately 5 percent of its imported oil, and this is
expected to rise to 10 percent when all projects are completed. China is
not only seeking energy security for the future but also attempting to shift
the focus of Central Eurasia’s global vision toward itself and away from Russia
and Turkey.24
Problems Left Over from History

Although the collapse of the Soviet empire created new strategic and eco-
nomic realities, China and the three newly established Central Eurasian
states also inherited a legacy of “unequal treaties” and territorial disputes.
Beijing’s stated policy toward “questions left over from history” was that
“the Chinese government has taken the most prudent approach towards
the boundary questions … While both the historical background and the
actual circumstance that have taken shape are to be given due regard during
negotiations, necessary adjustments can be made with the consent of
both parties.”25 The Sino–Central Eurasian boundary was originally estab-
lished by “unequal treaties” – the 1860 Treaty of Beijing, 1864 Protocol of
Tarbagatai (Chuguchak), the 1881 Treaty of Ili (St. Petersburg), and the 1884
Sino-Russian Treaty of Kashgar. According to Chinese scholars, through
these treaties, China lost 440,000 square kilometres of territory south and
east of Lake Balkhash, and 70,000 square kilometres east of Lake Zayson.26
Beijing’s position regarding this “lost territory” was that “it was Tsarist
Russia that forced China into signing these unequal treaties … [but] the
Chinese government is ready to let the entire alignment of the boundary
line … be determined on the basis of those unequal treaties.”27 In the course
of boundary negotiations with Central Eurasian states, there is no indica-
tion that China raised the issue of “unequal treaties” or “lost territory.” This
was certainly not the case in the earlier territorial disputes with the Soviet
Union, where China frequently asserted that over 1.5 million square kilo-
metres of territory was “lost” to Czarist Russia by unequal treaties. Accord
ing to the policy statement quoted above, however, China was willing to
accept the unequal treaties as the basis for new boundary agreements, a
pattern motivated by larger strategic concerns and followed in all earlier
boundary settlements in an effort to develop closer relations with neighbours
that had their own security considerations.
One problem in reaching new boundary agreements was that, according
to Beijing, Czarist and Soviet Russia had even encroached into Chinese ter-
ritory beyond the boundaries stipulated in the earlier treaties, creating many
newly disputed sectors that required negotiations.28 One oft-cited example
was the 1892 Russian occupation of more than 20,000 square kilometres of
Chinese territory in the Pamir region, which China insisted “must, in prin-
ciple,” be returned “unconditionally.” Even so, China conceded that in such
cases, “both sides can, considering the interests of the local inhabitants,
make necessary adjustments.”29 This historical issue made the Sino-Tajik
treaty the most complicated and sensitive of the three settlements.
Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Sino-Soviet boundary negotiations
had made significant progress. In Beijing in December 1990, the first meeting
of a joint working group was held to discuss the Sino-Soviet Eurasia bound-
ary. Before the work of this group made any significant progress, the Soviet
Union collapsed and China faced three newly independent states and a dif-
ferent set of challenges. Beijing sought to demonstrate its benign interests
in Central Eurasia by quickly initiating boundary negotiations in October
1992. Initially Russia joined the negotiations in a four-plus-one arrange-
ment, both to provide the Eurasians with necessary expertise and to relieve
fears that China would bully the three states into major territorial conces-
sions. Initially, each government reaffirmed the principles for resolving
the boundary disputes reached in previous Sino-Soviet border talks, and
agreed to establish working groups to draft boundary settlements and con-
tinue negotiations on sectors that were yet to be settled.30 In April 1993, the
five states met again in Shanghai to continue discussions. They identified
twenty disputed sectors comprising an estimated total disputed area of ap-
proximately 35,000 square kilometres. The largest and most complex dispute
was with Tajikistan, in the Pamir Mountains.31
Kazakhstan
China and Kazakhstan inherited fifteen disputed sectors along their border.
One report asserted that even though Kazakh officials had wanted to initiate
boundary talks earlier, China would not agree to such talks. Accordingly,
the conclusion at the time was that China would delay any boundary settle-
ment and reserve irredentist claims as an option for future expansion. 32
However, during a visit to Beijing by Foreign Minister T.S. Suleymenov
in August 1992, Beijing agreed to settle the boundary. Over the next two
years, talks were held each month until an initial agreement was reached.
Following a preliminary agreement in July 1993, Premier Li Peng signed
a Sino-Kazakh boundary treaty on 26 April 1994 and the instruments of
ratification were exchanged in Beijing on 13 September 1995. This initial
treaty left several disputed sectors unresolved, but supplementary agree-
ments were signed on 25 September 1997 and, in Almaty, Kazakhstan,
during a visit by President Jiang Zemin, on 4 July 1998. According to Renmin
ribao, the second supplementary boundary agreement marked the “com-
prehensive settlement of boundary questions between the two countries
left over by history,” a 1,783-kilometre border that involved approximately
2,200 square kilometres of disputed territory. China received approximately
43 percent of the disputed territory, and Beijing relinquished its claim to
almost all the territory already controlled by Kazakhstan.33
The April 1994 boundary agreement with Kazakhstan “established basic
principles for resolving the lingering historical problems” along the bound-
ary, but did not cover three areas that remained disputed.34 High-level leaders
overcame some of these problems, and the supplementary boundary agree-
ment signed in September 1995 settled an eleven-kilometre dispute in the
Khan Tengri (Hantenggeli) Peak area. This was a breakthrough in settling
the remaining areas of disagreement.35 A Sino-Kazakh joint boundary com-
mission was established, and between 29 July 1996 and 8 September 1997 it
held ten meetings and resolved the principal differences. Following a survey,
several points of dispute still remained, with China alleging that problems
in delimiting the boundary occurred when local Kazakh governments settled
people along the disputed areas and created problems over water resources.
The final settlement was reached in July 1998 on the basis of historical
nineteenth-century documents. Boundary delineation was completed in 2002
and demarcation in November 2003, and markers were set in place by 2005.36
There were minor difficulties in concluding the settlement, and many
protested the fact that Kazakhstan “ceded” territory to China. Kazakh Foreign
Minister Tokayev rejected the protests, stating: “Let me emphasize right here
and now: Kazakhstan did not give any lands to China. According to the
delimitation agreement, the border runs along the line along which it has
always run, i.e., along the guarded line. In other words, Kazakhstan did not
gain or lose anything.”37
The Sino-Kazakh boundary was an issue that, according to Chinese ac-
counts, had “stood between the two neighbors for years.”38 Fu Quanyou,
chief of the General Staff of the People’s Liberation Army, characterized the
boundary negotiations as “smooth” and as setting the stage for “increasing
political mutual trust between the two sides” and “smooth cooperation in
the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.” However, some eminent scholars
of China’s diplomatic history continued to include a “litany of historical
grievances” in books published after the boundary settlement, and other
elites expressed dissatisfaction with the treaties and feared that China would
concede too much in a subsequent settlement with Tajikistan.39 Despite some
popular misgivings, the border settlement removed a major source of ten-
sion in Sino-Kazakh relations and helped Beijing strengthen and solidify
security relationships with increased economic ties. At the press conference
following the signing ceremony for the second supplemental agreement in
1998, Jiang Zemin stated that, in a “spirit of mutual understanding and
mutual accommodation, and based on considerations for mutual benefit,”
the two countries had established a “boundary with no problems, a bound-
ary of peace and friendship, and a boundary that will foster the mutual
prosperity of both countries.”40
Kyrgyzstan
In April 1993, Premier Li Peng and Kyrgyzstan’s president, Askar Akayev,
initiated talks on a boundary settlement. A statement indicated that a
settlement of the eight disputed sectors would be finalized “in the not-too-
distant future.” Li stated that “reaching a border agreement at an early date
will be of great significance to strengthening Chinese-Kyrgyz relations. It is
hoped that the border between the two countries will become a bond of
peace and friendship, as well as a bridge leading to economic prosperity” and
a “new silk road.” It was clear that a boundary settlement was near, but that
“friendly negotiations on some remaining issues should be continued.”41
A tentative accord was reached during a July 1995 meeting of high-
level officials held in Beijing, and in January 1996, topographic maps were
exchanged after three years of work by a joint mapping group that “laid a
solid foundation for future border surveys and demarcation work.”42 Finally,
on 4 July 1996, President Jiang Zemin signed a boundary agreement,
characterized by a Chinese spokesperson as “yet another important positive
element … in enhancing regional peace and stability.”43 The instruments
of ratification were exchanged on 29 April 1998, settling most of the 858-
kilometre Sino-Kyrgyz boundary involving approximately 3,700 square
kilometres of disputed territory. The Sino-Kyrgyz joint communiqué
stated that the two sides would “strictly observe” the boundary treaty and
at an early date begin the process of demarcating the border using the “present
boundary treaty as the basis, through consultations on the basis of the
spirit of equality and mutual understanding, and according to the recog-
nized principles of international law, [and] through negotiations proceed to
determine the boundary line in the remaining sectors and comprehensively
and completely settle the boundary questions.”44 In the final settlement, China
received 30 percent of the disputed territories, approximately 1,270 square
kilometres.45 The Kyrgyz government recognized land in four disputed
sections as Chinese territory, causing some internal dissension in Kyrgyzstan
and heightening anti-Chinese sentiment among the Kyrgyz.46
The agreement left unresolved the sensitive Uzengi-Kuush river basin
sector. The dispute was finally resolved in August 1999, and in response to
domestic Kyrgyz opposition to the supplementary boundary treaty, President
Akayev indicated that the negotiations had not been easy but argued that
China “advocate[d] a generous policy towards Kyrgyzstan in general and
border issues in particular.”47 China initially demanded 94 percent of the
3,000 square kilometres of this hotly contested sector but was willing to
divide the disputed territory fifty-fifty. After further negotiations, Beijing
relented and received only 30 percent (900 square kilometres) of the disputed
area. Although Kyrgyzstan received 70 percent, members of parliament
initially refused to ratify the supplementary treaty.48 A trilateral agreement
also signed in August 1999 established the Chinese-Kazakh-Kyrgyz bound-
ary intersection with “sacred” Khan Tengri Peak as the conjunction. Although
this settlement was controversial, with some allegations that Kazakhstan
and Kyrgyzstan had surrendered territory, no historical documents identi-
fied the peak with any specific country. Akayev described the issue as “one
of the most sensitive issues” in Sino-Kyrgyz bilateral relations, and described
the resolution of this “burden of the past” as “a truly history-making day.”49
Opposition to ratification led to protests in January 2002, reportedly the
worst political violence to date since Kyrgyzstan became independent. Several
thousand people demonstrated against the new boundary and several dozen
demonstrators were arrested in front of parliament by the Kyrgyz police.
Nevertheless, Akayev pushed ratification through while opposition leaders
complained that this violated proper procedures for ratification, which re-
quired a two-thirds majority. 50 A Kyrgyz Foreign Ministry official charac-
terized the boundary question as a “burden inherited from the Soviet past”
and criticized those who opposed the settlement as having “no idea of
how complex and delicate an issue this is,” rejecting the accusation that cor-
rupt Kyrgyz officials received side payments from China for ceding terri-
tory. The official explained that “what was at stake was an ‘area on which
there was no agreement’ or, in normal diplomatic parlance, a ‘disputed area’
… that belonged to neither side. The question had remained unresolved
for over 150 years, and it was now necessary to establish the line of the
state border between the Kyrgyz Republic and the People’s Republic of
China.”51 After years of negotiations and work on the ground, the Sino-Kyrgyz
border was fully demarcated by September 2004.52
Tajikistan
Civil war in Tajikistan delayed negotiations and Beijing did not push to reach
an early compromise settlement.53 China had consistently asserted that, in
violation of the 1884 Sino-Russian Kashgar Boundary Treaty, Czarist Russia
had occupied approximately 28,000 square kilometres of Chinese territory
in the Pamir Mountains in 1892.54 Negotiations eventually got under way in
October 1997, and in August 1999 an agreement settled the boundary except
for one complicated sector. The agreement divided disputed mountain passes
equally in the Pamirs and the Karazak Pass region. A July 2002 agreement
settled the intersection of the Kyrgyzstan-China-Tajikistan boundary, and
a supplementary Sino-Tajik boundary agreement in May 2002 finalized the
boundary. Even before the boundary settlement, however, Beijing and
Dushanbe concluded numerous agreements, including one to open a road
connecting the two countries to facilitate border trade.55
Negotiations with Tajikistan were more difficult due to Beijing’s asser-
tion that, despite the unequal treaties, Czarist Russia had still encroached
further into China’s territory. Also complicating a settlement was the sec-
ondary impact on Tajikistan’s relations with its other neighbours. Tajik
President Emomali Rakhmanov recognized this, saying: “We are facing the
heavy task of solving … the important border issues left by history.” A Tajik
newspaper made the concerns more explicit, writing that “the day may come
when China will raise border problems and demand its so-called historical
territories from Tajikistan, and then we shall also demand our historical
lands back from our neighbours.” Nevertheless, the paper also indicated a
realistic approach and willingness to negotiate a settlement, saying that
“the opportunity of gaining independence should not be lost because of
border disputes.”56
This boundary on the eastern slope of the “Pamir Knot,” in the region of
Gorno-Badakhshan, was isolated, with no modern roads suitable for com-
merce linking Tajikistan and China.57 Beijing turned to Kazakhstan as a
“strategic partner” to act as a “consultant” in the negotiations with Tajikistan.58
In January 1996, progress toward an eventual settlement was symbolized
by the exchange of topographic maps of the disputed areas.59 Initial boundary
negotiations held from 25 to 30 October 1997 resulted in “substantial and
concrete achievements.” An agreement delimiting the mountain passes was
signed in August 1999, during President Rakhmanov’s trip to China, and
instruments of ratification were exchanged the following year, but the com-
plex Pamir question prevented further progress.60
Tensions between China and the United States spiked on 7 May 1999,
when US warplanes accidentally bombed China’s embassy in Belgrade during
the NATO air war in Kosovo. This heightened China’s sense of vulnerability
as relations with the United States deteriorated and US relations with the
Central Eurasian states improved. Despite the absence of a final boundary
settlement, Beijing pushed to enhance relations with Dushanbe, symbolized
by the August 1999 agreement to open a border crossing and build a road
through the 4,360-metre Kulma Pass connecting Khorog (Badakhshan) in
Tajikistan with Tashkurgan and Kashgar in China. This was the first genuine
and only road connecting the two countries; it was completed in August
2001 but not opened to regular traffic until May 2004. A joint statement
indicated that “on the basis of this [agreement] and in accordance with ac-
knowledged international practices, the two agree to continue negotiations
on the borderline that has not been settled, in the spirit of equal consultations
and mutual accommodations for an early and successful solution,” and in
the meantime “maintain the current situation along the border until a final
solution is found.”61 An agreement in May 2002 resolved the historically
complicated sector involving the territory in the Pamir region, including the
disputed territory occupied by Czarist Russia. Closer relations between
China and Tajikistan were signified by a Chinese military delegation’s visit
to Tajikistan that same month, and developing bilateral security cooperation

through the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (formerly the Shanghai
Five). These developments reflect Beijing’s efforts to blunt further American
or Russian penetration of the region.62
Tajikistan maintained an unyielding position on the Pamir region because
of the proportionally large size of the disputed territory and the implication
of any compromise for disputes with its other neighbours, while China
continued to push its historical claims. Both sides expressed willingness
to reach a settlement when Jiang Zemin was in Dushanbe in July 2000, and
issued a joint statement that “on the basis of equality, mutual understanding
and mutual accommodation, the two sides shall … take flexible positions to
seek solutions acceptable to both sides as soon as possible.”63
The terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, DC, on 11 September
2001 set off a fundamental geopolitical change in the region. A Dagong bao
editorial expressed Beijing’s concerns over the change in the strategic situa-
tion: “The demolition of the original power balance in Central Asia … [has
made] Central Asia a region with a prominently unbalanced security mech-
anism … We should attach enough importance and be vigilant to this possible
variable in the international security situation that has an effect on China.”64
As a hedge against the dramatic increase in attention and aid that the
United States and others focused on Tajikistan, China extended Dushanbe
US$970 million in military aid in 2002. Even with increased multilateral
security cooperation, Beijing pushed to settle the boundary with Tajikistan
in order to ensure that the dispute would not be a wedge in the bilateral
relationship, and Beijing made it clear that it was willing to make significant
concessions in order to settle this one remaining (but largest) territorial
dispute with its Eurasian neighbours.
The final sector ran several hundred kilometres from the Uzbel Pass to
the Afghanistan-China border, and included the disputed 28,000 square
kilometres in the Pamir region. An initial agreement was negotiated in
December 2001 and the Supplementary Agreement on the China-Tajikistan
Boundary was signed on 17 May 2002, completing the boundary settle-
ment.65 Russian ambassador Vitaliy Vorobyev, who headed the joint delega-
tion of Russia, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan that assisted Tajikistan during
negotiations, stated that the “border line, which has been fixed by China
and Tajikistan, practically reiterates what has been existing before, with
slight changes” but “no revolutionary shifts of the historically established
border,” only “certain adjustments acceptable to both sides.” According to

Beijing, this treaty represented the “final and complete solution of all the
boundary issues with neighboring countries in Central Asia handed down
by history.”66
In the final settlement, China relinquished its historical claim and received
a mere 1,000 square kilometres, approximately 3.5 percent of the disputed
area. Addressing the “concession,” a Tajik statement minimized the relin-
quished territory as “unpopulated areas lying high in the mountains,” and
stated that Tajikistan was “satisfied with the agreement on the disputed
territories” because “these areas are of no great value to Tajikistan.” Tajik
Foreign Minister Hamrohon Zarifi characterized the settlement as a
“strategically crucial development of relations with China.” The director of
Tajikistan’s Centre for Strategic Studies, Shukhrob Sharipov, pointed out
that “at first China insisted on the transfer of 28,500 sq. km., and in the end,
we ceded 1,100. If we hadn’t decided to transfer the land (at this time), we
would not have been able to resist China’s pressure.”67 On the other hand,
Chinese dissidents expressed anger and accused Jiang Zemin of betraying
China by relinquishing Chinese territory.68 However, Beijing had, as in
earlier cases, ceded disputed territory to ensure larger strategic interests.
The Strategic Context of the Boundary Settlements

The strategic context of these boundary settlements is important. Soon
after the Central Eurasian states gained their independence, Beijing moved
quickly to enhance security cooperation in the region. In April 1996, while
meeting in Shanghai for discussions on the boundary, China, Russia, Kaz
akhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan established the “Shanghai Five,” a multi
lateral security community for the region that evolved into the Shanghai
Cooperation Organization in 2001.
Following the final settlement of the Kazakhstan boundary, President
Jiang emphasized the larger security considerations, stating that the agree-
ment was “an important contribution to regional stability.”69 Stressing the
larger strategic context, he said that “mutual understanding and trust be-
tween the peoples of our two countries has grown deeper by the day. Based
on this, the boundary questions were completely and thoroughly resolved.”
In his toast, Kazakhstan’s president, Nursultan Nazarbayev, commented that
the two countries had achieved a high level of economic, scientific, and
cultural cooperation since the establishment of diplomatic relations six years
earlier, but that “the agreement reached on this most complicated territory
and boundary is still the most important accomplishment.” He added that
it was a “good foundation for realizing mutual prosperity and strengthening
friendship.” 70
Despite heightened anti-Chinese sentiments among the Kyrgyz resulting
from their government’s recognition of some disputed areas as Chinese ter-
ritory, China pushed forward with negotiations in other areas critical to its
security, and the two sides concluded agreements to open new border cross-
ings and construct a rail line linking the two countries.71 After signing
the boundary treaty in July 1996, the Chinese characterized it as “yet another
important positive element … in enhancing regional peace and stability.” 72
And although the Sino-Tajik boundary was the most complicated one and
settlement was delayed by domestic politics in Tajikistan, even before the
settlement Beijing pushed to conclude numerous agreements, including one
to open a road connecting China and Tajikistan to facilitate border trade.73
As boundary issues were resolved, strategic relations improved, symbolized
by multilateral agreements such as the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust
in Border Regions and the organization of the “Shanghai Five” in April 1996,
an agreement on mutual reduction of military forces in the border area in
1997, and the establishment of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization for
mutual security in 2001, with Beijing as the driving force behind the organ-
ization.74 Closer security cooperation was symbolized by the joint military
exercises China held with Kyrgyzstan in 2002, the first ever for China and
one of its new neighbours, and the multilateral military exercises held with
Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan the following year. These
developments underscore China’s strategic calculations behind the early
push to settle boundaries that had been disputed with Russia for the past
century.
These agreements with China’s Central Eurasian neighbours were import-
ant steps in China’s grand strategy to shore up its boundaries and enhance
security cooperation with countries along its western flank. Concerned about
the strategic vacuum left by the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Beijing
moved quickly to settle its boundary disputes in order to facilitate closer
relations with these important neighbours. According to a Tajik newspaper,
Leninabadskaya Pravda, “Thus, China began hastily solving the problems
of disputed sections with the Central Asian states of the CIS in order to
strengthen its positions there.” 75
Conclusions
Beijing moved quickly to conclude a range of agreements with the newly
independent Central Eurasian states as a hedge against growing US influ-
ence in the region or the possibility that Russia might try to reassert its
power; to blunt an attempt by Turkey to re-establish its historical links to
the region; to circumvent the West’s efforts to exclude China from a larger
economic role in the region; and to prevent foreign-inspired radical Islamic
movements from fostering ethnic unrest that could destabilize Xinjiang. As
one French scholar concluded: “Chinese diplomacy has focused on three
objectives: to safeguard stability along the frontiers and in the hinterland …
to expand its sphere of influence in the Central Asian region, and to find
new markets for Chinese products.” 76 This has been accomplished by settling
boundary questions “left over from history,” concluding military agreements
to dampen concerns about China’s ambitions in the region, and developing
economic relationships that tie Eurasia to China and lessen its dependence
on Russia and Europe.
These boundary settlements should be understood in this larger strategic
context. As with other boundary disputes and settlements, China has behaved
very pragmatically in seeking to settle boundary problems that were primarily
the legacy of the “Great Game” of empires. Among Central Eurasians, there
was apprehension that this would not be the case. The former Kazakh am-
bassador to China, Murat Auezov, opined: “As a historian I’m telling you that
19th Century China, 20th Century China, and 21st Century China are three
different Chinas. But what unites them is the desire to expand their terri-
tories.” 77 Many assumed that the outstanding boundary issues that China
and the Soviet Union had failed to settle would continue to plague China’s
relations with its newly independent neighbours and even erupt into military
conflict. Wondering whether China would continue to pursue a policy of
pragmatism in the 1990s, one scholar argued that “there is some potential
within the region for the occurrence of events that would cause Beijing to
deviate from this path” because there are a “range of issues on which the
Chinese adamantly refuse to compromise,” and “in no case would the prob-
ability of losing trade and other advantages preclude a forceful response.” 78
Another scholar argued that “more ominously for Central Asia [is] Beijing’s
willingness to use force as an instrument of foreign policy … The Chinese
military shows no signs of military adventurism in areas outside what it
considers legitimate Chinese territory. But what might its response be if
opportunity arose to take back those areas lost to Russia during the 19th
century?” 79
Despite the Eurasians’ concerns and speculation by scholars, China proved
to be pragmatic and subordinated territorial disputes to larger strategic and
economic concerns, as it had done in the 1960s and 1970s. In no earlier
disputes did China insist on the return of territory seen as unjustly taken
from China by unequal treaties. In fact, the unequal treaties were the basis
for new treaties that correspond to the “historical and customary” bound-
aries established in the nineteenth century. The three Central Eurasian cases
demonstrate again that China will compromise, making boundary and ter-
ritorial settlements possible in order to realize more fundamental strategic
and economic interests.
Popular resentment of the boundary resolutions continues among
Central Eurasians, who remain anxious regarding Beijing’s larger territorial
ambitions and suspicious of a possible hidden agenda on the part of China.80
Such apprehensions are fuelled by China’s rapidly growing economic and
cultural power in the region as its largest trading partner. Conflict over
cross-border water resources continues, and development of agricultural
lands by Chinese farmers triggers local opposition. In 2004, for example,
Chinese farmers leased seven thousand hectares across the border in
Kazakhstan, and in 2009 rented an additional one million hectares of
farmland. A similar pattern occurred in Tajikistan. A 2011 agreement granted
Chinese farmers control over approximately two thousand hectares for
agriculture operations, and China has invested over $200 million on roads
connecting China and Tajikistan. These developments fuel misgivings over
China’s growing influence in the region.
12 The South China Sea Territorial
Disputes
The South China Sea is the geostrategic heart of Southeast Asia. Controlled
by outlets in the north through the Luzon Strait and Taiwan Strait and in
the south through the narrow Strait of Malacca and Singapore Strait, it is
the primary seaway through which vital natural resources and merchandise
are shipped to and from Southeast Asian states, China, Japan, and Korea.1
The disputed territories involve hundreds of uninhabitable small islets, coral
atolls, reefs, shoals, and submerged rocks scattered across the South China
Sea that are included in four main groups of islands. China’s total maritime
claim encompasses approximately 3.5 million square kilometres.2
China and Vietnam are the major players in the South China Sea disputes,
but these disputes are not just a Sino-Vietnamese issue. It is important to
distinguish two separate issues: the Sino-Vietnamese dispute over the Paracel
Islands (Xisha), about 150 miles southwest of Hainan Island, and the multi-
lateral dispute over the Spratly Islands (Nansha). The issue of sovereignty
over the Spratlys is more complex because it involves claims by the People’s
Republic of China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei, with
the added complication of claims by the Republic of China on Taiwan
(ROC).3 China (and Taiwan) and Vietnam claim all islands, reefs, rocks, and
other features in the Spratly archipelago and Macclesfield Bank (Zhongsha)
group. China’s dispute with the Philippines centres on various islands in the
Spratlys known to Filipinos as “Kalayaan” (Freedomland) and islands in the
Macclesfield Bank group. The dispute with Malaysia is over seven outcrop-
pings known as James Shoal (Zengmu Ansha) off the coast of Borneo, which
Malaysia claims falls within its continental shelf boundary and is the
southernmost South China Sea feature claimed by China. The conflict with
Brunei involves the Louisa Reef (Nantong Jiao), located west of Brunei
within its claimed exclusive economic zone. Taiwan controls the Pratas
Islands (Dongsha), which are not disputed, as well as Itu Aba (Taiping Dao),
the largest island in the Spratly group (see Map 17).
The South China Sea Territorial Disputes 237
Map 17 South China Sea

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
complicated the South China Sea disputes by prescribing rights that exacer-
bated the scramble by the littoral states to assert claims to the continental
shelf and establish special economic zones. The prospect of oil and natural
gas reserves and marine life resources around the islands raised the eco-
nomic stakes and compounded the difficulty in finding a resolution. Although
natural resources are an important factor, strategic considerations also are
at the heart of the dispute.4
China Asserts Control

In August 1951, Premier Zhou Enlai declared the sovereignty of the People’s
Republic of China over the South China Sea, reflecting previous claims by
the Republic of China.5 Even before this declaration, China had occupied
Woody Island (Yongxing Dao) in the Paracel group following the evacua-
tion of Nationalist troops in 1950. Conflict between the PRC and South
Vietnam over the Paracels flared up occasionally in subsequent years, usually
over fishing boats working in the area. Finally, on 19 January 1974, Chinese
forces occupied the remaining islands in the Paracel group held by the
collapsing South Vietnamese regime. Hanoi did not publicly protest the ac-
tion, and in fact at the time acknowledged China’s claim to sovereignty over
the many island groups in the South China Sea.6 In 1950, China also occupied
White Dragon Tail Island (Bailongwei), located in the Gulf of Tonkin, which
had been held by Nationalist troops. In 1957, however, apparently responding
to protests from Hanoi, Mao ordered the transfer of this island to North
Vietnam in order to eliminate it as an irritant in Sino-Vietnamese relations
in the face of what he perceived as external threats to China.7
After the fall of South Vietnam in 1975, Hanoi began to assert claims over
the Paracels and Spratlys. In April, it took possession of six islets that had
been held by the Saigon regime. Beijing responded in 1976, asserting that all
of the Spratly Islands
have always been part of China’s territory … The Government of the People’s
Republic of China has time and again declared that China has indisputable
sovereignty over these islands and their adjacent sea areas … Any foreign
country’s armed invasion and occupation of any of the Nansha [Spratly]
Islands … constitute encroachment on China’s territorial integrity and sover-
eignty and are impermissible. Any foreign country’s claim to sovereignty over
any of the Nansha Islands is illegal and null and void.8
On 12 May 1977, the Foreign Ministry of Vietnam declared that Vietnam’s

territorial waters included the Paracel and Spratly groups, and Hanoi declared
a two-hundred-mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ).9 Beijing reacted swiftly.
In a secret meeting with Vietnamese Premier Pham Van Dong in June,
Chinese Vice Premier Li Xiannian challenged Vietnam’s claim, pointing out
that Vietnam had supported China’s claims as early as 1958 and as recently
as 1974. Dong rationalized Vietnam’s previous position by arguing that it
was a “matter of necessity” to support China’s claims during the war because
of the need to “place resistance to United States imperialism above everything
else.” Vietnam’s previous position should therefore be interpreted in the
“context of the historical circumstances of the time.”10 Li argued that “war
could not justify a different interpretation,” and furthermore, “there was
no war going on in Vietnam when on September 14, 1958 Pham Van Dong
… acknowledged in his note to Premier Zhou Enlai that the Xisha and
Nansha Islands are Chinese territory.”11
By late 1977, China had begun openly accusing Hanoi of making “un
reasonable claims.” Li stated that from China’s perspective, because of
Hanoi’s actions, “the Nansha and Xisha Islands, over which there never was
any issue, have now become a major subject of dispute in Sino-Vietnamese
relations.”12 On 26 December 1978, the Chinese Foreign Ministry issued a
formal statement asserting sovereignty over the islands of the South China
Sea and warned that “invasion or occupation” of any of the islands would
“constitute encroachments on China’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.”13
Again, on 30 January 1980, the People’s Daily published a Foreign Ministry
statement reiterating China’s historical claim to the islands of the South
China Sea.14
All of the other claimants, including Taiwan, had occupied islands in
the Spratly archipelago before the PRC gained a foothold in 1988 at the ex-
pense of Vietnam. An estimated twenty-one islets, shoals, and reefs were
already occupied by other claimants before Beijing wrested control of the
six islets from Hanoi.
Competing Claims
China’s official position is that “China possesses indisputable sovereignty
over the islands in the South China Sea [within the nine-dash line] and
the adjacent waters, and it enjoys sovereign rights and jurisdiction over the
relevant waters as well as the seabed and subsoil thereof.”15 China maintains
that its sovereignty dates to ancient times, and that in modern times these
“historical claims” were clearly asserted in 1935 when the Nationalist

government’s China Map Verification Committee declared sovereignty over
132 islands, reefs, and shoals in the South China Sea; in addition, the com-
mittee published a map in 1947 that included a U-shaped line (eleven-dash
line) encompassing the entire South China Sea.16 Although the PRC maps
retain the U-shaped line (dropping two dashes in the Gulf of Tonkin), this
should be considered a “customary line” (xiguan xian) that was initially drawn
without careful consideration and no clear understanding of its legal signifi-
cance (see Map 18). It does not indicate that Beijing claims the entire South
China Sea, but only the features within the nine-dash line.17
After decades of being incapable of physically asserting its claims, Beijing
felt compelled to use “defensive” military force to affirm its “legitimate ter-
ritorial entitlement,” which was denied by other states through their occupa-
tion of “China’s territory.” Scholar Chen Jie expressed Chinese sentiments
thus: “Initially taking advantage of China’s turbulent domestic policies and
its preoccupation with superpower threats, regional countries have occupied
China’s islands and reefs, carved up its sea areas, and looted its marine re-
sources.” Beijing does not view establishing a foothold in the South China
Sea as “constituting territorial gains but minimizing territorial losses.” A
more unvarnished Chinese description characterized the situation as “a free-
for-all grab-what-you-can in the South China Sea” before Beijing was able
to assert itself.18
Following independence in 1946, Manila claimed some of the Spratlys
(which the 1898 Treaty of Paris did not recognize as Filipino territory). Japan
had occupied some of these islands during the Second World War, and
Manila based its legal claim on the assumption that Japan enjoyed sovereignty
over the islands and had abandoned them after the war, leaving them up for
grabs. But Tokyo “renounced all right, title, and claim” to the Spratlys and
the Paracels in the Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty (Treaty of Taipei) signed
by Japan and the Republic of China in 1952, implying recognition of the
Chinese claim. Manila has employed various means, such as naval inspection
tours and diplomatic notes, to assert ownership. Decades after making its
claim, the Philippines began actively asserting control over some islets. In
1971, a brief conflict with ROC forces occurred when Philippine troops at-
tempted to land on Itu Aba Island (Taiping Dao) but were repelled. In 1974,
however, the Philippine navy took control of five islands and a 1978 presi-
dential decree declared the “Kalayaan Islands” an integral part of the
Philippines and strategically important for national defence.
Map 18 South China Sea 1947 map

In late 1994, the PRC began construction on Mischief Reef (Meiji Jiao),
which provoked tension with Manila when it was discovered in early 1995.
Beijing claimed that the construction was to provide refuge for fishermen
and offered to share the facilities with Filipino fishermen, but Manila rejected
the offer, reasserting its claim to the reef. For several months, tit-for-tat
actions occurred, with Chinese detaining Filipino fishermen near Mischief
Reef and the Philippine navy detaining five Chinese fishing boats and
arresting sixty-two Chinese fishermen for “illegal entry” and “poaching.”
Manila strengthened its forces by sending additional patrol boats, and in-
creased air surveillance by fighter interceptors in the area. In late February
1995, Philippines President Fidel Ramos declared: “I will not allow any
slackening in our defense capabilities … If there be any intruders into our
territory or exclusive economic zone, we shall ask them to depart and leave
us in peace.” After negotiations in Beijing in March 1995 and in Manila in
August, the two governments issued a joint statement, agreeing to refrain
from “provocative actions” and to settle disputes “in accordance with the
recognized principles of international law and the UN Convention on the
Law of the Sea.”19
In 1998, Manila complained when China reinforced its facilities on the
reef, and Beijing accused Manila of making irresponsible statements by
claiming the island as Philippine territory. On the sidelines of the Nov
ember 1998 Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit, however,
Jiang Zemin and President Joseph Estrada endorsed a proposal to establish
an expert group and explore joint use of the disputed territory.20 In mid-
1999, a second dispute erupted over an island in the Pratas (Dongsha) group
(actually occupied by Taiwan), and in 2012 a dispute erupted over Scar
borough Shoal (Huangyen Dao) located between the Macclesfield Bank and
the Philippine island of Luzon, when the Philippine navy confronted Chinese
fishing boats.21
Malaysia asserted a claim to the continental shelf in 1979 and established
an exclusive economic zone adjacent to Borneo in 1980. As a result, Kuala
Lumpur claims several islands in the Spratly group and actually occupies
three atolls included in James Shoal (Zengmu Ansha). This contrasts with
the claims of others, which are all premised on prior occupation or discov-
ery. Because Malaysia’s claim is historically the weakest, Kuala Lumpur is
reluctant to accept any third-party involvement in settling the dispute, and
“Malaysia does not intend to be a mere bystander in the scramble for terri-
torial possessions in the South China Sea.”22 In March 1995, Malaysian patrol
boats opened fire on a Chinese trawler off the coast of Sarawak, injuring
several Chinese fishermen. Kuala Lumpur asserted that “we had to stop
them. They were trying to run into regional waters.”23 While Kuala Lumpur
has vigorously asserted its claims, it has generally avoided any confronta-
tion with China and did not attempt to prevent the Chinese navy from
conducting exercises around James Shoal in January 2014 involving China’s
newly launched aircraft carrier.24 On the other hand, Malaysia has extracted
more resources with its deep-water developments in the South China Sea
than other claimants. Brunei’s involvement in the dispute stems from its
claim over the continental shelf off its coast, which includes the Louisa Reef.
Strategic Roots of the South China Sea Disputes

Although the South China Sea territorial disputes have a long history,
their re-emergence in the mid‑1970s was symptomatic of the underlying
tensions rooted in regional competition, alliance politics, and bilateral
issues associated with the end of the Vietnam War, such as Sino-American
rapprochement and increasing discord in Sino-Vietnamese relations. As
the latter deteriorated rapidly in the mid-1970s, Beijing became more as-
sertive over territorial issues in the South China Sea.
Throughout the Cold War, the rivalry between the United States and
the Soviet Union in Southeast Asia was a stabilizing influence on the balance
of power in the region. As this balance began to shift in the 1980s, with
Vietnam bogged down in Cambodia and suffering international isolation,
and Mikhail Gorbachev reducing Moscow’s support of Hanoi, China began
actively asserting its claim to islands in the South China Sea. At the same
time, however, in order to allay the fears of Southeast Asian nations, Beijing
also indicated its willingness to compromise. In 1984, even before China
physically controlled any islands in the Spratly archipelago, Deng Xiaoping
proposed setting aside the question of sovereignty (butan zhuquan) while
pursuing joint development and “seeking a new road to a resolution.” 25
Spending New Year’s Day 1986 with troops stationed on the Paracel Islands,
Chinese Communist Party General Secretary Hu Yaobang said that “we do
not want even one inch of another country’s territory, but we will not allow
another country to occupy one inch of our great motherland.”26 In late 1987,
China began regular patrols of the Spratly Islands and asserted control over
disputed waters. The Chinese Foreign Ministry issued a statement warning
Hanoi that if Vietnam interfered with these patrols, it would be held respon-
sible for the consequences. On 14 March 1988, following a skirmish with
Vietnamese forces, China wrested control of several islets in the western

Spratlys from Hanoi, the first islands in the Spratly group to be held by
Beijing. China has used its military to block Vietnam’s oil exploration but
has held “friendly consultations” with Hanoi, holding out the possibility of
shelving the sovereignty dispute and jointly developing the region’s
resources.27
With the end of the Cold War, Southeast Asian nations experienced new
concerns. Many began to fear that Beijing intended to establish the South
China Sea as a “Chinese lake.” Domination of the South China Sea “heart-
land” would give the Chinese great political, economic, and military clout
over the “rim land” states. Such an eventuality had never been considered
possible until the Russian navy, with facilities in Vietnam, and the US
Navy, based in the Philippines, withdrew from the region after the Cold
War and the Chinese navy began developing the capability to project force
far beyond China’s coastal waters. China’s emergence as the dominant
regional military power caused insecurity in the region. No combination of
Southeast Asian nations can defeat the Chinese military, which has embarked
on a significant modernization drive and reoriented its naval forces to fight
short and intense conflicts over disputed territory and distant islands in the
South China Sea. In response, since 2010 the United States has strengthened
its naval presence in the region and tightened cooperation, especially with
Vietnam and the Philippines. In July 2010, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton
asserted that the United States “has a national interest” in the region; a year
later she stated that “the United States is concerned that recent incidents in
the South China Sea threaten the peace and stability” and “oppose the threat
or use of force by any claimant in the South China Sea to advance its claims
or interfere with legitimate economic activity.”28
Future Conflict and Cooperation

The South China Sea disputes have received renewed attention in recent
years because they are now seen as the most likely crucible of regional
conflict and cooperation. During the 1970s and 1980s, any desire to resolve
the disputes was complicated by the Indochina conflicts. Opposition to
Vietnam’s occupation of Cambodia provided common ground for China
and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), but with the
settlement of the Cambodian issue in 1991, regional attention turned to
territorial disputes and tensions arose between China and ASEAN. Vietnam
became a member of ASEAN in 1995, further complicating matters. Although
efforts to seek a resolution have gradually gained momentum, and a resolu-

tion may be possible in the future because of the much-improved political
atmosphere in the region, incidents such as the flare-ups between China and
Vietnam in May 2011 and between China and the Philippines in April 2012
make guarded optimism sensible. A negotiated settlement of the disputes
is now even more important because of the lack of a security regime in
Southeast Asia. China and the Southeast Asian states have all grown more
self-confident as their national strength and nationalism have increased.
This change in the power equation could cause conflict given the lack of a
regional security regime; at the same time, however, it could give the differ-
ent countries the self-confidence to seek a negotiated settlement. In any case,
a settlement will require difficult multilateral negotiations and mutual
accommodation. China prefers a bilateral approach to each dispute, but
Beijing has warmed to the idea of multilateral cooperation.
The approach Beijing has adopted toward the South China Sea disputes
follows the same tack taken in earlier cases. Over the course of this particular
dispute, China has used military force to occupy disputed territory and has,
since 1991, stationed naval forces on Woody Island (Yongxing Dao), the lar
gest island in the Paracel group, where it has built a 2,600-metre runway.29
A government publication, Military Secrets, declared that “it is a top priority
for China to have air support for the possible battle in the Spratly Islands.”30
Beijing has deployed an aircraft carrier and other assets that enable it to
project force into the region.
Beijing initially resisted formal negotiations, believing that these might
in fact heighten tensions in the region. At the same time, however, it showed
a willingness to seek a peaceful settlement and participated in conferences
that have explored alternative solutions, including joint development of the
region’s natural resources. A step in this direction came in August 1990,
when Premier Li Peng again raised the possibility of joint exploitation of
South China Sea resources, but only if the sovereignty issue was shelved.
In Singapore, he stated that “China is ready to join efforts … to develop [the
Spratly] islands, while putting aside for the time being the question of
sovereignty.” During a five-nation Southeast Asian tour in 1993, National
People’s Congress (NPC) Standing Committee chair Qiao Shi reiterated this
general position, and in his report to the NPC, he recommended shelving
the dispute (gezhi zhengyi) and did not mention the contention over sover-
eignty (zhuquan zhengyi). 31 In May 1994, Li Peng told Malaysian Prime
Minister Mahathir Mohamad that “we will discuss the [Spratlys] by putting
aside disputes and seeking joint exploration as proposed by Chinese leader

Deng Xiaoping [in 1984].” Following Jiang Zemin’s visit to Vietnam in late
1994, Beijing and Hanoi reached an agreement to establish an expert group
to discuss the South China Sea dispute.32 However, China is holding fast to
its sovereignty claim and continues to develop its military capabilities, and
in June 2012, it established Sansha as a prefecture-level city in the Paracel
Islands group to administer all of the islands of the South China Sea. In the
words of an official Chinese publication, the endgame is to engage in some
type of cooperative development, but shelving the question of sovereignty
and pursuing joint development of the region’s resources “would be cosmetic
without a stronger navy.”33
China’s military buildup in the South China Sea does not necessarily sug-
gest that Beijing will use force to occupy more islands, but rather that Beijing
is seeking to maintain the status quo by enhancing its military presence, and
to increase its leverage in future negotiations. China’s behaviour in the South
China Sea case is similar to that in earlier cases, inasmuch as China shows
no real willingness to move quickly to settle the dispute because strategic
concerns are not sufficiently acute at this time. This mirrors the pattern
followed in the unsettled dispute with Japan over the Senkaku/Diaoyu
Islands; Beijing stridently asserted an unwillingness to negotiate with Japan
but, as strategic imperatives changed, quickly sought a compromise settle-
ment. Given the established pattern in earlier cases, we can assume with
some confidence that events will unfold in a similar way in the South China
Sea, and that progress toward a settlement will take place when larger stra-
tegic concerns motivate Beijing to adopt a pragmatic policy and a more
flexible approach.
China’s relations with Southeast Asian countries improved rapidly in
the early 1990s. However, the territorial disputes remain a significant cause
of concern and are a major foreign policy challenge for China, which needs
to reassure its Southeast Asian neighbours that it will work to resolve the
disputes peacefully. Given China’s desire to establish itself as a regional leader,
it is unlikely that Beijing will block a settlement if the other parties are all
willing to compromise or participate in a joint development agreement while
putting off settlement of the sovereignty question. A rationale for this was
laid out in an influential Chinese policy journal in 1995. The author argued
that because of the possibility of armed conflict if “obstinate exploration and
development activity” is undertaken unilaterally, commercial development
is no longer viable. Therefore, joint development is in China’s interest because
it will be “compensated by greater political and economic benefit” with

improved relations between China and the ASEAN states. From this per-
spective, “joint development is not a purely economic activity but a serious
political struggle.” By “uphold[ing] the dignity of … national sovereignty, but
also partly yield[ing] a portion of sovereignty rights … this can prevent dis-
putes from developing to extremes and so is advantageous to national stability
and relations between neighboring countries.”34
Indonesia stepped forward as an honest broker and, beginning in 1990,
hosted a series of “Workshops on Managing Potential Conflicts in the
South China Sea.” China insisted that the meetings be limited to an “exchange
of views among scholars” and not be official negotiations. At the Bandung
workshop held in July 1991, Indonesia suggested including Japan, the United
States, and Russia, but Beijing opposed the inclusion of outside powers, argu-
ing that it would only complicate the situation.35 This position has not changed,
and Beijing reacted strongly to US expressions of concern about freedom
of navigation in the South China Sea and encouragement of a multilateral
resolution of the disputes. In response to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton’s
July 2010 statement that the United States had a “national interest in … the
South China Sea,” China asserted that this “seemingly impartial talk was
actually an attack on China.”36
At the 1991 workshop, all claimants agreed to halt independent develop-
ment and renounced the use of force to settle the disputes. In February 1992,
however, before the third workshop, which was to be held in June, the National
People’s Congress promulgated a “Law of the People’s Republic of China on
the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone” that asserted China’s claims to
the Dongsha (Pratas) Islands, the Xisha (Paracel) Islands, the Zhongsha
(Macclesfield Bank) Islands and the Nansha (Spratly) Islands, and author-
ized the use of military force to prevent other states from occupying the
islands. A Malaysian scholar who directed strategic and security studies at
a Malaysian university responded to Beijing’s move thus: “Don’t forget, they
have a track record of using force in that part of the world.”37 Beijing rejected
any criticism that this move demonstrated a hardening of China’s position
or complicated the issue and increased tensions in the area, but argued that
it instead “clarified” China’s position through domestic legislation. China also
dismissed arguments that this new legislation was directly linked to Beijing’s
future approach toward settling territorial disputes, asserting that it was
simply a clear statement of China’s claims and did not alter China’s willing-
ness to “shelve the dispute” (gezhi zhengyi) and move forward with joint
development negotiations.38 ASEAN states were not reassured. B.A. Hamzah,

then assistant director of the Malaysian Institute of Strategic and Inter
national Studies, opined: “China’s intentions in the South China Sea are very
much more than settling old scores with Vietnam. Beijing’s recent actions
strongly suggest that its ultimate aim is to replace the US and Russia in the
region.”39
In response, the ASEAN states issued their “Declaration on the South
China Sea” on 22 July 1992. The declaration called for “all parties concerned
to exercise restraint with a view to creating a positive climate for the even-
tual resolution of all disputes.” It emphasized the importance of efforts to
“resolve all sovereignty and jurisdictional issues pertaining to the South
China Sea by peaceful means, without resort to force.” ASEAN also urged
cooperation for maritime safety, search and rescue, environmental protec-
tion, and combating piracy and drug trafficking. Beijing did not sign the
declaration and reiterated its position that it was not prepared to enter
formal negotiations over the conflicting claims.40
Beijing has taken other controversial steps to enhance its claims. In May
1993, it signed a contract with an American company to explore for oil and
gas and pledged the use of its navy to protect the company. In July 1993, it
awarded a second contract to an American company to cooperate in the
development of South China Sea oil fields.41 At the time, despite its commit-
ment not to take unilateral action, China felt it could not stand idly by while
Vietnam moved forward to develop oil resources in disputed areas.42 China’s
unilateral moves were condemned by the other parties to the dispute, and
other states began to assert their claims more aggressively.43 Also in May 1993,
Philippine President Fidel Ramos ordered the expansion of military facilities
on the “Kalayaan Islands” to enable civilian and military planes to use the
runway. China responded by building facilities for “protecting the lives and
labor of Chinese Fishermen,” which Ramos claimed were sophisticated
military structures. Beijing made it clear that it believed the Philippines
had “ulterior motives” in protesting Beijing’s actions, which it said were “in
accordance with international law.”44 Ramos contended that “no country
should dominate the Spratly group … Internationally recognized and guar-
anteed sea lanes cut across the area, making it to everyone’s interest that no
single power should exercise hegemony over the Spratlys.”45 The Southeast
Asian states also took measures to undercut the legitimacy of China’s claims;
ASEAN called for a name change of the South China Sea to eliminate “any
connotation of Chinese ownership over that body of water.”46
China’s Strategic Concerns and the South China Sea Disputes

China’s approach toward the South China Sea disputes is determined by
larger strategic considerations. For example, after Manila’s attempt to occupy
islands in the Spratlys in 1971, Beijing responded:
The Nansha Islands and the Hsisha [Xisha] Islands have always been
China’s territory. The People’s Republic of China has indisputable sover-
eignty over these islands and absolutely allows no country to encroach upon
this sovereignty right under whatever pretext and in whatever form. The
Philippine government must immediately stop its encroachment upon China’s
territory and withdraw all its personnel from the Nansha Islands.47
In the mid-1970s, however, as the strategic environment changed following

the US exit from Vietnam and the rise in Soviet influence in the region,
Beijing changed its approach in order to facilitate rapprochement with the
Philippines. Although Manila had by then actually occupied several islands
claimed by China, diplomatic relations with the Philippines were estab-
lished in June 1975. When President Ferdinand Marcos travelled to Beijing
for this purpose, the dispute over the islands was sidestepped and, as with
Sino-Japanese rapprochement several years earlier, the sovereignty issue
was not allowed to interfere with a more important strategic objective –
establishing a united front with Southeast Asian nations in the face of the
growing Soviet-Vietnamese alliance; the communiqué included the stan-
dard “anti-hegemony” clause. This approach reflected Beijing’s perception
of the growing importance of the ASEAN states (of which Vietnam was not
yet a member) in the regional balance of power. This shift illustrates Beijing’s
willingness to downplay territorial disputes in order to improve political
relations in response to a changing strategic environment.
During the late 1970s and 1980s, China’s approach to the dispute with
Malaysia followed a pattern similar to that with the Philippines. After Malay
sia claimed several islands in the Spratlys in 1979, Beijing’s response was
very low-key and was sent through diplomatic channels. No public reference
to the Sino-Malaysian dispute was made until 1983, and even then it was
made indirectly, couched in a general statement of China’s claim to all of
the Spratly Islands.48
In contrast, when Vietnamese leader Le Duan went to Beijing in September
1975, China asserted that its claim was “indisputable” and that sovereignty
was “nonnegotiable.”49 From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, China adopted
a very inflexible approach toward Vietnam on the South China Sea dis-
putes, but with the end of the Soviet-Vietnamese alliance, Beijing re-
established relations with Hanoi in 1991, softened its rhetoric, and adopted
a policy promoting cooperation in the South China Sea by establishing
an expert group.
However, despite its softer rhetoric, Beijing remained vigilant and this
did heighten ASEAN fears of China.50 For example, in July 1994 tensions
spiked when Vietnam began drilling in an area 280 miles off its southern
coast. China dispatched warships to blockade the area and protested that
Vietnamese drilling activities seriously “encroached upon China’s sover-
eignty and maritime interests.”51 The following year, the dispute with the
Philippines over Mischief Reef (Meiji Jiao) flared up. Manila viewed China’s
occupation of Mischief Reef in early 1995 as another step in Beijing’s “quiet
but … relentless advance into the South China Sea.”52 ASEAN states pro-
tested China’s actions and were disturbed by Beijing’s disregard for the 1992
ASEAN Declaration on the South China Sea, which called on disputants to
exercise self-restraint and eschew the use of force when settling territorial
claims. China’s vigilance is not unlike the behaviour of the other disputants,
however, and does not necessarily foreshadow aggressive action to assert
control over all of the South China Sea. Philippine Chief of Staff General
Angelo Reyes considered China’s actions in the Spratlys “very, very, meas-
ured,” but warned that if Beijing “goes overboard and fiercely and aggres-
sively asserts its claim over disputed areas, there will be a backlash.”53
By the late 1990s, all islets large enough to sustain some kind of perma-
nent military presence were occupied, thus creating a stalemate unless one
state was willing and able to challenge another one over a particular islet.
Given China’s naval capabilities, it probably could dislodge other states
from the various islands but has not done so; this is at least an indication
that China is exercising self-restraint and is willing to negotiate joint de-
velopment of the resources of the South China Sea.
Following the Established Pattern

The South China Sea disputes differ from earlier territorial disputes and
settlements in which China has been involved because of their multilateral
nature; all the others were bilateral. This does complicate things greatly, but
China’s general behaviour follows the common pattern in its approach to
territorial and boundary disputes.
Like other territorial disputes, this dispute is complicated by the “Chin

ese national psyche,” which believes that the South China Sea has been
part of the “motherland’s territory since ancient times.”54 Painstaking
efforts are made to uncover archaeological evidence and document early
historical accounts of Chinese expeditions to the islands to substantiate
China’s historical claims.55 China bases its claim to sovereignty on prior
discovery during the pre-modern era. In other territorial disputes in the
1950s and 1960s, similar historical arguments were advanced by China,
causing a great deal of alarm among its neighbours over Chinese revanchist
claims. One major difference is that the South China Sea cases have no
legacy of “unequal treaties.” Their economic significance lies in the resource
potential of the South China Sea, and concerns over freedom of navigation
are a complicating factor. The vital sea lanes of communication running
through the South China Sea make it an “umbilical cord” that is vital to the
economic survival of other Asian nations and US allies in the region.
Beijing’s more assertive policy of physically occupying islands in the
South China Sea was a response to the dramatically reduced US presence
and the waning Soviet influence in Southeast Asia; Vietnam’s occupation
of Cambodia was also an important factor. This created a situation in which
Beijing could physically assert its claims without too much concern that
it would provoke direct conflict with the United States or other powers in
the region; in other words, the counterbalancing effect of the Soviet Union
and United States in the 1970s and 1980s had diminished, and Beijing
could act more confidently. Even before the end of the Cold War, the
Chinese move against the Paracels in 1974 reflected the initial shift in the
regional balance of power, and the confrontation with Vietnam in 1988 and
face-off with the Philippines over Mischief Reef in 1995 showed the impact
of the ongoing changes in the region on Beijing’s behaviour. The US pivot
to Asia, including the assertion of national interests in the South China
Sea and rhetorical support for allies and friends against China beginning
in 2010 has again changed the strategic context of the disputes.
Beijing understands that a more aggressive policy will alienate Southeast
Asian nations if they perceive that China is seeking hegemony in the re-
gion, and this would only aggravate China’s security concerns.56 The US
rebalancing toward Asia is a clear sign that China’s more assertive policy
has already provoked a strategic response by the United States. Still, al-
though Beijing has become more assertive, it has proven to be pragmatic
and sensitive to the response of other states, and has demonstrated its
willingness to cooperate in seeking a resolution of the disputes. Likewise,
Beijing’s military buildup and more assertive behaviour does not neces-
sarily suggest a shift from the conciliatory approach it had adopted in
earlier territorial settlements. Although its occupation of South China Sea
islets has alarmed many, one Chinese scholar argues that China was simply
taking measures to “stay in the game” because, in Beijing’s eyes, “initially
taking advantage of China’s … preoccupation with superpower threats,
regional countries have occupied China’s islands and reefs, carved up its
sea areas, and looted its marine resources.” Beijing’s “occupation of an in-
creasing number of islands and reefs in the archipelago” should not be viewed
as “constituting territorial gains but minimizing territorial losses.”57
The pattern Beijing established in earlier settlements is unfolding in the
South China Sea. After adopting a very defiant position throughout the
1970s and 1980s, China signalled its new flexibility in the 1990s. In Kuala
Lumpur in May 1993, the Chinese defence minister, Chi Haotian, ruled
out the use of force to settle the disputes. Beijing’s professed willingness to
shelve the sovereignty question, forswear the use of force, and move ahead
with joint development contrasted sharply with Foreign Minister Huang
Hua’s 1977 statement that “when the time comes … we will retrieve those
islands. There will be no need then to negotiate at all.”58 Thus, it is clear that
China’s policy is determined by its larger strategic considerations and its
assessment of the role of other parties to the dispute.
After occupying islands in the Spratlys in 1988, Beijing quickly moved to
assuage the fears of ASEAN states and prevent the conflict from damaging
relations with them. Writing in 1990, B.A. Hamzah, then director-general
of the Malaysian Institute of Maritime Affairs, asked: “Will the PRC continue
to resort to arms as an instrument of national policy in pursuit of what others
have long feared, a hegemonic scheme in the South China Sea?”59 Li Peng’s
1990 statement supporting joint development of resources was clearly in-
tended to allay such fears. At the United Nations in April 1995, Foreign
Minister Qian Qichen also gave assurances that Beijing did not intend to
settle the South China Sea disputes by military means.60 These reassurances
led the Malaysian defence minister, Syed Hamid Albar, to conclude in 1996:
But we in Southeast Asia generally feel that China has so far been a sober and
responsible regional player. Its advocacy of joint exploitation of the South
China Sea resources … and its recent indication of a readiness to abide by
international law in resolving the Spratly issue have made us feel that it wants
to coexist in peace with its neighbors.61
In December 1997, a joint statement issued after a China-ASEAN meet-

ing in Kuala Lumpur called on all parties to maintain the status quo and
resolve the South China Sea disputes by peaceful means. Beijing also made
it clear, however, that it would go only so far. Despite China’s willingness
to cooperate in jointly developing resources around the Spratlys, a senior
Chinese military official insisted that Beijing would not negotiate with Hanoi
a similar joint development scheme for the Paracels, which China has con-
trolled since 1974.62
Although China has made some missteps, it has continued to undertake
confidence-building measures with ASEAN through participation in un
official workshops and conferences on marine science research and other
mutual interests. At the 1994 workshop, China proposed sharing marine
data and establishing an oceanographic research centre. Following the
Mischief Reef incident in February 1995, China hosted a China-ASEAN
meeting in Hangzhou in April, and to reassure ASEAN, it agreed to hold
annual meetings at the vice minister level to continue discussions of the
issues.63 Prompted by ASEAN solidarity over the Mischief Reef incident
and the imminent accession of Vietnam as an ASEAN member, this Chin
ese concession was a marked shift in Beijing’s policy in order to facilitate
China’s primary strategic interests: economic cooperation and “good-
neighborly relations.”64 With Beijing’s acquiescence, the South China Sea
dispute was placed, for the first time, on the formal agenda of the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) held in August 1995 in Brunei, where Foreign Min
ister Qian committed China to seeking a settlement consistent with the
UN Law of the Sea; Qian also stated that China’s claims did not bar the
right of safe passage and freedom of navigation through the South China
Sea.65 In November 2002, a Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the
South China Sea (DOC) was signed by all ASEAN members and China.
Recognizing the “need to promote a peaceful, friendly and harmonious
environment in the South China Sea … for the enhancement of peace,
stability, economic growth and prosperity in the region,” the declaration
explicitly commits all parties to the dispute “to resolve their territorial
and jurisdictional disputes by peaceful means, without resorting to the threat
or use of force, through friendly consultations and negotiations by sover-
eign states directly concerned.”66
However, Beijing remains opposed to involving states outside the region

or “institutionalizing” a multilateral process of dispute resolution, prefer-
ring a bilateral approach as conflicts arise. Following US statements urging
multilateral negotiations, Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi criticized
US involvement, asking, “What will be the consequences if this issue is
turned into an international or multilateral one?” His answer: “It will only
make matters worse and the resolution more difficult.”67
China’s renewed assertiveness in recent years has been driven by many
factors. Following Deng Xiaoping’s decision to shelve the controversy and
pursue cooperative development, China did not unilaterally pursue oil or
other resource development in disputed areas of the South China Sea,
whereas other states did, especially Malaysia and Vietnam. Chinese officials
began to feel that China was “snookered” (chiqui), and they urged a more
assertive policy. Some Foreign Ministry officials argued for upgrading the
South China Sea to a “core interest” (and even hinted at this idea when
talking with US officials), but the People’s Liberation Army, despite its
strident public position, argued against such a policy change because put-
ting the South China Sea on par with Taiwan, Tibet, and Xinjiang would
require it to assume a more aggressive military stance to protect such an
interest and signal an unwillingness to compromise, which is not Beijing’s
official policy toward the territorial dispute in the South China Sea.68
This debate is reflected in the Chinese press. According to China Daily:
For a long time, China showed restraint in the disputes over the South
China Sea. However, China’s stance in a peaceful resolution of territory dis-
putes seems to be misinterpreted … If China’s constant diplomatic claims
won’t work anymore, it must consider effective alternatives.69
The populist and nationalistic Global Times was more explicit:
Some of China’s neighboring countries have been exploiting China’s mild

diplomatic stance, making it their golden opportunity to expand their regional
interests … Hard-line response will cause trouble for China, but if the prob-
lems and “pains” these countries bring exceed the risk China has to endure
to change its policies and strategies, then a “counter-attack” is likely … If a
situation turns ugly, some military action is necessary … We need to be ready
for that, as it may be the only way for the disputes in the sea to be resolved.70
A Foreign Ministry spokesperson responded to a question about whether

the Global Times “view [is] official to some extent? Is it also held by the
Chinese Government?” by stating: “The media has the right to edit and
comment. It is believed that they will report in a truthful, objective and
responsible manner … We hold that it is imperative that relevant countries
earnestly implement the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the
South China Sea, which is vital to safeguarding and enhancing mutual
trust between the countries. We maintain a smooth channel of communica-
tion and consultation with countries directly involved in the South China
Sea dispute.” 71
A more assertive position also was advanced by a scholar at the Inter
national Strategy Division, Institute of World Economics and Politics of
the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, who argued:
China must reassess its South China Sea strategy … China must firmly pos-
sess the ability to occupy islands and ensure an active occupancy of islands
and reefs rather than symbolic possession … China has put aside the resolu-
tion of disputes in favor of seeking common development. However, this
misreads Deng Xiaoping’s fundamental principle of territorial integrity. In
China’s border security issues, the country must seek to resolve issues in a
timely fashion to avoid conflicts later on.72
Wang Jisi, a leading Chinese international relations scholar and adviser to

top Chinese Communist Party officials rejected this sharp rhetoric, asserting
that “reckless statements, made with no official authorization created a great
deal of confusion,” and Chinese diplomats warned that “such a move might
fan the flames of the ‘China threat’ theory in Southeast Asian countries, not
to mention the United States.” 73
This public debate reflected a debate within the government and CCP over
how to deal with what was perceived as China’s loss of negotiating lever-
age in the South China Sea. The voices of pragmatism won out. China has
not elevated the South China Sea to a “core interest.” Careful research has
turned up no official PRC government statement or document that ex-
plicitly identified the South China Sea as such. One Xinhua report in August
2011 stated that “China has always made itself loud and clear that it has
indisputable sovereignty over the sea’s islands and surrounding waters, which
is part of China’s core interests.” 74 However, public acknowledgment of this
is problematic. Zhu Feng, an international relations scholar at Peking

University, observed that while it is “not Chinese policy to declare the
South China Sea as a core interest … the problem is that a public denial
will be some sort of chicken action on the part of Chinese leaders. So the
government also doesn’t want to inflame the Chinese people.” 75
Nevertheless, China’s increased assertiveness had an impact. The Philip
pines responded by strengthening its security cooperation with the United
States under the 1951 US-Philippines Mutual Security Treaty and filed a
petition for arbitration of the Sino-Philippine dispute under UNCLOS.
Vietnam, too, initiated increased security cooperation with the United
States. Beijing responded by adjusting its tactics in an effort to dampen the
spike in anti-China sentiment among some ASEAN nations and curb the
growth of US involvement in the South China Sea dispute. This change in
policy was signalled by the July 2011 China-ASEAN agreement on “Guide
lines for the Implementation of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties
in the South China Sea.” This agreement was the result of years of negotia-
tion and compromise. In 2004, a Joint Working Group was created to negoti-
ate specific measures to implement the DOC. China rejected ASEAN’s policy
of “continu[ing] its … practice of consulting among themselves before meeting
with China” and insisted that disputes should be resolved through bilateral
negotiations. Finally, ASEAN dropped the statement on consultation and
China agreed to the set of guidelines; this was a diplomatic breakthrough
but it was a rather toothless set of guidelines.76 In October 2011, China con-
cluded with Vietnam an “agreement on the basic principles guiding the
resolution of maritime issues.” 77 While being more assertive, China has in
fact not changed its fundamental policy of seeking a compromise solution,
fully aware that changing this policy would only trigger strong reaction from
ASEAN and invite a more active role for the United States, something not in
China’s strategic interest. To deal with the consequences of China’s more
assertive policy, Zha Daojiong, a professor at Peking University’s School of
International Studies, suggested that “China needs to learn a diplomatic
lesson from the South China Sea issue. It is time to rethink and repair rela-
tions with those countries involved to deal with their affiliation with the US.” 78
As scenarios for resolving the disputes are considered, a possible com
plicating factor is the involvement of the Republic of China on Taiwan. After
briefly abandoning its foothold in the Spratlys following its retreat to Taiwan,
the Nationalist government has occupied Itu Aba Island (Taiping Dao), the
largest island in the Spratly group, and the Pratas group (Dongsha) since
1956. In 2009, Taipei submitted claims to the United Nations on the Outer
Limits of the Continental Shelf that matched Beijing’s claims to the South
China Sea, and added that Taiwan supported “joint exploration and resources-
sharing.” 79
At a government-sponsored “seminar” on the South China Sea held in
Taipei in September 1993, a plan to enhance Taiwan’s military and civilian
presence in the region was announced, and preparations were initiated to
increase sea patrols around the Pratas and the Spratlys. Characterized as
a “symbolic move” to signal the Southeast Asian states that Taiwan was
“indispensable” in resolving the disputes, Taipei pointedly did not challenge
Beijing’s position. Participants agreed that Taipei and Beijing should ex-
change official documents jointly affirming Chinese sovereignty over the
islands, and that Taipei should sponsor cross-strait meetings on the issue.80
As cross-strait relations improved, a fisheries agreement was negotiated in
September 1990 that specifically mentioned cooperation in the Spratlys,
and with improving cooperation, in early 1995 the Chinese Petroleum
Corporation (Taipei) and China National Offshore Oil Corporation
(Beijing) established a joint venture to explore for oil in the South China
Sea.81 A tacit Beijing-Taipei “united front” supporting “China’s” claims has
clearly developed.
Taipei responds without fail to statements and actions by any other party
to the dispute but does not challenge Beijing’s claims, and both parties
have avoided any military confrontation over islands that the “other China”
occupies. Taipei did not criticize Beijing’s use of force to wrest control of
the Paracels and some Spratly islands from Vietnam. In fact, Nationalist
troops watched passively as the PLA routed Vietnamese troops in the
March 1988 battle, and Taiwan’s defence minister suggested that Taipei
would, if necessary, help Beijing defend its position on the islands.82
This Beijing-Taipei united front approach conforms to Beijing’s behav-
iour in other disputes – that is, subordination of territorial differences to
more fundamental strategic interests. Beijing does not want to allow South
east Asian states to use PRC-ROC conflict over other sovereignty to breach
their unity on China’s historical claims to the islands in the South China
Sea. After the election of the independence-minded Democratic Progres
sive Party in 2000, relations between the two Chinas soured dramatically
but there was no indication of substantive change in the tacit united front
regarding islands in the South China Sea.83 Since the Nationalist Party
regained power in March 2008, the government in Taipei has vigorously
defended “China’s” claim to sovereignty over all island groups in the

South China Sea, and has strengthened its ability to defend these claims
militarily.
Conclusions
The approach China took in earlier settlements has emerged in the South
China Sea disputes as well. Beijing was initially reluctant to enter formal
negotiations, but ASEAN went ahead with steps at the official level and at
its 1992 Ministerial Meeting issued a South China Sea Declaration that
called for military restraint and joint development while leaving open the
question of sovereignty. Beijing did not criticize this step and supported
the general principles of the declaration.84 In the mid-1990s, China indi-
cated a willingness to examine the disputes according to international law
based on the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. China
signed the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea
in November 2002, the first formal China-ASEAN agreement on that issue,
committing Beijing to resolve disputes by peaceful means and to show self-
restraint. Premier Zhu Rongji characterized the declaration as marking “a
higher level of political trust” between China and the ASEAN states.85 In
2003, China became a signatory of the 1976 Treaty of Amity and Cooper
ation in Southeast Asia, pledging to settle disputes through direct negotia-
tions or refer the dispute to some type of third-party arbitration.86 In July
2011, within weeks after tensions flared up between China and Vietnam,
all parties concluded an agreement on guidelines for the implementation
of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea.
China’s assistant foreign minister characterized this agreement as “an im-
portant milestone document for cooperation among China and ASEAN
countries.”87
Thus, Beijing has shifted to a more conciliatory position, determined by
larger strategic considerations. Chinese scholars believe that whereas in
the past “historical influences limited Chinese flexibility in the South
China Sea,” Beijing now is more willing to compromise because “accumulat-
ing international prestige and being accepted as part of international so-
ciety” has become more important in China’s grand strategy and in relations
with its ASEAN neighbours.88 Therefore, although the South China Sea dis-
putes will not be settled in the foreseeable future, Beijing’s policy has changed
to accommodate the emerging strategic imperatives in Southeast Asia –
compromising to achieve broader security and economic objectives.89
If nothing occurs to threaten Beijing’s security interests in the South China

Sea, the status quo could continue indefinitely. We can expect Beijing to
continue participating in track II diplomacy through “workshops” and
“seminars,” as well as more official settings such as the ASEAN Regional
Forum, but to resist involving outside powers in the region, as was demon-
strated by its angry reaction to the US statement on national interests in the
South China Sea and support for a multilateral settlement.
If the past offers any insights into the future, we can assume that if a suf-
ficiently acute external threat emerges, China will show flexibility in resolving
disputes in order to reduce friction with other states and develop alliances
to counter the perceived threat. The US pivot to Southeast Asia has resulted
in Chinese countermoves, such as quick dampening of spikes in tensions to
reduce the incentive of other states to seek a greater US presence and closer
cooperation with the United States to prevent Chinese domination. The
increased focus of the United States on the South China Sea since 2010 has
alarmed China and likely provided the impetus for it to sign the agreement
on steps to implement the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in 2011,
which the parties had wrestled with for six years. Beijing has also shown a
greater willingness to negotiate a code of conduct, something ASEAN states
have advocated for some time. After initially dragging its feet, China began
supporting a code of conduct in 2010 in response to the more active engage-
ment of the United States in the South China Sea dispute. China’s strategic
calculation is that engaging the other parties in negotiations over a code
of conduct will dampen their efforts, especially those of Vietnam and the
Philippines, to draw the US into the dispute.
If ASEAN progresses toward some mode of formal cooperation for re-
source development, China should not be expected to remain on the sidelines
as a bystander. The possibility of such an eventuality is demonstrated by the
1992 agreement between Kuala Lumpur and Hanoi to develop areas jointly
where their claims overlap.90 An ASEAN agreement to move forward with
joint development of the South China Sea resources would force China to
seek a multilateral settlement. In any case, these scenarios support the con-
clusion that China will move to prevent any anti-China coalitions by seeking
to settle these disputes. The scenarios illustrate various conditions under
which China’s approach to the South China Sea disputes could become more
flexible and follow the pattern established in earlier boundary settlements.
The particular characteristics of the South China Sea disputes must be
considered too. In terms of sovereignty, this is a multilateral zero-sum game
and, from the perspective of economic cooperation and development, it is a

classic prisoners’ dilemma. Given China’s attitude since the end of the Cold
War, we can see the emergence of a pattern of behaviour particular to this
multilateral dispute. Beijing appears willing to cooperate with the other
states in joint development when China does not control the territory in
question. Li Peng’s 1990 Singapore statement and the Indonesian-sponsored
workshops initiated in 1990 that China has participated in make this clear.
However, if Beijing controls the disputed territory, participating in any
joint development scheme is less likely. Beijing has expressed its willingness
to cooperate in the Spratlys, where it controls only a few islands, but has
refused any such cooperation in the Paracels, where it has complete control.
The agreement with Japan to develop resources in the East China Sea shows
China’s willingness to cooperate in a joint development project if other par-
ties first concede Chinese sovereignty over the disputed territory, as Tokyo
did before joint development was undertaken. More generally, it illustrates
China’s policy of setting aside disputes to pursue joint development, which
reflects the fact that, for China, fashioning settlements based on international
law is less important than finding a resolution “reflecting thinking and
calculations about what serves China’s national interests.”91
A concern that many have is that as China’s military power and ability to
project force into the South China Sea grows, Beijing will become more ag-
gressive and less willing to compromise. Some scholars have concluded that
China has adopted a strategy of delaying settlement “at least until the balance
of power changes substantially in favor of China,” and that at some point
irredentist claims “in some cases might be pursued in more concerted form
if favorable changes take place in the future regional balance of power.”
Therefore, “down the line [these territorial disputes can be resolved] to
China’s advantage by any means of its own choosing if its national capabilities
are allowed to grow rapidly and undisturbed in the interim.”92 One Chinese
analyst concludes, however, that Beijing’s strategic rivalries in the region
will “constrain China from becoming openly confrontational” because an
“overly assertive posture … will only further generate suspicion in many
regional states toward China.” Chinese scholars, Foreign Ministry officials,
and PLA officers generally support this view. Thus, a “combination of non-
confrontation and assertiveness is likely to dominate China’s behavior” in
the future.93 The more assertive and nationalistic Chinese public may com-
plicate Beijing’s ability to negotiate compromise over these historically
sensitive territorial claims, but recent scholarship concludes that “the rise
of popular nationalism in reform-era China has not correlated with a rise

in military aggression” and a “foolhardy, overly aggressive foreign policy.”94
This, we can conclude, is due to the fact that the CCP central leadership
has decided “to pursue a non-coercive approach toward … territorial
disputes.”95
An example of this non-confrontational but assertive approach is the
May 2012 crisis over Scarborough Shoal (Huangyan Dao) involving the
Philippines and China. The PLA newspaper Liberation Army Daily (Jiefangjun
bao) published a strong editorial against any compromise, asserting “not
only the Chinese government will not agree, neither will the Chinese people,
and the Chinese Army will disagree even more.”96 However, despite popular
calls for a more aggressive policy, Beijing, as in previous such incidents,
moved quickly to calm the waters and craft a diplomatic resolution.97 This
pragmatism is reflected by Zhao Minghao, a research fellow at the China
Center for Contemporary World Studies under the International Depart
ment of the CCP Central Committee, who argues that China must “avoid
strategic myopia” and “maintain a strategic restraint over the coming years
in light of its territorial disputes with neighboring countries, rising national-
ism and growing diversity in foreign policy making.” This requires Beijing
to adopt “policies to handle its growing power capabilities and curb its im-
perialistic impulses.”98 Motivating this more moderate approach is China’s
larger grand strategy.
Although complex historical and legal questions complicate any resolution
of the South China Sea, as in other territorial disputes Beijing can be expected
to behave pragmatically, taking into consideration larger strategic and eco-
nomic concerns. China will probably eventually seek a compromise settle-
ment in the South China Sea to maintain good relations with its ASEAN
neighbours, and to ease cooperation on fundamental economic and security
issues where military force has little or no utility and runs counter to China’s
long-term strategic interests in the region. Beijing responded to the growing
concerns of other Southeast Asian states in a Global Times editorial recog-
nizing that
clearly stating China’s intention and easing the concerns of other countries
remains a challenge … As the largest country in the region, China has the
responsibility to reduce the divergence and build a consensus. Disagreements
may be hard to put aside but China should find ways to push forward joint
developments, through which reciprocating ventures can be formed to reduce
conflicts. It takes time to solve this conflict, a historical issue, but through
joint efforts and mutual understanding, common ground can be reached.
Clashes are not destined in the South China Sea conflict, and one must break
this expectation.99
Foreign Minister Wang Yi, addressing the Chinese People’s Institute of

Foreign Affairs Second World Peace Forum in Beijing in June 2013, reiterated
China’s policy regarding disputed territory: “China maintains that proper
solutions must be sought through dialogue and negotiation on the basis
of fully respecting historical facts and international law … Pending the
settlement of disputes over maritime rights and interests, parties could
shelve differences and engage in joint development.”100 Again at the United
Nations General Assembly in September 2013, he stressed the continuity in
China’s policy toward the unresolved disputes, stating that
with regard to China’s disputes with some countries over territorial sover-
eignty and maritime rights and interests, we sincerely hope to properly resolve
them through negotiation and consultation with countries directly involved
… This is our consistent position and practice. On the other hand, we will,
under whatever circumstances, firmly safeguard China’s sovereignty and
territorial integrity and resolutely uphold China’s legitimate and lawful rights
and interests.101
At a press conference on the sidelines of the 2014 annual National People’s

Congress (no doubt targeted at the domestic audience), he used a stronger
tone, asserting that China will “never bully smaller countries,” but “we will
defend every inch of territory that belongs to us” and “will not accept un-
reasonable denounce [sic] from smaller countries” either.102
Compared with the other boundary and territorial disputes that China
has settled, the South China Sea disputes are more complex and will be the
most difficult to resolve. Unlike earlier disputes, they involve potentially
resource-rich and strategically important islands and sea lanes. A multilateral
solution must be reached, but China has been reluctant to engage in multi-
lateral negotiations. It is likely that the status quo of no solution but no
large-scale military conflict will persist into the foreseeable future.
Conclusion
The correlation between China’s territorial disputes and settlements and

its strategic environment has been the main analytical thread throughout
this book. China’s boundary disputes and settlements were analyzed within
the context of its global strategy as determined by strategic imperatives: the
deteriorating strategic environment in the 1960s, especially the Sino-
Soviet split in 1960, the Sino-Indian border war in 1962, and the escalating
US war in Vietnam; escalating Sino-Soviet tensions in the 1970s; and the
end of the Cold War in the 1990s. The case studies were divided into groups
and placed in this larger strategic context: those within the Sino-Indian
dimension, those within the Sino-Soviet/Russian dimension, and contem-
porary cases. There is also a chronological pattern: during the first period,
boundary disputes were settled with Burma in 1960, with Nepal in 1961,
with Mongolia in 1962, and with Pakistan and Afghanistan in 1963. China
fought a border war with India in 1962 after failing to achieve a boundary
settlement. The boundary dispute with the Soviet Union became public
in 1963, and after smouldering for years with acrimonious exchanges, a
border war erupted in 1969. This escalation of tensions in Sino-Soviet rela-
tions set the context for the second period in the 1970s. In September
1972, Beijing sidestepped the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands disputes and nor-
malized relations with Tokyo, and then in August 1978, it shelved the ter-
ritorial dispute with Japan in order to conclude the Treaty of Peace and
Friendship before engaging Vietnam in a border war the following Febru
ary. The third shift in China’s strategic environment – the end of the Cold
War – set the stage for the third period and the settlements with the Central
Eurasian states in the 1990s. Reflecting Beijing’s post–Cold War strategic
calculations, China’s behaviour follows the same pattern in the ongoing
disputes in the South China Sea. Despite the separation of each set of cases
based on Beijing’s larger strategic concerns, the same systemic structural
constraints were considered when analyzing China’s behaviour. Each case
264 Conclusion
study provided an island of knowledge about China’s approach to boundary

disputes and settlements. The task now is to build bridges between these
islands and synthesize the findings with the objective of generalizing Beijing’s
pattern of behaviour across cases and time periods.
Historical Legacy and Boundary Settlements

The Chinese have a clear image of China’s historical frontiers supported
by impressive historical evidence. This image even transcends different
ideological affinities from one regime to the next. Traditionally, China en-
deavoured to maintain a system of buffer states beyond its borders. The
objective was to establish a defensive parameter of suzerain or tributary states
controlled by the central court or government that were unable or unwilling
to challenge China’s hegemony. The strategic motivation was defence of
the heartland against the nomads of inner Asia, the pirates of the East and
South China Seas, and the threats to China’s underbelly from South Asia.
One legacy of this traditional grand strategy is that in many cases China’s
borders were not defined by clearly delimited boundaries, but by the extent
to which the particular dynasty in power controlled the outer regions.
Boundaries drawn by treaty were for the most part established only in the
wake of European colonialism and China’s dynastic decline. Consequently,
China views these early treaties concluded under the shadow of imperial-
ism as illegitimate. This legacy of “unequal treaties” haunted all of China’s
boundary disputes and settlements. It is a truism that history matters, but
these case studies make clear that this historical legacy is a complicating
aspect of China’s boundary disputes and settlements.
Nevertheless, this study makes clear that while rejecting the early treaties
in principle, China has in fact accepted them as the basis for new treaties.
Beijing proved willing to surmount “problems left over by history” and did
not demand the return of “lost” territory considered historically part of
the Chinese empire. Beijing was satisfied when its neighbours tacitly recog-
nized China’s territorial victimization by European imperialism. This rec-
ognition is symbolized by the abolition of the unequal treaties. It is also
evident that ceding territory that was historically considered China’s, despite
previous treaties, is acceptable if it is based on an equal treaty negotiated
by two independent sovereign states. Beijing has therefore demonstrated
that while being rigid on issues of “principle,” it has been flexible and accom-
modating when larger strategic considerations dictated. This is especially
important when contemplating the smouldering disputes in the East and
Conclusion 265
South China Seas and with India, the one major land boundary that remains
unsettled. Based on the treaties concluded, it is clear that Beijing accepts
the norms and principles of international law regarding objective determin-
ants of boundaries, such as watersheds in mountainous areas, the thalweg
for rivers, and straight baseline and equidistance principles for maritime
boundaries.
A legacy of the early Chinese tributary system (which also served as a
“boundary maintenance system”) and traditional grand strategy is China’s
desire to establish a system of buffer states to ensure the security of the
Chinese heartland, demonstrated by the fact that Beijing attempted to
link mutual non-aggression treaties to the conclusion of the boundary treat-
ies of the early 1960s.
China’s Global Strategy and Boundary Disputes

China’s changing relations with other states in the region determined the
balance of power and provided the strategic context within which China
formulated its policy toward particular boundary disputes and settlements.
It is clear that decisions were made by Mao Zedong personally before his
death in 1976, and by Deng Xiaoping during subsequent years until the
early 1990s. Mao exercised almost complete control over foreign affairs
during the early 1960s, when most disputes were settled, as did Deng in
the late 1970s during the Senkaku Islands dispute and early 1990s, when
settlements were negotiated with Vietnam and the Central Eurasian states.
The ideological affinities and nationalism of Mao and Deng were con-
strained by broader strategic imperatives, and both exhibited a defensive
realist approach to boundary settlements, emphasizing the maintenance
of a favourable balance of power, and security over expansion and terri-
torial aggrandizement. China’s policy was only marginally affected, if at all,
by domestic politics or elite factionalism. The very centralized decision-
making process facilitated Beijing’s capacity to compromise and make ter-
ritorial concessions when necessary. Based on the evidence examined, it
is therefore possible to conclude that how Beijing handled the various dis-
putes was determined not so much by domestic politics or the preferences
of individual leaders but by broader strategic imperatives.
In the early 1960s, China’s relations with India and the Soviet Union
were deteriorating whereas Soviet-Indian relations were improving, and the
US threat in Southeast Asia was growing. In response to this shift in
the balance of power, Beijing adopted a flexible boundary policy to eliminate
266 Conclusion
boundary disputes as an irritant in relations with countries that could play

a role as buffer states and balancers. Beijing’s primary consideration was its
broader strategic interests – it was willing to compromise on narrow second-
ary considerations if necessary. China proved that it could be very accom
modating to settle a boundary dispute (or willingly delay settlement, as with
Japan and Russia regarding Heixiazi Island) when strategically necessary.
In other words, boundary dispute settlements were driven by larger strategic
considerations that required compromise to achieve a settlement.
I have argued that China used boundary settlements to eliminate friction
in bilateral relations and foster allies to offset the threat from the Soviet
Union, India, and the United States in the 1960s. In the case of Mongolia,
China’s objective was to encourage Ulaanbaatar to adopt a more neutral
policy. To accomplish this, China was even willing to appease Mongolian
nationalism. Unfortunately for China, Beijing miscalculated Mongolia’s
fear of Chinese irredentism and the boundary settlement did not diminish
this apprehension. That China failed to achieve its objectives in this case
underscored its inability to either compete with the Soviet Union or other
wise provide sufficient inducements to Soviet allies to win their support. In
the other cases, countries made certain accommodations and China was
in return generous in the final settlements. In the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands
case, China did not enforce its assertion of sovereignty over the islands, and
Japan agreed to include an “anti-hegemony” clause in the two nations’ Treaty
of Peace and Friendship; mutual accommodation made conclusion of the
treaty possible. Other boundary treaties facilitated non-aggression pacts that
enhanced China’s security.
Explaining China’s Behaviour

In the 1960s, China sought boundary settlements with India, the Soviet
Union, and Vietnam, but these three countries were unwilling to make any
compromises. As the strategic context began to change in the late 1980s,
Russia and China moved to settle the boundary in a manner notable for
the absence of polemics, and in the 1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet
Union and the fundamental change in the international environment,
China and Vietnam moved quickly to conclude boundary treaties. Even in
the case of India (and Bhutan), the lone unsettled land boundary, there has
been important progress in recent years toward an eventual resolution of
the issue; in the meantime, a stable status quo prevails.
Conclusion 267
In some cases Beijing has used military force to occupy disputed terri-
tory and then called for negotiations to settle the dispute. This was the
pattern followed with India in 1962 and Vietnam in 1979. In both cases,
China withdrew from the occupied territory before the renewal of boundary
talks, surrendering any leverage gained by occupying disputed territory. It
is not clear that China was attempting to occupy territory that it was dis-
puting with the Soviet Union in 1969, or whether this border skirmish was
triggered by the high level of tension at the time, caused by the Cultural
Revolution. In the fishing boat incident around the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands
in 1978, China clearly did not contemplate occupation of the islands in the
face of Japan’s refusal to compromise on the sovereignty issue. Small-scale
skirmishes occurred along the Sino-Burmese and Sino-Nepali borders as
settlements were being concluded, but there is no evidence that China was
attempting to occupy territory to force compromise. In fact, these cases show
that China has not used force to compel other states to make concessions
before a settlement. China’s behaviour in the South China Sea is more prob-
lematic. China occupied the Paracel Islands by force in 1974, but did not
occupy any islands in the Spratly group until 1988, when it used military
force to gain a foothold at the expense of Vietnam. China has since agreed
to a Declaration of Conduct (DOC) and supported a negotiated resolution
of these disputes. A cautionary note is necessary, however. China has used
force in over half of the disputes over islands in the South China Sea to
“strengthen its position,” especially if it did not occupy the contested terri-
tory.1 This pattern does not bode well for the unresolved disputes in the East
and South China Seas, where tensions have been escalating in recent years.
The most often asked question is why, since China was willing to com-
promise in so many cases to achieve a settlement, is it unable to resolve the
remaining disputes with India and Japan and in the South China Sea. Some
scholars of China’s grand strategy conclude that China has adopted a strategy
of delaying the resolution of the remaining boundary disputes “at least until
the balance of power changes substantially in favor of China,” and in the
future irredentist claims “in some cases might be pursued.” Therefore, “down
the line [these territorial disputes can be resolved] to China’s advantage by
any means of its own choosing if its national capabilities are allowed to grow
rapidly and undisturbed in the interim.”2
The response to this conclusion has several dimensions and underscores
one fact common to all the boundary settlements – they are a function of
268 Conclusion
Beijing’s larger strategic considerations and grand strategy. Unsettled

cases can be divided into two general categories. First, the territorial disputes
with Japan and the other states that border the East and South China Seas
are characterized by conflicting historical claims to hundreds of mostly
uninhabited small islands, coral reefs, or atolls. The multilateral disputes
are even more complicated. No treaties have ever determined sovereignty
over the islands of the East and South China Seas. Negotiating a compromise
settlement is further complicated by disagreement regarding international
legal criteria on questions such as discovery and delimitation of the contin-
ental shelf and increased demand for natural resources. If a compromise
settlement is not possible, Beijing will delay settlement to facilitate better
relations in the face of larger strategic concerns. In the case of Japan, the
Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands dispute has proven to be so intractable that
China adopted a policy of “tactically” subordinating it to achieve more im-
portant strategic objectives. This also is the case with Russia and the resolu-
tion of disputed islands at the confluence of the Amur and Ussuri rivers
near Khabarovsk, which was deferred so a boundary treaty could be con-
cluded in 1991. The South China Sea is in the same category, where final
settlement is delayed while larger strategic interests are pursued.
In the second category, which includes India and, until recently, Vietnam
and Russia, China rejects the legitimacy of earlier boundary treaties while
India insists that these are valid international treaties and refuses to
negotiate new ones. China has consistently insisted on negotiating new
treaties, but it is also willing to take into consideration the earlier “unequal
treaties” when negotiating new ones. Russia and Vietnam eventually re-
lented on the old treaties and achieved settlements with relative ease. In
every settlement, possibly including Korea, one common and important
feature was Beijing’s insistence on negotiating new treaties to replace the
unequal treaties of the past. There is no evidence that China ever insisted
that its vast irredentist claims be satisfied when negotiating these new
treaties. Rather, Beijing has insisted only that the other countries recognize
that the boundaries are legacies of imperialism. The major obstacle that has
prevented a settlement with India is New Delhi’s insistence on the legit-
imacy of treaties concluded by previous governments from a bygone era.
Trends and Prospects

The paradigm developed in this study makes it possible to anticipate the
pattern that a settlement with India and resolution of the disputes in the
Conclusion 269
East and South China Seas will follow. This pattern became clear in the 1991
settlement of the Sino-Russian boundary and subsequent settlements with
China’s Eurasian neighbours. The threat that China felt from the Soviet
Union abated and in May 1989 Sino-Soviet rapprochement was symbolized
by Mikhail Gorbachev’s trip to China. In the new strategic environment,
the Sino-Russian boundary dispute was a source of friction in an otherwise
cordial relationship. Under this new set of strategic imperatives, Beijing no
longer insisted on the settlement of all issues of “principle,” such as recogni-
tion of the older treaties as unequal, and Russia was less concerned about
strategic considerations and Chinese irredentism, so a settlement was
achieved with relative ease. The one sticking point regarding a few islands
was set aside and not allowed to delay an agreement, but even this minor
dispute (involving less than two percent of the entire border) was settled in
November 2004 with virtually no acrimony. The Eurasian settlements fol-
lowed a similar pattern, as did the settlement with Vietnam in the latter
1990s. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, support for Vietnam, its
proxy in Southeast Asia, evaporated. In this new strategic contest, China
and Vietnam agreed on procedural issues for a boundary settlement and
soon signed new treaties based on the “historical customary line” established
by the Sino-French treaties.
The conclusion of the Sino-Russian and Sino-Vietnamese boundary
treaties has increased the pressure on India to be more flexible and has
increased China’s leverage in those negotiations. With the post–Cold War
evolution of the balance of power, Sino-Indian relations have already im-
proved significantly. Rajiv Gandhi travelled to Beijing in December 1988,
just six months before Gorbachev’s historic visit to Beijing, and placed Sino-
Indian relations on a new path. And, as demonstrated in other cases, China
is willing to be accommodating when negotiating a boundary settlement. If
India can gracefully retreat from its own uncompromising position and find
the necessary political will, a settlement is possible.
The strategic importance of the East and South China Seas, the potential
for oil, and the multilateral nature in the case of the South China Sea make
these the most complex of all of China’s territorial disputes. For the fore
seeable future, the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands will hamper Tokyo-Beijing
diplomacy and the South China Sea dispute will continue to be a source of
friction in China-ASEAN relations. Moreover, the “strident turn” in Chinese
foreign policy since 2008 will potentially complicate attempts to resolve
these disputes. Popular nationalism now has much more influence on China’s
270 Conclusion
foreign policy and, given the historical sensitivities over territorial issues,
in combination with state nationalism, has compelled Beijing to adopt a
much more assertive policy, which makes a compromise settlement politic-
ally more difficult to pursue.3 In the past, Beijing stressed Deng Xiaoping’s
emphasis on delaying the resolution of these difficult disputes, but rhetoric
shifted after 2008 and Deng was again used, but now to justify an uncompro-
mising policy: “The Chinese people will never turn a blind eye to those who
are working to undermine China’s territorial integrity, national unification
and dignity. Comrade Deng Xiaoping said: One should never expect the
Chinese to swallow the bitter pill which harms their benefits. Of course, we
don’t want to see that happen, but if it does happen, then we will respond
to make those relative countries realize this point.”4 This more nationalistic
sentiment was reflected by Assistant Minister of Foreign Affairs Le Yucheng
in more specific terms when he asserted that “as the situation develops, we
will give them tit for tat and take effective measures to safeguard our terri-
torial sovereignty resolutely.”5 Despite this more uncompromising rhetoric,
since 2012 Beijing has moved to moderate its policy and stem the tide of
growing concern over Chinese assertive behaviour. As this book has shown,
China has behaved pragmatically in pursuing resolutions of its land
boundary disputes. As other studies have argued, there is little likelihood
that China will pursue territorial expansion in the seas surrounding China,
especially the South China Sea.6
The geopolitical significance of the region will not change, and Beijing
has perceived a shift in the strategic context – such as a renewed assertion
of US influence in the region – and as the pressure to develop new sources
of oil increases, the incentive for mutual compromise and joint develop
ment will grow. All the parties to this dispute are caught in a prisoner’s di-
lemma – mutual cooperation would benefit all, whereas unilateral defection
would be costly in terms of resource development and possibly even war.
Because of the high stakes, once strategic and economic incentives are great
enough and political conditions permit, Beijing will pursue a negotiated
settlement.
The pattern followed in the settlement of China’s boundary disputes is
clear. Ernest R. May has argued that a state’s foreign policy can be character-
ized as either “calculated” or “axiomatic.” 7 A calculated foreign policy is a
more explicit strategy based on considerations of ends and means, whereas
the roots of an axiomatic foreign policy are more historical and run deep.
Conclusion 271
While China’s historical experience – both pre-modern and contemporary

– provides the substance of its axiomatic policies, strategic imperatives drive
Beijing’s calculated foreign policy. Axiomatic policies and calculated policies
may at times appear to contradict each other, but although a posteriori axioms
drive China’s world view, general strategic parameters and realities have
determined Beijing’s calculations. The interplay of historical and strategic
considerations is central to understanding the pattern of Beijing’s behaviour
when dealing with boundary disputes and settlements. This analytical con-
ceptualization is helpful in explaining China’s behaviour.
Notes
Introduction
1 Paul K. Huth, Standing Your Ground: Territorial Disputes and International Conflict
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 4.
2 John A. Vasquez, The War Puzzle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993),
123-24.
3 Allen Carlson, Unifying China, Integrating with the World: Securing China’s Sovereignty
in the Reform Era (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005); Chien-peng Chung,
Domestic Politics, International Bargaining and China’s Territorial Disputes (New York:
RoutledgeCurzon, 2004); M. Taylor Fravel, Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation
and Conflict in China’s Territorial Disputes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
2008).
4 Francis Watson, The Frontiers of China (New York: Praeger, 1966), 92.
5 Douglas M. Gibler, “Alliances that Never Balance: The Territorial-Settlement Treaty,” in
A Road Map to War: Territorial Dimensions of International Conflict, ed. Paul F. Diehl
(Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1999), 183.
6 Lowell Dittmer, “The Strategic Triangle: An Elementary Game-Theoretical Analysis,”
World Politics 33, 4 (July 1981): 487.
7 Carlson, Unifying China, Integrating with the World, 3, 50, 90-91.
8 Chung, Domestic Politics, International Bargaining and China’s Territorial Disputes, 163.
9 M. Taylor Fravel, “Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China’s
Compromises in Territorial Disputes,” International Security 3, 2 (Fall 2005): 49-50, 62.
10 Quincy Wright, A Study of War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 130.
11 Jiang Junzhang, Zhongguo bianjiang yu guofang [China’s frontiers and national defence]
(Taipei: Liming wenhua 1979), 2-7.
12 Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,
1979), 65.
13 John Gittings, The World and China, 1922-1972 (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), 267.
14 Allen S. Whiting, “Forecasting Chinese Foreign Policy: IR Theory vs. the Fortune
Cookie,” in Chinese Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice, ed. Thomas W. Robinson and
David Shambaugh (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 506, 521.
15 Wang Jisi, “International Relations Theory and the Study of Chinese Foreign Policy: A
Chinese Perspective” in Robinson and Shambaugh, ibid., 489-90.
16 David M. Lampton, “China: Outward Bound but Inner-Directed,” SAISPHERE 2006,
http://www.sais-jhu.edu/.
17 Paul K. Huth, “Enduring Rivalries and Territorial Disputes, 1950-1990,” Conflict Manage
ment and Peace Science 15, 1 (1996): 14-15.
18 Fravel, “Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation,” Table 1.
19 Waltz, Theory of International Politics, 68.
Notes to pages 8-13 273
20 A. Doak Barnett, The Making of Foreign Policy in China: Structure and Process (Boulder,
CO: Westview Press, 1985), 7-8.
21 Qingmin Zhang, “Towards an Integrated Theory of Chinese Foreign Policy: Bringing
Leadership Personality Back In,” Journal of Contemporary China 23, 89 (2014): 908.
22 Carol Lee Hamrin and Suisheng Zhao, eds., Decision-Making in Deng’s China: Perspectives
from Insiders (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1995), xxiv, 91-92.
23 Zhang, “Towards an Integrated Theory of Chinese Foreign Policy.”
24 Alice Miller, “Dilemmas of Globalization and Governance,” in The Politics of China: Sixty
Years of the People’s Republic of China, 3rd ed., ed. Roderick MacFarquhar (Oxford:
Cambridge University Press, 2011), 561-64.
25 Michael D. Swaine, “China’s Assertive Behavior Part Three: The Role of the Military in
Foreign Policy,” China Leadership Monitor 36 (Winter 2012): 4-5, 10.
26 James Reilly, Strong Society, Smart State: The Rise of Public Opinion in China’s Japan
Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 17.
27 Ibid., 24, 46-47, 49, 131.
28 Feng Zhaokui, “Dui zhong-ri guanxi ‘zhengleng jingre’ de zai sikao” [Rethinking “cold
politics, hot economics” in China-Japan relations], quoted in Reilly, ibid., 49.
29 Allen S. Whiting, “Leaping the Great Wall between Security Studies and China Studies,”
Security Studies 6, 4 (Summer 1997): 188-89.
30 Tian Zengpei, ed., Gaige kaifang yilai de Zhongguo waijiao [Chinese foreign policy since
opening up and reform] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1993), 628.
31 Huth, Standing Your Ground: Territorial Disputes and International Conflict, 19-22. I
do not consider the Taiwan, Hong Kong, or Macao cases because they do not constitute
cases of “boundary disputes” but rather sovereignty disputes over colonial enclaves or,
in the case of Taiwan, two rival governments that claim to be the legitimate government
of China.
32 Carol Lee Hamrin, “Elite Politics and the Development of China’s Foreign Relations,” in
Robinson and Shambaugh, Chinese Foreign Policy, 80-82.
33 Waltz, Theory of International Politics, 127.
34 John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W.W. Norton,
2001), 164-65.
35 See Yuan-Kang Wang, Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2011); Huiyun Feng, Chinese Strategic Culture
and Foreign Policy Decision-Making: Confucianism, Leadership and War (New York:
Routledge, 2007), 44, 59, 121.
36 Shiping Tang, “From Offensive to Defensive Realism: A Social Evolutionary Interpreta
tion of China’s Security Strategy,” in China’s Ascent: Power, Security, and the Future of
International Politics, ed. Robert Ross and Zhu Feng (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 2008); Vidya Prakash Dutt, China and the World: An Analysis of Communist China’s
Foreign Policy (New York: Praeger, 1964), 100; David P. Mozingo, “Communist China:
Its Southern Border Lands,” SAIS Review 12, 2 (Winter 1968): 43-54.
37 Malcolm Anderson, Frontiers: Territory and State Formation in the Modern World
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996), 30-31; Fravel, Strong Borders, Secure Nation, 58.
38 Xiaohong Liu, Chinese Ambassadors: The Rise of Diplomatic Professionalism since 1949
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), 56-57.
39 Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, White Paper 1 (New Delhi: External
Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs, 1959), 76.
40 Renmin ribao, 19 April 1959, 4.
41 Liu Shaoqi, Collected Works of Liu Shao-ch’i, 1958-1967 (Hong Kong: Union Research
Institute, 1968), 153.
274 Notes to pages 13-23
42 Allen S. Whiting, The Chinese Calculus of Deterrence: India and Indochina (Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press, 1975), 38-39, 48.
43 “Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea,” signed by China and
the ASEAN states on 4 November 2002 in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
44 Michael D. Swaine and Ashley J. Tellis, Interpreting China’s Grand Strategy: Past, Present,
and Future (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2000), 129.
45 Robert H. Donaldson, The Soviet-Indian Alignment: Quest for Influence (Denver: Graduate
School of International Studies, University of Denver, 1979), 4-11.
46 John W. Garver, Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century (Seattle:
University of Washington Press, 2001), 29-30.
47 Huth, “Enduring Rivalries and Territorial Disputes, 1950-1990.”
48 Han Nianlong, ed., Diplomacy of Contemporary China (Hong Kong: New Horizon Press,
1990), 117-18.
49 Wen wei po (Hong Kong), 26 April 1996.
50 Qian Qichen, Waijiao shiji [Ten foreign policy events] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe,
2003), 227; Mark Burles, Chinese Policy toward Russia and the Central Asian Republics
(Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1999), 5; Chien-peng Chung, “The Defense of Xinjiang,”
Harvard International Review 25, 2 (Summer 2003): 58; Niklas Swanström, “China
and Central Asia: A New Great Game or Traditional Vassal Relations?” Journal of Con
temporary China 14, 45 (November 2005): 570; Tariq Mahmud Ashraf, “Afghanistan and
Chinese Strategy toward South and Central Asia,” Jamestown Foundation China Brief
7, 10 (13 May 2008).
51 Gearóid Ó Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics: The Politics of Writing Global Space (Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 1.
52 Henry A. Kissinger, A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace,
1812-22 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1957), 146-47.
Chapter 1: The Historical Legacy

1 Michael H. Hunt, “Chinese Foreign Relations in Historical Perspective,” in China’s Foreign
Relations in the 1980s, ed. Harry Harding (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984),
1.
2 John K. Fairbank, “China’s Foreign Policy in Historical Perspective,” Foreign Affairs 47,
3 (April 1969): 449.
3 Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett, “Introduction,” in The Cambridge History of China,
vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368, ed. Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 4.
4 Lian-sheng Yang, “Historical Notes on the Chinese World Order,” in The Chinese World
Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations, ed. John King Fairbank (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1968), 22.
5 Mark Mancall, China at the Center: 300 Years of Foreign Policy (New York: Free Press,
1984).
6 John Cranmer-Byng, “The Chinese View of Their Place in the World: An Historical
Perspective,” China Quarterly 53 (January-March 1973): 68.
7 Peter C. Perdue, “Boundaries, Maps, and Movement: Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian
Empires in Early Modern Central Eurasia,” International History Review 20, 2 (June
1998): 285.
8 Mark Mancall, “The Persistence of Tradition in Chinese Foreign Policy,” Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science 349 (September 1963): 20.
9 Tu Wei-ming, “Cultural China: The Periphery as the Center,” Daedalus 120, 2 (Spring
1991): 3.
10 Li Jijun, “Traditional Military Thinking and the Defensive Strategy of China,” Letort
Paper 1 (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, United States Army War College, 1997).
11 Peter C. Perdue, “Comparing Empires: Manchu Colonialism,” International History
Review 20, 2 (June 1998): 255.
12 David Curtis Wright, From War to Diplomatic Parity in Eleventh-Century China: Sung’s
Foreign Relations with Kitan Liao (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2005), 28-29.
13 Malcolm Anderson, Frontiers: Territory and State Formation in the Modern World
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996), 34-36.
14 Ping-Ti Ho, “The Significance of the Ch’ing Period in Chinese History,” Journal of
Asian Studies 26, 2 (February 1967): 191.
15 Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Documents Concerning the Simla Conference,
Appendix 11, quoted in Ting-tsz Kao, The Chinese Frontiers (Aurora, IL: Chinese Schol
arly Publishing 1980), 227.
16 Xie Bin, Zhongguo sangdi shi [History of China’s lost territory] (Shanghai: Zhonghua
shuju, 1925).
17 Ibid., 6
18 Foreign Broadcast Information Service [hereafter FBIS], Daily Report: China (6 June
1985): K3-K4.
19 Ibid., K4.
20 Ross Terrill, The New Chinese Empire (New York: Basic Books, 2003), 2, 54; Richard J.
Smith, Chinese Maps: Images of “All under Heaven” (London: Oxford University Press,
1996), 78.
21 Lee Kuan Yew, speech given at the “1996 Architect of the New Century Dinner,” Nixon
Center, Washington, DC, 24 November 1996, http://www.nixoncenter.org/publications/
YEW96.html.
22 Weng Tu-chien, “China’s Policy on National Minorities,” People’s China 1, 7 (1 April
1950): 6.
23 G.F. Hudson, “The Nationalities of China,” St. Antony’s Papers 7 (1960): 53-54.
24 Translated in Conrad Brandt, Benjamin Schwartz, and John K. Fairbank, eds., A Docu
mentary History of Chinese Communism (New York: Athenaeum, 1966), 64.
25 Ibid., 132.
26 Bela Kun, Fundamental Laws of the Chinese Soviet Republic (New York: International
Publishers, 1934), 78-83.
27 Mao Tse-tung, China: The March toward Unity (New York: Workers Library Publishers,
1937), 40-41.
28 United States Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee to Investigate the
Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws (91st
Cong., 1st sess.), The Amerasia Papers: A Clue to the Catastrophe of China 2 (Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office, 1970), 982.
29 Mao Zedong, Zhongguo geming yu Zhongguo gongchandang [The Chinese revolution
and the Chinese Communist Party] (Zhangjiakou: Xinhua shudian, 1945), 1 (revised
ed., Renmin chubanshe, 1952).
30 Harold Hinton, ed., The People’s Republic of China, 1949‑1979: A Documentary Survey,
vol. 1 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1980), 55.
31 Article 3, Chapter 1, Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, Documents of the
First Session of the First National People’s Congress of the CPR (Peking: Foreign Language
Press, 1955).
32 Chang Chih-i, A Discussion of the National Question in the Chinese Revolution and of
Actual Nationalities Policy (Draft), translated in George Moseley, The Party and the
National Question in China (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1966), 67-68.
33 Ho, “The Significance of the Ch’ing Period in Chinese History,” 190-91.

34 Liu Peihua, Zhongguo jindai shi [Modern Chinese history] (Beijing: Yichang shuju, 1954),
129.
35 Ibid., 113-14.
36 Renmin ribao, 21 July 1962, 2; China News Analysis 437 (14 September 1962): 4.
37 Stuart Schram, Mao Tse-tung (New York: Penguin Books, 1977), 255-56.
38 Hua Di, “China’s Comprehensive Strategic Doctrine,” in The Role of Technology in Meeting
the Defense Challenges of the 1980s: Report of a Conference, ed. William Perry and Hua
Di (Stanford, CA: Arms Control and Disarmament Program, Stanford University, 1981),
85-86.
39 Mira Sinha Bhattacharjea, “China’s Strategy for the Determination and Consolidation
of Its Territorial Boundaries: A Preliminary Investigation,” China Report 23, 4 (1987):
397-419.
40 Zhong-Su youhao guanxi xuexi shouce [Sino-Soviet friendly relations study handbook]
(Shanghai: Zhanwang zhoukan, 1950), 57-58.
41 Hungdah Chiu, Comparison of the Nationalist and Communist Chinese Views of Un
equal Treaties, Harvard Law School Studies in Chinese Law No. 19 (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard Law School, 1972), 251-52, 258, 264.
42 Dong Wang, China’s Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History (Lanham, MD:
Lexington Books, 2005), 77.
43 See Li Jijun, “Traditional Military Thinking and the Defensive Strategy of China.”
44 Wright, From War to Diplomatic Parity, 17.
45 Agnes Fang-Chin Chen, “Chinese Frontier Diplomacy: The Eclipse of Manchuria,” Yenching
Journal of Social Studies 5, 1 (July 1950): 118-20.
46 G.V. Ambekar and V.P. Divekar, eds., Documents on China’s Relations with South and
South-East Asia (1949-1962) (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1964), 19.
47 China News Analysis 437 (14 September 1962): 6; Francis Watson, The Frontiers of China
(New York: Praeger, 1966), 90, 63; Renmin ribao, 8 March 1963.
48 Chiu, “Comparison of the Nationalist and Communist Chinese Views of Unequal
Treaties,” 264-65; Renmin ribao, 8 March 1963, 1.
49 Pravda, 2 September 1964, in Current Digest of the Soviet Press 16, 34 (6 September 1964):
6-7.
50 Ouyang Yujing, Foreign Ministry, Department of Treaty and Law division director, quoted
in “90% of Land Boundaries Settled,” China Youth Daily, 5 May 2005, http://www.china.
org.cn/archive/.
51 Pei Jianzhang, ed., Yanjiu Zhou Enlai – waijiao sixiang yu shijian (Research on Zhou
Enlai: diplomatic thought and practice) (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1989), 101-3.
53 See Li Jijun, “Traditional Military Thinking and the Defensive Strategy of China.”
Chapter 2: Sino-Indian Relations and Boundary Disputes

1 Quoted in Han Nianlong, ed., Diplomacy of Contemporary China (Hong Kong: New
Horizon Press, 1990), 221.
2 Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question (Peking: Foreign Language Press,
1960), 6-7 and 88-89; Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, White Paper
2 (New Delhi: External Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs, 1959), 39; Han,
ibid., 221-22.
3 The Times, 8 September 1959, quoted in Xuecheng Liu, The Sino-Indian Border Dispute
and Sino-Indian Relations (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994), 57-59.
4 John Lall, Aksaichin and Sino-Indian Conflict (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1989), 254.
5 Quoted in Frank Moraes, Witness to an Era: India, 1920 to the Present Day (London:
Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973), 220.
6 K.M. Panikkar, In Two Chinas: Memoirs of a Diplomat (London: George Allen and Unwin
1955), 101-2.
7 Krishna P.S. Menon, Delhi-Chungking: A Travel Diary (Bombay: Oxford University Press,
1947), 29.
8 Sarvepalli Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, Volume 2: 1947-1956 (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 105-6; Xie Yixian, Zhongguo waijiao shi: Zhonghua
Renmin Gongheguo shiqi 1949-1979 [A diplomatic history of China: the period of the
People’s Republic of China, 1949-1979] (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1988),
22-23.
9 Steven A. Hoffman, India and the China Crisis (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1990), 32.
10 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongYin ZhongBu juan [The
People’s Republic of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-India China-Bhutan
volume] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2004); Government of India, Ministry of
External Affairs, White Paper 1 (New Delhi: External Publicity Division, Ministry of
External Affairs, 1959), 98-105; Panikkar, In Two Chinas, 102, 170-71, 174-75; B.M. Mullik,
The Chinese Betrayal: My Years with Nehru (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1971), 146-53.
11 India, Parliamentary Debates, 5, pt. 1, 155-56 quoted in Lall, Aksaichin and Sino-Indian
Conflict, 237.
12 Hoffman, India and the China Crisis, 25-30.
13 Shri Prakash, “The Sixth Meeting of the India-China Joint Working Group on the
Boundary Question,” China Report: A Journal of East Asian Studies 30, 1 (January-March
1994): 90-91.
14 Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Report of the Officials of the Govern
ment of India and the People’s Republic of China on the Boundary Question (New Delhi:
External Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs, 1961), 8.
15 Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 218.
16 J.N. Dixit, Across Borders: Fifty Years of India’s Foreign Policy (New Delhi: Picus Books,
1998), 354.
17 Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, 2: 176-81; Hoffman, India and the China Crisis, 32-33.
18 Mullik, The Chinese Betrayal, 151.
19 Pei Jianzhang, ed., Yanjiu Zhou Enlai – waijiao sixiang yu shijian [Research on Zhou
Enlai: diplomatic thought and practice] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1989), 7.
20 Sarvepalli Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, Volume 3: 1956-1964 (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 90, 101.
21 Dipankar Gupta, The Context of Ethnicity: Sikh Ethnicity in a Comparative Perspective
(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 17.
22 ITAR-TASS, 9 September 1959, in Current Digest of the Soviet Press, 11, 36 (7 October
1959): 14.
23 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 291.
24 Chen Xiaolu, “Chen Yi and China’s Diplomacy,” paper presented at the Woodrow Wilson
Center for International Scholars conference, 7-9 July 1992.
25 G.V. Matveyev, “Peking’s Political Machinations on the Hindustan Peninsula,” Problemy
Dalnego Vostoka 4 (December 1972): 39-45, abstract trans. in Current Digest of the Soviet
Press 25, 11 (11 April 1973): 4.
University of Washington Press, 2001), 101.
27 Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 219; White Paper 1: 75-76. This interpretation
was also corroborated by interviews with Chinese scholars at both the China Institute
of International Studies and the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations
in July 1994.
28 Garver, Protracted Contest, 102, citing Xu Yan, Zhong-Yin bianjie zhi zhan lishi zhen
xiang [The true history of the Sino-Indian border war] (Hong Kong: Tiandi tushu gongsi,
1993), 54.
29 United States Consulate General, Hong Kong, Current Background, 559 (1959).
31 White Paper 1: 1-4; G.V. Ambekar and V.P. Divekar, eds., Documents on China’s Relations
with South and South-East Asia (1949-1962) (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1964), 119;
Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question, 9-10 and 78-79; John Rowland, A
History of Sino-Indian Relations: Hostile Co-Existence (Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand,
1967), 85.
32 White Paper 1: 49; Ambekar and Divekar, Documents on China’s Relations with South
and South- East Asia, 111-12; Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Report
of the Officials, CR-29-30, 163; Rowland, A History of Sino-Indian Relations, 95.
33 Hoffman, India and the China Crisis, 35.
34 Ibid., 35-36.
35 China Pictorial 95 (July 1958): 20-21; Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 218; White
Paper 1: 47-54; Ambekar and Divekar, Documents on China’s Relations with South and
South-East Asia, 118; Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question, 7-8; Govern
ment of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Report of the Officials, CR-29-30; Mullik, The
Chinese Betrayal, 150-51; Alastair Lamb, Asian Frontiers: Studies in a Continuing Problem
(New York: Praeger, 1968), 121-22; Harold C. Hinton, Communist China in World Politics
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966), 285.
36 After 1975, when India annexed Sikkim, a fourth sector was created, but China tacitly
accepted the annexation of Sikkim in 2003 and the border is no longer an issue.
37 Yang Gongsu, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao lilun yu shijian [The theory and
practice of People’s Republic of China diplomacy] (Beijing: Beijing daxue guoji guanxi
xueyuan, 1997), 171-74.
38 Garver, Protracted Contest, 103.
39 Yang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao lilun yu shijian, 175.
40 White Paper 1: 47-51; Ambekar and Divekar, Documents on China’s Relations with
South and South-East Asia, 112-16; Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs,
Report of the Officials, CR-29-30, 163.
41 Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Report of the Officials, 240-50 and
CR-12-32.
42 Garver, Protracted Contest, 94-95.
43 Chen Xiaolu, “Chen Yi and China’s Diplomacy,” 122.
44 “Quarterly Chronicle and Documentation,” China Quarterly 1 (January‑March 1960):
110.
45 White Paper 1: 49-50; Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, India China
Border Problem (New Delhi: External Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs,
1962), 5; Hoffman, India and the China Crisis, 37.
46 White Paper 1: 46-57; White Paper 2: 27-47.
47 White Paper 1: 48; White Paper 2: 35; Ambekar and Divekar, Documents on China’s
Relations with South and South-East Asia, 113; Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary
Question, 77-78 and 101-2; Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Report of
the Officials, CR-30-31.
48 White Paper 2: 27-33; Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question, 1-13.

49 Renmin ribao, 19 April 1959, 4; Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs,
White Paper 3 (New Delhi: External Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs,
1959), 45-51; Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question, 14-17 and 129-38;
Neville Maxwell, “China and India: ‘The Un-Negotiated Dispute,’” China Quarterly
43 (July-September 1970): 62; Olaf Caroe, “The Sino-Indian Frontier Dispute,” Asian
Review 59, 218 (April 1963).
50 Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, 3: 98.
51 White Paper 1: 52; Ambekar and Divekar, Documents on China’s Relations with South
and South-East Asia, 118.
52 White Paper 2: 31; Documents on the Sino-India Boundary Question, 9.
54 “Report at the Second NPC Standing Committee, September 11, 1959,” Peking Review,
15 September 1959, 13.
55 M. Taylor Fravel, “Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China’s
Compromises in Territorial Disputes,” International Security 30, 2 (Fall 2005): 67.
57 White Paper 3: 45-46; Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question, 15.
58 “Premier Chou En-lai in India,” Peking Review, 26 April 1960, 41.
59 Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970), 156.
60 Yang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao lilun yu shijian, 188; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao
shi … 1949-1979, 264; Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 225.
61 B.M. Kaul, The Untold Story (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1967), 367; B.M. Kaul
unpublished paper, quoted in Lall, Aksaichin and Sino-Indian Conflict, 274; Yaacov Y.I.
Vertzberger, Misperceptions in Foreign Policymaking: The Sino-Indian Conflict, 1959-
1962 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984), 101-2, 121-22, 149-50.
63 S.V. Chervonenko, “Memorandum of Conversation with the General Secretary of the
CCP Deng Xiaoping, 6 November 1959,” Cold War International History Project Bulletin
10 (March 1998): 171.
64 “Record of Conversation between Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai and Mongolian Leader J.
Zedenbal” (26 December 1962), Cold War International History Project, Digital Archive,
Mongolia in the Cold War, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112072.
66 Peking Review, 3 May 1960, 18-19.
67 Maxwell, India’s China War, 161-69; Hoffman, India and the China Crisis, 86-87.
68 Interview with a former associate of Krishna Menon. For corroborating evidence, see
T.J.S. George, Krishna Menon: A Biography (London: Jonathan Cape, 1964), 254-55;
Michael Brecher, India and World Politics: Krishna Menon’s View of the World (New
York: Praeger, 1968), 150-51, 169-70.
69 Lall, Aksaichin and Sino-Indian Conflict, 251, 266-67.
70 Quoted in ibid., 269.
71 “Premier Chou En-lai’s Written Statement,” Peking Review, 3 May 1960, 18; Government
of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Prime Minister on Sino-Indian Relations, vol. 1,
In Parliament (New Delhi: External Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs,
1961), 59.
72 Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, 3: 133-34.
73 Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Report of the Officials.
74 Cheng Youshu, “Wo he Yindu,” in Nü waijiaoguan [Female diplomats], ed. Cheng Xiangjun
(Beijing: Renmin tiyu chubanshe, 1995), 88, paraphrased in Xiaohong Liu, Chinese
Ambassadors: The Rise of Diplomatic Professionalism since 1949 (Seattle: University of

Washington Press, 2001), 133.
Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs, 1962), 188; Allen S. Whiting, The Chinese
Calculus of Deterrence: India and Indochina (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1975), 45.
76 Hoffman, India and the China Crisis, 90-91.
77 Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, 3: 213-14; P.C. Joshi, “Chinese Dogmatism and the Border
Dispute,” New Age 11, 4 (27 January 1963): 10-11.
78 Arthur Lall, The Emergence of Modern India (New York: Columbia University Press,
1981), 155-58.
79 Lall, Aksaichin and Sino-Indian Conflict, 251.
80 Kaul, The Untold Story, 386-87.
81 Vladislav M. Zubok, “The Mao-Khrushchev Conversations, 31 July – 3 August 1958 and
2 October 1959,” Cold War International History Project Bulletin, Issue 12/13 (Fall/Winter
2001): 248 Xue Mouhong and Pei Jianzhang, eds., Dangdai Zhongguo waijiao [Contem
porary Chinese diplomacy] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan, 1988), 617.
82 Quoted in Zubok, “The Mao-Khrushchev Conversations,” 248; From the Journal of
Ambassador S.F. Antonov, Summary of a Conversation with the Chairman of the CC CPC
Mao Zedong” (14 October 1959), http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/
114788.
Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs, 1963), 1-5.
84 Ibid., 17‑24; Peking Review, 30 November 1962, 47-48.
85 Quoted in Chen, “Chen Yi and China’s Diplomacy,” 123.
86 Surjit Mansingh, India’s Search for Power: Indira Gandhi’s Foreign Policy, 1966-1982
(New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1984), 204.
87 Quoted in Geng Nien, “Sino-Indian Relations: Retrospect and Prospect,” South Asian
Studies [Chengdu] 3-4 (1981): 3.
88 New York Times, 12 June 1978, A6.
89 Foreign Broadcast Information Service [hereafter FBIS], Daily Report: China, 25 June
1980, F1-2.
90 John W. Garver, “Sino-Indian Rapprochement and the Sino-Pakistan Entente,” Political
Science Quarterly 11, 2 (Summer 1996): 326-29.
91 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo shiqi 1979-1994 [A diplomatic
history of China: the period of the People’s Republic of China, 1979-1994] (Zhengzhou:
Henan renmin chubanshe, 1995), 125-26; Asian Recorder, 6-12 August 1981, 161-62.
93 “Mr. Huang Hua’s Visit to New Delhi – Agreement to Discuss Border Question,” Keesing’s
Contemporary Archives 27 (October 1981): 31153.
94 Chen Tiqiang, “ZhongYin bianjie wenti de falu fangmian” [Legal aspects of the Sino-
Indian boundary issue], Guoji wenti yanjiu 1 (1982): 13.
95 Surjit Mansingh and Steven I. Levine, “China and India: Moving beyond Confrontation,”
Problems of Communism 38, 2-3 (March-June 1989): 38; John W. Garver, “The Indian
Factor in Recent Sino-Soviet Relations,” China Quarterly 125 (March 1991): 74-75.
96 Garver, “Sino-Indian Rapprochement and the Sino-Pakistan Entente,” 343.
97 FBIS, Daily Report: China, 15 December 1986, F1.
98 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1979-1994, 126-27; Nayan Chanda, “Heading for a Conflict,”
Far Eastern Economic Review, 4 June 1987, 42-43; United Press International New Delhi,
3 November 1992; Christian Science Monitor, 15 December 1988, 15, and 19 December
1988, 28; China Report 23, 4 (1987): 477-78.
99 FBIS, Daily Report: China, 15 December 1986, F1.
100 Robert G. Sutter and Richard P. Cronin, China-India Border Friction, CRS Report 87-514F
(Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 1987).
101 China Daily, 17 June 1987.
102 Sumit Ganguly, “The Sino-Indian Border Talks, 1981-1989,” Asian Survey 29, 12 (Decem
ber 1989): 1128.
103 Salamat Ali, “A Shot in the Arm,” Far Eastern Economic Review, 1 December 1988, 38.
104 Paul H. Kreisberg, “The Indian-Chinese Summit,” Christian Science Monitor, 15 December
1988, 16.
105 Mira Sinha Bhattacharjea, “Indian Prime Minister’s Visit to China,” China Report: A
Journal of East Asian Studies 30, 1 (January-March 1994): 85-86; “Sino-Indian Joint
Press Communiqué” (23 December 1988), http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/2649/
t15800.htm.
106 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongYin ZhongBu juan; “Agree
ment on the Maintenance of Peace along the Line of Actual Control in the India-China
Border” (7 September 1993), 59-67.
107 Reuters Beijing, 7 September 1993.
108 Xinhua, 8 March 1994; Agence France-Presse, 19 July 1994.
109 Waheguru Pal Singh Sidhu and Jin-dong Yuan, “Resolving the Sino-Indian Border Dispute:
Building Confidence through Cooperative Monitoring,” Asian Survey 41, 2 (March/April
2001): 359-60; South China Morning Post, 28 April 1998.
110 Wang Hongwei, “Gong jian mianxiang 21 shiji jianshexing hezuo huoban guanxi” [Jointly
build relations of constructive cooperative partnership facing the twenty-first century],
Waiguo wenti yanjiu [International Studies] 1 (gen. issue 46) (1997): 37-41, quoted in
Garver, Protracted Contest, 7.
111 New York Times, 5 May 1998, A6, and 13 May 1998, A14; Times of India, 4 May 1998; South
China Morning Post, 5 May 1998.
112 Stratfor, “Analysis: China Tilts toward India,” Asia Times Online, 18 June 1999, http://www.
atimes.com/.
113 Ramtanu Maitra, “Prospects Brighten for Kunming Initiative,” Asia Times Online, 12
February 2003, http://www.atimes.com/.
114 The Chinese Foreign Ministry website listed Sikkim as an independent country with this
notation until October 2003.
116 Reuters, 17 December 1996.
117 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongYin ZhongBu juan, 115-20.
118 Jyoti Malhotra, “For India’s Tibet Turn, China to Amend its Sikkim Map,” Indian Express,
25 June 2003.
119 Hindustan Times, 24 June 2003 and 28 June 2003; New York Times, 25 June 2003.
120 Hindustan Times, 12 April 2005.
121 Straits Times, 23 June 2003; Xinhua, 24 June 2003; “India and China Agree over Tibet,”
BBC News, 24 June 2003, http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/south_asia/3015840.stm;
Beijing Review, 3 July 2003, 17.
122 Hindustan Times, 28 June 2003.
123 “Premier Wen Jiabao Meets Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee” (9 October 2003). http://
www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/yzs_663350/gjlb_663354/2711_
663426/2713_663430/t26842.shtml.
124 Beijing Review, 3 July 2003, 17.

125 The Hindu, 31 July 2003.
126 “Agreement between the Government of India and the Government of the People’s
Republic of China on the Political Parameters and Guiding Principles for the Settlement
of the India-China Boundary Questions,” 11 April 2005.
127 V.V. Paranjpe, “Climb over the Wall,” Hindustan Times, 17 June 2003.
128 The Hindu, 11 April 2005; “China and India Sign Border Deal,” BBC News, 11 April 2005,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4431299.stm.
129 “Agreement between the Government of the Republic of India and the Government of
the People’s Republic of China on the Establishment of a Working Mechanism for
Consultation and Coordination on India-China Border Affairs,” http://peacemaker.un.
org/; “India, China to Set Up Working Mechanism on Border Management,” The Hindu,
17 January 2012, http://www.thehindu.com/.
130 “China, India End Border Standoff,” Xinhuanet, 6 May 2013, http://news.xinhuanet.com/.
131 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, “Premier Li Keqiang Meets
with National Security Adviser Shivshankar Menon of India” (29 June 2013), http://www.
fmprc.gov.cn/.
132 “Full Text of Joint Statement by Chinese, Indian Defence Ministers,” Xinhuanet, 6 July
2013, http://news.xinhuanet.com/.
133 Ganguly, “The Sino-Indian Border Talks,” 1127-28, 1134.
134 Ananth Krishnan, “India, China Conclude Talks; to Strengthen Border Mechanism,” The
Hindu, 29 June 2013, http://www.thehindu.com/.
135 George J. Gilboy and Eric Heginbotham, Chinese and Indian Strategic Behavior: Growing
Power and Alarm (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
136 Ramtanu Maitra, “Prospects Brighten for Kunming Initiative,” Asia Times Online, 12
February 2003, http://www.atimes.com/.
137 Ouyang Yujing, Foreign Ministry, Department of Treaty and Law division director, quoted
in “90% of Land Boundaries Settled,” China Youth Daily, 5 May 2005, http://www.china.
org.cn/archive/.
138 Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru, 3: 133-34.
Chapter 3: The Sino-Burmese Boundary Settlement

1 Du Hengzhi, Zhong‑wai tiaoyue guanxi zhi bianqian [Changes in Sino-foreign treaty
relations] (Taipei: Zhonghua wenwu gongying she, 1981), 87-89; W. Stark Toller, “The Un
defined China-Burma Frontier,” Eastern World 2, 10/11 (October-November 1948): 12.
xueyuan, 1997), 146; J.R.V. Prescott, Map of Mainland Asia by Treaty (Melbourne:
Melbourne University Press, 1975), 347-81.
3 Hugh Tinker, The Union of Burma: A Study of the First Years of Independence, 4th ed.
(London: Oxford University Press, 1967), 339-40; Brendan Whyte, “The Sino-Myanmar
Border,” in Beijing’s Power and China’s Borders: Twenty Neighbors in Asia, ed. Bruce A.
Elleman, Stephen Kotkin, and Clive Schofield (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2013), 191-95;
Hugh Tinker, “Burma’s Northeast Borderland Problems,” Pacific Affairs 29, 4 (December
1956): 334; Toller, “The Undefined China-Burma Frontier,” 12.
4 Han Nianlong, ed., Diplomacy of Contemporary China (Hong Kong: New Horizon
Press, 1990), 179; Tinker, “Burma’s Northeast Borderland Problems,” 338-42.
5 Han, ibid., 179; Xie Yixian, Zhongguo waijiao shi: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo shiqi
1949-1979 [A diplomatic history of China: the period of the People’s Republic of China,
1949-1979] (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1988), 241-42; Wang Taiping, ed.,
Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao shi (2) 1957-1959 [Diplomatic history of the
PRC (vol. 2) 1957-1969] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1998), 95; Daphne E. Whittam,
“The Sino‑Burmese Boundary Treaty,” Pacific Affairs 34, 2 (Summer 1961): 175-77; Toller,
“The Undefined China-Burma Frontier,” 12-14.
6 Burma Weekly Bulletin, 5 May 1960, 2; Han, ibid., 179-80.
7 Burma Weekly Bulletin, 5 May 1960, 1-8; Whittam, “The Sino-Burmese Boundary
Treaty,” 174-75; Wang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao shi (2), 94-95.
8 Thakin Nu, From Peace to Stability (Rangoon: Government of the Union of Burma,
Ministry of Information, 1951), 197-98.
9 Quoted in ibid., 51.
10 The majority of the Nationalist remnants were eventually evacuated in 1953-54 with the
cooperation of the Republic of China, the United States, and Thailand, with United
Nations involvement.
11 A Victory for the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence: Documents on the Sino-Burmese
Boundary Question (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1960), 17.
12 Quoted in Shen-yu Dai, “Peking and Rangoon,” China Quarterly 5 (January‑March 1961):
131.
13 People’s China 1, 2 (16 January 1950): 3.
14 New China News Agency, 23 November 1949.
15 Premier Reports to the People (Rangoon: Government of the Union of Burma, 1958), 35-36.
16 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo fensheng ditu (Shanghai: Shanghai ditu chubanshe, 1953),
map 46 note; A Victory for the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, 17.
17 Harold Hinton, China’s Relations with Burma and Vietnam: A Brief Survey. (New York:
Institute of Pacific Relations, 1958), 45; Tinker, “Burma’s Northeast Borderland Prob
lems,” 345; J. Stephen Hoadley, “The China-Burma Border Settlement: A Retrospective
Evaluation,” Asian Forum 2, 2 (April-June 1970): 106.
18 Burma Weekly Bulletin, 9 September 1950, 133.
19 The Nation, 6 December 1960.
20 Shijie zhishi shouce [World knowledge handbook] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1954),
340; U Nu, “Speech at the Burmese Parliament, March 8, 1951,” in Thakin Nu, From Peace
to Stability, 198; Harold Hinton, Communist China in World Politics (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1966), 310‑11; Whittam, “The Sino-Burmese Boundary Treaty,” 175.
21 Asian Recorder, 21-27 January 1956, 633; 4-10 August 1956, 961.
22 Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 179-80; Wang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo
waijiao shi (2), 95-97.
23 Thakin Nu, From Peace to Stability, 198; New York Times, 9 March 1951; Hinton, China’s
Relations with Burma and Vietnam, 40.
24 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 152; New China News Agency, 30 June 1954.
25 New China News Agency, 12 December 1954; Burma Weekly Bulletin, 15 December 1954;
5 May 1960, 1.
26 Whittam, “The Sino-Burmese Boundary Treaty,” 175-78; Dorothy Woodman, The
Making of Burma (London: Cresset Press, 1962), 524-26; Hinton, China’s Relations with
Burma and Vietnam, 41, 53; William C. Johnstone, Burma’s Foreign Policy: A Study in
Neutralism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963), 191-92; Frank N. Trager,
“Burma and China,” Journal of Southeast Asian History 5, 1 (March 1964): 44-46; Wang,
Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao shi (2), 95.
27 New York Times, 1 June 1959.
28 Economist, 8 August 1956, 570-71.
29 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 242; Wang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao
shi (2), 95.
30 Burma Weekly Bulletin, 5 May 1960, 2.

31 Frank N. Trager, “Burma’s Foreign Policy, 1948-1956: Neutralism, Third Force and Rice,”
Journal of Asian Studies 16 (November 1956): 92 fn.
32 New China News Agency, 4 August 1956; Whittam, “The Sino-Burmese Boundary Treaty,”
177.
33 Woodman, Making of Burma, 535-36.
34 A detailed first-hand account of the negotiations is given by U Nu, “Sino-Burmese
Boundary Agreement and Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Non-Aggression,” Burma
Weekly Bulletin, 5 May 1960, 1-8.
35 Quoted in Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 179.
36 Burma Weekly Bulletin, 5 May 1960, 2-3; New China News Agency, 22 October 1956; 25
October 1956; 9 November 1956; Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 1420 (November
1956 ): 32; Woodman, Making of Burma, 529-30.
37 Woodman, ibid., 530-31; U Nu, U Nu – Saturday’s Son, trans. U Law Yone, ed. U Kyaw
Win (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), 258-59; Richard J. Kozicki, “The Sino-
Burmese Frontier Problem,” Far Eastern Survey 26, 3 (March 1957): 33-38.
38 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 245; A Victory for the Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence, 16-27.
39 Burma Weekly Bulletin, 5 May 1960, 4-5.
40 Woodman, Making of Burma, 534.
41 Burma Weekly Bulletin, 5 May 1960, 6; The Nation, 29 April 1960; Woodman, ibid., 536.
42 Peking Review, 26 February 1960, 9-16; Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 2188 (3
February 1960): 47; Asian Recorder, 10-16 September 1960, 3527; Richard Butwell, “The
Sino-Burmese Border Truce,” New Leader 43, 9 (29 February 1960): 15-16; U Maung
Maung, Burma and General Ne Win (New York: Asia Publishing House, 1969): 265-70.
43 Maung Maung, “The Burma-China Boundary Settlement,” Asian Survey 1, 1 (March
1961): 38-43; Whittam, “The Sino-Burmese Boundary Treaty,” 174-83; Trager, “Burma
and China,” 29-61.
44 United Press International Rangoon, 5 December 1960.
45 Burma Weekly Bulletin, 5 May 1960, 5-7.
46 D.G.E. Hall, Burma (London: Hutchison University Library, 1960), 160; Frank N. Trager,
“Communist China: The New Imperialism,” Current History 41, 241 (September 1961):
136-40; Whittam, “The Sino-Burmese Boundary Treaty,” 182.
47 Wang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao shi (2), 97.
48 Burma Weekly Bulletin, 7 July 1960, 75-77; 21 July 1960, 90; 28 July 1960, 98; 11 August
1960, 114; 15 September 1960, 155.
49 New China News Agency, 1 October 1960; Peking Review, 4 October 1960, 29-34.
50 Trager, “Communist China: The New Imperialism,” 136-40; Amry Vandenbosch, “Chinese
Communism for Export,” Current History 39, 232 (December 1960): 333-38.
51 Yang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao lilun yu shijian, 154-55; New China News
Agency, 22, 27, 30 April 1959.
52 Peking Review, 12 April 1960.
53 Renmin ribao, 1 October 1960.
54 Tinker, The Union of Burma, 373.
55 Renmin ribao, 1 February 1960.
56 Frederick Joss, “China Penetrates the Shan Region of Burma,” Eastern World (London)
20, 1/2 (January-February 1966): 14-16; Woodman, Making of Burma, 522-23; Toller,
“The Undefined China-Burma Frontier,” 14.
57 U Raschid, “Speech at the Burmese Chamber of Commerce, February 18, 1956,” Burma
Weekly Bulletin, 23 February 1956.
58 Johnstone, Burma’s Foreign Policy, 199-200.

59 Daniel Wolfstone, “Fast Work on the Sino-Burmese Border,” Far Eastern Economic Review,
18 August 1960, 368-74.
60 Ibid.; Tinker, The Union of Burma, 369.
61 Robert A. Holmes, “The Sino-Burmese Rift: A Failure for China,” Orbis 16, 1 (Spring
1972): 220-21.
62 New York Times, 30 December 1963; New China News Agency, 12 July 1964.
Chapter 4: Boundary Settlements with Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan

1 A.S. Bhasin, ed., Documents on Nepal’s Relations with India and China, 1949-1966
(Bombay: Academic Books, 1970), 18-22; Ram Rahul, “China’s Other Boundaries,”
Australian Journal of Politics and History 9, 2 (May-November 1963): 162.
1990), 182-83; Xie Yixian, Zhongguo waijiao shi: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo shiqi
1949-1979 [A diplomatic history of China: the period of the People’s Republic of China,
1949-1979] (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1988), 250.
3 Chinese Peoples’ Institute of Foreign Affairs, ed. New Developments in Friendly Relations
between China and Nepal (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1960), 55; Leo E. Rose, Nepal:
Strategy for Survival (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 209-10; Leo E. Rose,
“Sino-Indian Rivalry and the Himalayan Border States,” Orbis 5, 2 (Summer 1961):
206-8.
4 Chinese Peoples’ Institute of Foreign Affairs, ibid., 7-14; Bhasin, Documents on Nepal’s
Relations, 185.
5 Asian Recorder 1, 59 (11 February 1956): 678; S.D. Muni, Foreign Policy of Nepal (Delhi:
National Publishing House, 1973), 104.
6 Arthur Lall, How Communist China Negotiates (New York: Columbia University Press,
1968), 199-200; Guy Searls, “Communist China’s Border Policy: Dragon Throne Imper
ialism?” Current Scene 2, 12 (15 April 1963): 11-12.
7 Chinese Peoples’ Institute of Foreign Affairs, New Developments, 15; Muni, Foreign Policy
of Nepal, 104; Rose, Nepal: Strategy for Survival, 223.
8 Peking Review, 25 February 1960, 10.
9 Quoted in Rose, Nepal: Strategy for Survival, 225.
10 New York Times, 22 March 1960, 1.
11 PRC Foreign Ministry and CCP Central Document Research Office, eds., Mao Zedong
waijiao wenxuan [Selected foreign policy documents of Mao Zedong] (Beijing: Zhongyang
wenxian chubanshe/Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1994), 395-97; Han, Diplomacy of Con
temporary China, 184; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 251.
12 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongNi juan [The People’s Republic
of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Nepal volume] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi
chubanshe, 2004).
13 Muni, Foreign Policy of Nepal, 105-6, 112.
14 Peking Review, 29 March 1960, 6-10; Bhasin, Documents on Nepal’s Relations, 266-68;
Far Eastern Economic Review, 16 June 1960, 1246-48.
15 Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 183-84.
16 Chinese Peoples’ Institute of Foreign Affairs, New Developments, 35, 69-71; Survey of
China Mainland Press, no. 2218 (17 March 1960): 39-42; 347 (1962): 25; Associated Press,
Kathmandu, 30 April 1960; Muni, Foreign Policy of Nepal, 107, fn. 30.
17 New York Times, 22 April 1960, 3.
20 Peking Review, 31 May 1960, 4; 7 June 1960, 21-22.

21 Kenneth Conboy and James Morrison, The CIA’s Secret War in Tibet (Lawrence: University
Press of Kansas, 2002), and S. Mahmud Ali, Cold War in the High Himalayas: The USA,
China and South Asia in the 1950s (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 110-14; Muni,
Foreign Policy of Nepal, 107-8, esp. fn. 34.
22 New China News Agency, 2 July 1960; Koirala interview in Sunday Post-Herald (Hong
Kong), 18 September 1960.
23 Asian Recorder, 23-29 July 1960, 3449-51; 10-16 September 1960, 3536; China Today 5,
32 (7 July 1960): 4-5.
24 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongNi juan.
25 Peking Review, 20 October 1961, 5-8; Arthur Lall, How Communist China Negotiates,
199-200.
26 Hong Kong Standard and Sunday Post-Herald, 27 January 1963.
27 Quoted in Rose, Nepal: Strategy for Survival, 220.
28 Muni, Foreign Policy of Nepal, 109-11.
29 Rose, Nepal: Strategy for Survival, 220-21, 224.
31 Ibid., 6 October 1961, 11-2; 20 October 1961, 5.
32 Bhasin, Documents on Nepal’s Relations, 276-78; New China News Agency, 29 April 1955.
33 Peking Review, 12 October 1962, 6.
34 Rose, Nepal: Strategy for Survival, 213-14.
35 Bhasin, Documents on Nepal’s Relations, 263.
36 Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 1395 (1956): 45.
37 Quoted in Francis Watson, The Frontiers of China (New York: Praeger, 1966), 137-38.
39 Ibid., 3 May 1960, 8.
40 Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question (Peking: Foreign Language Press,
1960), 67; Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, White Paper 3 (New Delhi:
External Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs, 1959), 79.
42 G.S. Bajpai, China’s Shadow over Sikkim: The Politics of Intimidation (New Delhi: Lancer
Publishers, 1999), 107-9.
practice of PRC diplomacy] (Beijing: Beijing daxue guoji guanxi xueyuan, 1997), 146;
Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, White Paper 1 (New Delhi: External
Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs, 1959), 55.
44 The Chinese Foreign Ministry website listed Sikkim as an independent country until
October 2003.
45 Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question, 7, 67; Government of India, Ministry
of External Affairs, White Paper 2 (New Delhi: External Publicity Division, Ministry of
External Affairs, 1959), 30; Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, White
Paper 6 (New Delhi: External Publicity Division, Ministry of External Affairs, 1962), 6.
46 “Sikkim Leader Doubts Red China Will Attack,” New York Times, 6 September 1959, 3.
47 Bajpai, China’s Shadow over Sikkim, 129.
48 Bajpai, China’s Shadow over Sikkim, 129-33; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979,
408-9; Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 3536 (14 September 1965): 30-31; Yaacov Y.I.
Vertzberger, China’s Southwestern Strategy: Encirclement and Counterencirclement (New
York: Praeger, 1985), 50; Leo E. Rose, “Sikkim and the Sino-Indian Dispute,” Political
Science Review 8, 1 (January‑March 1969): 46-51.
University of Washington Press, 2001), 175.
50 Reuters, 17 December 1996.
51 Jyoti Malhotra, “For India’s Tibet Turn, China to Amend Its Sikkim Map,” Indian Express,
25 June 2003.
52 Hindustan Times, 24 June 2003 and 28 June 2003; New York Times, 25 June 2003.
53 Hindustan Times, 12 April 2005.
54 Ram Rahul, The Himalaya Borderland (New Delhi: Vikas Publications, 1970), 62-64.
55 Until the early 1970s, Indian maps indicated only an “administrative” border, not an
“international” boundary between India and Bhutan.
56 T.T. Poulose, “Bhutan’s External Relations and India,” International and Comparative
Law Quarterly 20, 2 (April 1971): 195-212; Leo E. Rose, “Bhutan’s External Relations,”
Pacific Affairs 47, 2 (Summer 1974): 192-208.
57 Garver, Protracted Contest, 176; Girja Kumar and V.K. Arora, eds., Documents on Indian
External Affairs (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1965), 337.
58 Thierry Mathou, “Bhutan-China Relations: Towards a New Step in Himalayan Politics,”
in The Spider and the Piglet: Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Bhutanese
Studies (Thimphu: Centre for Bhutan Studies, 2004), 391-92; R.C. Misra, The Emergence
of Bhutan (Jaipur: Sandarbh Prakashan, 1989), 72-73; Leo E. Rose, The Politics of Bhutan
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977), 61-62; Ram Rahul, Modern Bhutan (Delhi:
Vikas Publications, 1971), 101-2; George N. Patterson, Peking versus Delhi (New York:
Praeger, 1964), 207.
59 Rose, The Politics of Bhutan, 82.
61 “Economic and Political Relations between Bhutan and Neighboring Countries,”
Monograph 12, A Joint Research Project of the Centre for Bhutan Studies and the Institute
of Developing Economics, Japan External Trade Organization (April 2004), 76.
62 K.J. Holsti, “From Isolation to Dependence: Bhutan, 1958-62,” in Why Nations Realign:
Foreign Policy Restructuring in the Postwar World, ed. K.J. Holsti (London: George Allen
and Unwin, 1982), 35; Pradyumna P. Karan, “Geopolitical Structure of Bhutan,” India
Quarterly 19, 3 (July-September 1963): 212-13; New York Times, 24 August 1959.
63 Mahendra P. Lama, “Nepal and Bhutan,” in Security in South Asia: Comprehensive and
Cooperative, ed. Dipankar Banerjee (New Delhi: Manas Publications, 1999), 154; Rose,
The Politics of Bhutan, 74-80; K. Krishna Moorthy, “Bhutan’s Blank Cheque to Nehru,”
Far Eastern Economic Review, 9 March 1961, 429.
64 “Nehru Asserts India Has Duty to Defend Bhutan and Sikkim,” New York Times, 26
August 1959.
65 Mathou, “Bhutan-China Relations,” 394; Holsti, “From Isolation to Dependence: Bhutan,
1958-62,” 27; Rose, ibid., 95.
66 Holsti, ibid., 21.
67 China Pictorial, 7 (July 1958): 20-21; “Bhutan Sends Protest to Red China on Border,”
New York Times, 17 March 1960, 14.
68 Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question, 7, 67; White Paper 2: 29-30.
69 George N. Patterson, “Recent Chinese Policies in Tibet and towards the Himalayan
Border States,” China Quarterly 12 (October-December 1962): 199; Watson, The Frontiers
of China, 143-44; Rose, “Bhutan’s External Relations,” 204.
70 K. Krishna Moorthy, “Bhutan: Thoughts of Sovereignty,” Far Eastern Economic Review,
16 February 1961, 297; Patterson, Peking versus Delhi, 218.
71 Moorthy, “Bhutan: Thoughts of Sovereignty,” 297.
72 Manorama Kohli, From Dependency to Interdependence: A Study of Indo-Bhutan Relations

(New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1993), 156; Searls, “Communist China’s Border
Policy,” 11.
73 Moorthy, “Bhutan: Thoughts of Sovereignty,” 297.
74 Hong Kong Standard, 31 August 1962.
75 Misra, The Emergence of Bhutan, 74; Patterson, Peking versus Delhi, 198-99; Rose, “Bhutan’s
External Relations,” 198-200; Rose, “Sino-Indian Rivalry and the Himalayan Border
States,” 214-15; China News Analysis 534 (25 September 1964): 7.
76 The Sino-Indian Boundary Question, enlarged ed. (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1962);
The Times, 27 October 1962, 8.
77 A.R. Field, letter to the editor, Washington Post, 11 January 1963, A14; Harold C. Hinton,
Communist China in World Politics (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966), 322-23.
78 Rahul, The Himalaya Borderlands, 65; Karma Ura, “Perceptions of Security,” Journal of
Bhutan Studies 5 (Winter 2001): 138, fn. 26; Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (London:
Jonathan Cape, 1970), 115-16.
79 Renmin ribao, 22 October 1962, 1.
80 Rose, “Bhutan’s External Relations,” 197-98; Ura, “Perceptions of Security,” 129.
81 Mathou, “Bhutan-China Relations,” 397.
82 Pei Jianzhang, ed., Xin Zhongguo waijiao fengyun: Zhongguo waijiaoguan huiyilu [New
China’s diplomatic challenges: recollections of Chinese diplomats], vol. 2 (Beijing: Shijie
zhishi chubanshe, 1991), 175, quoted in Garver, Protracted Contest, 181.
83 Rose, The Politics of Bhutan, 93-94; Mathou, “Bhutan-China Relations,” 399; Dorji Penjore,
“Security of Bhutan: Walking between the Giants,” Journal of Bhutan Studies 10 (Summer
2004): 116.
84 Garver, Protracted Contest, 183; Kohli, 159.
85 Kathmandu Post, 17 January 1997 and 20 January 1999.
86 Kohli, “From Dependency to Interdependence,” 169-70.
87 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongYin ZhongBu juan [The
volume] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2004).
88 Xie Yixian, Zhongguo waijiao shi: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo shiqi 1979-1994 [A
diplomatic history of China: the period of the People’s Republic of China, 1979-1994]
(Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1995), 129-31; Zhongguo waijiao: 1998 nianban
[Chinese foreign policy: 1998 edition] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1998), 113;
Zhongguo waijiao: 1999 nianban [Chinese foreign policy: 1999 edition] (Beijing: Shijie
zhishi chubanshe, 1999); Beijing Review, 30 April 1984, 11; Friedrich Kratochwil, Paul
Rohrlich, and Harpreet Mahajan, Peace and Disputed Sovereignty: Reflections on Conflict
over Territory (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1985), 140.
89 “Assembly Discusses Boundary Issues,” Kuenselonline, 5 July 2002; “Assembly Pressures
the Government to Step Up Boundary Discussions with China,” Kuenselonline, 28
November 2005; Mathou, “Bhutan-China Relations,” 402-3, 405; Mathou, “Tibet and Its
Neighbors: Moving toward a New Chinese Strategy in the Himalayan Region,” Asian
Survey 45, 4 (2005): 515, fnn. 15 and 16.
90 “Assembly Members Alarmed by Road Construction across Northern Boundary,” Kuen
selonline, 8 June 2005.
91 “Bhutan-China Boundary Must Be Finished,” Kuenselonline, 24 June 2006.
92 “China, Bhutan Want to Establish Diplomatic Ties,” Indian Express, 22 June 2012.
93 Mathou, “Tibet and Its Neighbors,” 515.
Chapter 5: The Sino-Pakistani Boundary Settlement

1 Anwar Hussain Syed, China and Pakistan: Diplomacy of an Entente Cordiale (Amherst:
University of Massachusetts Press, 1974); Gurnam Singh, Sino-Pakistan Relations: The
Ayub Era (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University Press, 1987).
(Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1988), 252-53.
3 Mujtaba Razvi, The Frontiers of Pakistan: A Study of Frontier Problems in Pakistan’s
Foreign Policy (Karachi: National Publishing House, 1971), 179-81.
4 Ibid., 178.
5 Alastair Lamb, Asian Frontiers: Studies in a Continuing Problem (New York: Praeger,
1968), 102-3; Alastair Lamb, The China-India Border: The Origins of the Disputed Bound
aries (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), 181-82; Alastair Lamb, “The Sino-Pakistan
Boundary Agreement of 2 March 1963,” Australian Outlook 18, 3 (December 1964):
301-6.
6 Quoted in United Nations, General Assembly, Delegation from China, China Fights for
Peace and Freedom (New York: n.p., 1951), 71-72.
7 Harold C. Hinton, Communist China in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1966), 45;
B.N. Goswami, Pakistan and China: A Study of Their Relations (New Delhi: Allied
Publishers, 1971), 18-20; Razvi, Frontiers of Pakistan, 169.
8 S.M. Burke, “Sino-Pakistan Relations,” Orbis 8, 2 (Summer 1964): 392; Razvi, ibid., 166.
9 “Chou En-lai’s Report on Visits to Eleven Countries in Asia and Europe Given to the
Third Session of the CPPCC, May 3, 1957,” in China-South Asian Relations (1947-
1980) Documents 2, ed. R.K. Jain (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1981), 15.
10 Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 818 (1954): 17-18; no. 829 (1954): 21; no. 845 (1954):
28-30; no. 864 (1954): 1-2.
11 Li Ming and Liu Qiang, eds., Zhou Enlai de waijiao yishu [Zhou Enlai’s art of diplomacy]
(Jinan: Shandong daxue chubanshe, 1992), 160; Arvin R. Field, “Strategic Development
in Sinkiang,” Foreign Affairs 39, 2 (January 1961): 312-18.
12 Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 1965 (4 March 1959): 39.
13 Peking Review, 28 July 1959, 18-23.
14 Mohammed Ayub Khan, “Pakistan Perspective,” Foreign Affairs 38, 4 (July 1960): 556.
15 Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 1971 (12 March 1959): 54; Peking Review, 10
March 1959; quote in Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (London: Jonathan Cape,
1970), 274.
16 Mohammed Ayub Khan, Friends Not Masters: A Political Autobiography (London: Oxford
University Press, 1967), 164.
17 Peking Review, 28 December 1962, 8.
18 Documents on the Sino-Indian Boundary Question (Peking: Foreign language Press, 1960),
1-13; Francis Watson, The Frontiers of China (New York: Praeger, 1966), 140.
19 Dawn (Karachi), 3 October 1959.
20 Ibid., 24 October 1959.
21 Pakistan Times, 24 October 1959.
22 Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 2063 (1959): 35.
23 Khan, Friends Not Masters, 161.
24 Goswami, Pakistan and China, 85; Razvi, Frontiers of Pakistan, 171-72.
25 Neville Maxwell, “Settlements and Disputes: China’s Approach to Territorial Issues,”
Economic and Political Weekly, 9 September 2006, 3875.
1990), 187-88; Wang Taiping, ed., Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao shi (2) 1957-1959
[Diplomatic history of the PRC (vol. 2) 1957-1969] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1998),
103; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 252; Khan, Friends Not Masters, 162-63; K.
Sarwar Hasan, ed., China, India, Pakistan (Documents on the Foreign Relations of
Pakistan Series) (Karachi: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs, 1966), 365.
27 Peking Review, 11 May 1962, 10.
28 Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 188; Watson, Frontiers of China, 166; Razvi,
Frontiers of Pakistan, 176-77; Wang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao shi, 103.
29 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongA ZhongBa juan [The People’s
Republic of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Afghanistan China-
Pakistan volume] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2004); Peking Review, 15 March 1963,
67-70; Lamb, “The Sino-Pakistani Boundary Agreement of 2 March 1963,” 299-312; Wang,
ibid., 104.
30 Razvi, Frontiers of Pakistan, 177.
31 Khan, Friends Not Masters, 163. For Pakistan, a significant (and for India, disconcerting)
result of the treaty was that China recognized that Kashmir was a disputed area and
gave credence to Pakistan’s claims.
32 Mao Tse-tung, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, vol. 4 (Peking: Foreign Language Press,
1965), 98-99; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 3; Li and Liu, Zhou Enlai de waijiao
yishu, 155.
33 Goswami, Pakistan and China, 66.
34 Khan, Friends Not Masters, 116-17.
35 Dawn (Karachi), 20 December 1961.
36 Quoted in G.W. Choudhury, “Reflections on Sino-Pakistan Relations,” Pacific Community
7, 2 (January 1976): 251.
37 Ibid., 249-50.
38 Geoffrey Wheeler, “Sinkiang and the Soviet Union,” China Quarterly 16 (October-
December 1963): 59; Khalid Bin Sayeed, “Pakistan and China: The Scope and Limits
of Convergent Policies,” in Policies toward China: Views from Six Continents, ed. A.M.
Halpern (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965), 243.
39 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 253; Yaacov Y.I. Vertzberger, The Enduring
Entente: Sino-Pakistan Relations, 1960-1980 (New York: Praeger, 1983), 26-27.
40 Razvi, Frontiers of Pakistan, 174‑74; Margaret W. Fisher, Leo E. Rose, and Robert A.
Huttenbeck, Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh (New York: Praeger,
1963), 140-42; W.M. Dobell, “Ramification of the China-Pakistan Border Treaty,” Pacific
Affairs 37, 3 (Fall 1964): 284.
41 Razvi, ibid., 173-4.
43 New York Times, 26 May 1962, 6; 25 November 1962, 1; 26 November 1962, 2.
44 Razvi, Frontiers of Pakistan, 171; Goswami, Pakistan and China, 76.
45 Syed, China and Pakistan, 244, fn. 60; Goswami, ibid., 80.
46 Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Foreign Policy of Pakistan: A Compendium of Speeches Made in the
National Assembly of Pakistan, 1962-64 (Karachi: Pakistan Institute of International
Affairs, 1964), 31.
47 Ibid., 10; Choudhury, “Reflections on Sino-Pakistan Relations,” 253-54; Syed, China and
Pakistan, 244, fn. 60.
48 Bhutto, Foreign Policy of Pakistan, 75.
49 Quoted in Choudhury, “Reflections on Sino-Pakistan Relations,” 255.
50 Renmin ribao, 30 July 1983, 6, quoted in John W. Garver, “Sino-Indian Rapprochement
and the Sino-Pakistan Entente,” Political Science Quarterly 111, 2 (Summer 1996): 330.
52 Morning News, 14 January 1962.

53 Khan, Friends Not Masters, 163-64; Syed, China and Pakistan, 91-2.
54 Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 705 (1953): 20-22; no. 3955 (1967): 45; Peking Review,
28 January 1966, 21; 18 February 1966, 10; 16 December 1966, 38.
55 Peking Review, 5 March 1965, 6.
56 Peking Review, 28 February 1964, 5-9.
57 Razvi, Frontiers of Pakistan, 187, esp. fn. 1; Lawrence L. Whetten, “Moscow’s Anti-China
Pact,” World Today 25, 9 (September 1969): 385-93; Peking Review, 25 July 1969, 9.
58 Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, The Myth of Independence (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 69.
59 Peking Review, 4 February 1966, 11.
Chapter 6: The Sino-Afghan Boundary Settlement

xueyuan, 1997), 166-67; Xie Yixian, Zhongguo waijiao shi: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo
shiqi 1949-1979 [A diplomatic history of China: the period of the People’s Republic of
China, 1949-1979] (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1988), 373 (China claims that
Russia occupied approximately 13,000 square miles).
2 W.K. Fraser-Tytler, Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and South
Asia (London: Oxford University Press, 1950), 169, 343.
4 Fraser-Tytler, Afghanistan, 345.
5 J.R.V. Prescott, Map of Mainland Asia by Treaty (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press,
1975), 238.
6 China News Analysis 116 (20 January 1956): 4.
7 Rosemary Foot, “Sino-Soviet Rivalry in Kabul,” Round Table 280 (October 1980): 434-42.
8 Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 1456 (23 January 1957): 44; no. 1459 (28 January
1957): 33.
9 Ibid., no. 1460 (29 January 1957): 22.
10 Foot, “Sino-Soviet Rivalry,” 438.
11 Peking Review, 30 August 1960, 9.
12 Ibid., 22 September 1959, 21; Survey of Mainland China Press 2064 (6 September 1959);
New China News Agency, 13 September 1959; New York Times, 6 September 1959.
13 Peking Review, 30 August 1960, 6-11; 20 December 1960, 18-20; Asian Recorder 6, 38
(17-23 September 1960): 3539.
14 Renmin ribao, 7 March 1959.
15 New York Times, 6 September 1959.
16 Peking Review, 30 August 1960, 10-11.
17 New China News Agency, 2 March 1963; Peking Review, 15 March 1963, 5.
18 China News Analysis 129 (27 April 1956): 5-6. This issue discusses maps of China and
changes made since 1949, and includes reproductions of the maps.
19 Wenhuibao, 24 October 1957, cited in Shen-yu Dai, “China and Afghanistan,” China
Quarterly 25 (January-March 1966): 220, fn. 23; Harold C. Hinton, Communist China in
World Politics (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966): 320-21.
20 Wang Taiping, ed., Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao shi (2) 1957-1969 [Diplomatic
history of the PRC (vol. 2) 1957-1969] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1998), 105.
21 Renmin ribai, 18 October 1963; China News Analysis 496 (6 December 1963): 6.
22 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongA ZhongBa juan [The People’s
Republic of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Afghanistan China-Pakistan
volume] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2004).
23 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 253-54.

1990), 189.
25 John W. Garver, “The Sino-Soviet Dispute in the Pamir Mountains Region,” China
Quarterly 85 (March 1981): 107-18.
27 Renmin ribai, 8 March 1963.
28 New York Times, 29 September 1961; Louis Dupree, Afghanistan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1980), 544-46.
29 Peking Review, 20 November 1964, 17; Sreedhar, “Sino-Afghan Economic Relations,”
China Report 12, 5-6 (September 1976): 7-9; Dai, “China and Afghanistan,” 219-21.
30 Peking Review, 6 November 1964, 6.
31 “Nehru Receives Afghan Welcome,” New York Times, 15 September 1959, 7; Hasan Ali
Shah Jafri, Indo‑Afghan Relations (1947-67) (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1976), 77-80.
Chapter 7: Sino-Soviet/Russian Relations and the Boundary Settlement

1 Elizabeth Wishnick, Mending Fences: The Evolution of Moscow’s China Policy from
Brezhnev to Yeltsin (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), 18.
(Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1988), 373.
xueyuan, 1997), 166-67; Xie, ibid., 373.
4 Quoted in Allen S. Whiting, Soviet Policies in China: 1917-1925 (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1954), 273.
5 John M. Maki, Selected Documents: Far Eastern International Relations (1689-1951)
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1951), 203-10; Fang Ming, “Guanyu SuE liangci
duiHau xuanyan he feichu ZhongE bupingdeng taioyue” [The two declarations of the
Soviet government toward China and the abolition of Sino-Russian unequal treaties],
Lishi yanjiu 6 (1980): 74.
opening up and reform] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1993), 329; RA Report 14 (January
1993): 34-35.
8 Zhongguo waijiao: 1998 nianban [Chinese foreign policy: 1998 edition] (Beijing: Shijie
zhishi chubanshe, 1998), 361.
9 Craig Seibert, trans., “Stalin’s Dialogue with Mao Zedong” (S.N. Goncharov interview
with Ivan V. Kovalev), Journal of Northeast Asian Studies 10, 4 (Winter 1991): 69.
10 Peking Review, 3 May 1960, 13; Chinese Peoples’ Institute of Foreign Affairs, ed., New
Developments in Friendly Relations between China and Nepal (Peking: Foreign Language
Press, 1960), 75.
11 Renmin ribao editorial, 8 March 1963.
1990), 299.
13 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 373; Han, ibid., 299.
14 “Quarterly Chronicle and Documentation,” China Quarterly 59 (July-September 1974): 656.
15 Jiang Yan, “Our Sacred Land: Heixiazidao Island,” Dili zhishi 1 (1975): 5-7; Jeanne L.
Wilson, Strategic Partners: Russian-Chinese Relations in the Post-Soviet Era (New York:
M.E. Sharpe, 2004), 43.
16 Xiaoyuan Liu, Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence,

Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911-1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press, 2006), 388-89.
17 Douglas Johnson and Hungdah Chiu, eds., Agreements of the People’s Republic of China,
1949-1967: A Calendar (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968), 5, 57, 76.
18 Current Digest of the Soviet Press 16, 34 (6 September 1964): 5-7; Nikita Sergeyevich
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974),
284-89; A. Kruchinin and V. Olgin, Territorial Claims of Mao Tse-tung: History and
Modern Times (Moscow: Novosti Press Agency Publishing House, 1971), 25.
19 Asahi Shimbun, 1 August 1964, in Dennis J. Doolin, Territorial Claims in the Sino-Soviet
Conflict: Documents and Analysis, Hoover Institution Studies 7 (Stanford, CA: Hoover
Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, Stanford University Press, 1965), 45-46.
20 “Statement of the Government of the People’s Republic of China, May 24, 1969,” Peking
Review, 30 May 1969, 7; Oton Ambroz, Realignment of World Power: The Russo-Chinese
Schism under the Impact of Mao Tse-tung’s Last Revolution, vol. 1 (New York: Robert
Speller and Sons, 1972), 127.
21 “Premier Chou En-lai’s Press Conference in Kathmandu,” Peking Review, 3 May 1960, 13;
Liu, Reins of Liberation, 389.
22 Thomas W. Robinson, The Sino-Soviet Border Dispute: Background, Development and
the March 1969 Clashes (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1970), 7.
23 Peking Review, 13 September 1963.
24 Pravda, 13 December 1962, in Current Digest of the Soviet Press 14, 52 (23 January
1963): 4.
25 “A Comment on the Statement of the Communist Party of the USA,” Peking Review, 15
March 1963, 58-62.
26 “Dangerous Seat of Tension in Asia,” Pravda, 19 September 1963, in Soviet News 4895
(1963): 157-58.
27 Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 286.
28 Interviews with Vladimir S. Miasnikov and Yuri M. Galenovitch of the Russian Academy
of Sciences, Institute for Far Eastern Studies, November 1993.
29 Pravda, 2 September 1964, in Current Digest of the Soviet Press 16, 34 (6 September 1964):
6-7.
30 Alexei D. Voskressenski, Russia and China: A Theory of Inter-State Relations (London:
RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), 173.
31 Current Digest of the Soviet Press 16, 34 (16 September 1964): 4; 38 (14 October 1964): 6.
32 Sergey S. Radchenko, “The Soviets’ Best Friend in Asia: The Mongolian Dimension
of the Sino-Soviet Dispute,” Cold War International History Project, Working Paper
42 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2003): 8;
“Record of Conversation between the Mongolian People’s Republic Government
Delegation and the Deputy Chairman of the People’s Republic of China State Council,
Foreign Minister Chen Yi” (20 November 1964), Cold War International History Project,
Digital Archive, Mongolia in the Cold War, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/
document/112517.
33 “Note of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China to the Soviet
Embassy in China, March 2, 1969,” Peking Review, 7 March 1969, 5 and 7; “Chenpao Island
Has Always Been Chinese Territory,” Peking Review, 14 March 1969, 14-16; “Chinese
Foreign Ministry’s March 15 Urgent and Strong Protest Note,” Peking Review, 21 March
1969, 8; “Soviet Note of Protest, March 15, 1969,” Studies in Comparative Communism
2, 3-4 (July-October 1969): 165-66.
34 Henry Kissinger, The White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown 1979), 183-84.
Review, 30 May 1969, 7; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 374.
36 Pravda, 14 June 1969, 1-2, in Current Digest of the Soviet Press 21, 24 (1969): 10; Down
with the New Tsars! Soviet Revisionists’ Anti-China Atrocities on the Heilung and Wusuli
Rivers (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1969).
37 “On Settling Frontier Disputes: Statement by the Government of the USSR to the
Government of the People’s Republic of China,” Reprints from the Soviet Press 9, 2 (25
July 1969): 56-58; “Report to the Tenth National Congress of the Communist Party of
China, August 24, 1973,” Peking Review, 7 September 1973, 23.
38 Peking Review, 8 May 1964, 20-21; “Statement of the Government of the People’s Republic
of China, May 24, 1969,” Peking Review, 30 May 1969, 8; “USSR Government Statement
on Soviet-Chinese Border Incidents, March 30, 1969,” Reprints from the Soviet Press 8,
9 (2 May 1969): 20; William E. Griffith, Sino-Soviet Relations: 1964-1965 (Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press, 1967), 181-82; Robinson, Sino-Soviet Border Dispute, 11-17.
40 M.A. Suslov, Marxism-Leninism: The International Teaching of the Working Class (Mos
cow: Progress Publishers, 1975), 173.
Review, 30 May 1969, 8.
42 Lyle J. Goldstein, “Return to Zhenbao Island: Who Started the Shooting and Why It
Matters,” China Quarterly 168 (December 2001): 989; Christian F. Ostermann, “New
Evidence on the Sino-Soviet Border Dispute, 1969-71,” Cold War International History
Project Bulletin, issues 6-7 (Winter 1995/96): 187.
Review, 30 May 1969, 3-9.
44 “On Settling Frontier Disputes: Statement by the Government of the USSR to the Gov
ernment of the People’s Republic of China,” Reprints from the Soviet Press 9, 2 (25 July
1969): 51.
45 Roderick MacFarquhar, “The Succession to Mao and the End of Maoism, 1969-82,” in
The Politics of China: The Eras of Mao and Deng, 2nd ed., ed. Roderick MacFarquhar
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 263.
46 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 377; Shi Yuxin,“Bo huangyan zhizaozhe: guanyu
ZhongSu bianjie de ruogan wenti” [Refuting lie-fabricators: regarding several issues
on the Sino-Soviet boundary], Lishi yanjiu 1 (1974): 128; Li Huichuan, “The Crux of
the Sino-Soviet Boundary Question” [pt. 2], Peking Review, 3 August 1981, 13 (Chinese
version in Guoji wenti yanjiu 1 [July 1981]); Renmin ribao, 20 October 1969.
47 Interviews with Vladimir S. Miasnikov and Yuri M. Galenovitch, Russian Academy of
Sciences, Institute of Far Eastern Studies, November 1993.
48 Ibid.
49 “Document of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, October
8, 1969,” Peking Review, 10 October 1969, 8-15.
50 Shi, “Bo huangyan zhizaozhe,” 128.
51 Interview with Yuri M. Galenovitch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Far Eastern
Studies, November 1993.
52 Peking Review, 10 October 1969, 8; Dagong bao, 9 January 1970; Li Huichuan, “The Crux
of the Sino-Soviet Boundary Question”; Yang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao lilun
yu shijian, 168-69.
54 “On Settling Frontier Disputes: Statement of the Government of the USSR to the
Government of the People’s Republic of China,” Reprints from the Soviet Press 9, 2 (25
July 1969): 56.
55 Pravda, 1 April 1978; Kenneth Lieberthal, The Sino-Soviet Conflict in the 1970s: Its
Evolution and Implications for the Strategic Triangle (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1978),
11, fn. 23; Central Intelligence Agency, “Sino-Soviet Exchanges, 1969-84” (EA 84-10069),
4; “Territorial Issues in the Sino-Soviet Dispute” (GCR RP 75-31), 4-5.
56 Quoted in Alexander Lukin, The Bear Watches the Dragon: Russia’s Perceptions of China
and the Evolution of Russian-Chinese Relations since the Eighteenth Century (Armonk,
NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2003), 145.
57 Far Eastern Economic Review, 31 March 1983, 22-24.
58 Interview with Russian Foreign Ministry official, 10 April 1995.
59 Edgar Snow, “The Open Door,” New Republic, 27 March 1971, 23; Li Huichuan, “The Crux
of the Sino-Soviet Boundary Question.”
(Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1995), 12-13; Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary
China, 411-14; Qian Qichen, Waijiao shiji [Ten foreign policy events] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi
chubanshe, 2003), 6-8.
61 Alexei D. Voskressenski, “Current Concepts of Sino-Russian Relations and Frontier
Problems in Russia and China,” Central Asian Survey 13, 3 (1994): 378-79.
62 Wishnick, Mending Fences, 15-17.
63 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1979-1994, 41-42; Qian, Waijiao shiji, 25.
64 Interviews with Russian Foreign Ministry officials, November 1993 and 10 April 1995.
65 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1979-1994, 49; Tian, Gaige kaifang yilai de Zhongguo waijiao,
327-29; “Sino-Soviet Communiqué,” Xinhua, 18 May 1989; New York Times, 8 February
1987, 3; 10 February 1987, 5; 8 August 1987, 3; 25 September 1987, 12; Boston Globe, 22
August 1987, 3; Christian Science Monitor, 1 November 1988, 2.
66 China News Digest, 23 October 1994.
67 Interview with Russian Foreign Ministry official, 10 April 1995.
68 Liu Dexi, Sun Yan, and Liu Songbin, Sulian jietihou de ZhongE guanxi [Sino-Russian rela-
tions after the breakup of the Soviet Union] (Harbin: Heilongjiang jiaoyu chubanshe,
1996), 197; Yang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao lilun yu shijian, 165-66; Cheng
Faren, ZhongE guojietu kao [A study of Sino-Soviet border maps] (Taipei: Meng Zang
weiyuanhui, 1969), 84.
69 Interview with a Russian Foreign Ministry official, 10 April 1995.
70 Koreans maintain that the Qing Dynasty had no authority to cede “Noktun-do,” a Korean-
claimed island in the Tumen River, to Russia by the Treaty of Beijing, and has demanded
its return. http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/400378.
71 Zhai Wenqi and Tang Chengyun, “Tumen jiang kaifa yu dongbeiya guoji guanxi” [Tumen
River development and the international relations of northeast Asia], Qinghai
Shifan daxue xuebao 1 (1999), http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-QHSZ901.
002.htm.
72 Asahi Shimbun, 7 December 1991, 7; interviews with Victor L. Larin, Russian Academy
of Sciences, Far Eastern Branch, Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography of
the Peoples of the Far East, November 1993; and with Russian Foreign Ministry official,
10 April 1995; Lukin, The Bear Watches the Dragon, 171 and 175; China News Digest, 25
April 1995.
73 Tian, Gaige kaifang yilai de Zhongguo waijiao, 329; Washington Post, 17 March 1991,
A11; Survey of China Mainland Press (16-21 May 1991).
74 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongE juan 1 [The People’s
Republic of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Russia volume 1] (Beijing:
Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2005); Peng Xiaoming, “Tumen jiang chuhaikou chengle
Zhongguo ren yongjiu de quru” [The mouth of the Tumen River has become an eternal
humiliation for the Chinese] (30 September 2003), http://www.kanzhongguo.com/.
75 China News Digest, 25 April 1995.
76 RA Report 17 (July 1994): 48; Wishnick, Mending Fences, 182.
77 RA Report, ibid., 46.
78 Suzanne Crow, “Russia Debates Its National Interests,” RFE/RL Research Report 1, 28
(10 July 1992): 43, 45; Jingjie Li, “From Good Neighbors to Strategic Partners,” in
Rapprochement or Rivalry? Russia-China Relations in a Changing Asia, ed. Sherman W.
Garnett (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2000), 74-77.
Goncharov specialized in Sino-Soviet Relations at the Institute of the Far East and later
served in the Russian Federation embassy in Beijing.
79 Gaye Christoffersen, “Nesting the Sino-Russian Border and the Tumen Project in the
Asia-Pacific: Heilongjiang’s Regional Relations,” Asian Perspectives 20, 2 (Fall-Winter
1996): 278; “Resignation over Land,” Moscow Times, 6 April 1996; International Boundary
Research Unit, Boundary and Security Bulletin 4, 2 (Summer 1996): 44.
80 China News Digest, 2 March 1995; Xiaoquan Ni, “Recent Developments in China’s
Relations with Russia and the United States,” Institute Reports (East Asian Institute,
Columbia University), April 1995, 7.
81 ITAR-TASS News Agency (World Service), Moscow, 24 April 1996; International Bound
ary Research Unit, Boundary and Security Bulletin 4, 2 (Summer 1996): 44.
82 Xinhua News Agency, Beijing, 25 April 1996.
83 Li, “From Good Neighbors to Strategic Partners,” 88.
84 Akihiro Iwashita, “The Russo-Chinese ‘Strategic Partnership’ and the Border Negotia
tions: Then and Now,” Yamaguchi kenritsu daigaku daigakuyinronshu [Bulletin of the
Graduate School of Yamaguchi Prefecture University] 2 (March 2001), 1-10.
85 Lukin, The Bear Watches the Dragon, 172-77; Wishnick, Mending Fences, 176-77 and 180.
86 Genrikh Kireev, “Demarcation of the Border with China,” International Affairs (Moscow)
45, 2 (1999): 98-109; Sergei Blagov, “Russian Border Checks Glitch,” South China Morning
Post, 2 July 1999; Wishnick, ibid., 178.
87 Sergei Blagov, “Russia Hails Border Deal with China Despite Criticism,” Eurasia Daily
Monitor 2, 102 (May 2005); Los Angeles Times, 14 October 2008; Xinhua, 14 October
2008.
88 “China, Russia Complete Boundary Delimitation,” People’s Daily, 15 October 2004, http://
english1.people.com.cn/; Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China
(14 October 2004), http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/dozys/xw1b/t165266.htm;
Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in India, http://www.chinaembassy.org.in/
eng/zgbd/t164561.htm.
89 “Russia Hails Border Settlement” (15 November 2004), http://www.china.org.cn/.
90 Interview with Jiang Yi, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, November 2004.
91 Yan Jiaqi, “Jiang Zemin chumai ‘tudi’ huan ‘linmu’: ping Zhong-E mulin youhao hezuo
tiaoyue” [Jiang Zemin sold out territory for good neighbourly relations: a critique of the
Sino-Russian treaty of friendship and cooperation], http://www.kanzhongguo.com/; Cao
Changqing, “Jiang Zemin qianyue songtudi” [Jiang Zemin signed a treaty to hand over
territory], http://www.kanzhongguo.com/.
92 Li Xiang, “Return of Heixiasi Island Marks End of Border Dispute,” China Daily, 15
October 2008, http://chinadaily.com.cn/.
93 Interview with Yuri M. Galenovitch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Far Eastern
Studies, November 1993.
94 Wishnick, Mending Fences, 181.
95 Vladimir S. Miasnikov, “Present Issues between Russian and China: Realties and
Prospects,” Sino-Soviet Affairs 18, 2 (Summer 1994): 24; Wishnick, ibid., 154-56.
96 “Information Note of Romanian Embassy from Beijing to Ministry of Foreign Affairs”
(23 May 1989), Cold War International History Project, Digital Archive, http://digitalar-
chive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113148; Deng Xiaoping wenxuan [Selected works of
Deng Xiaoping] (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1992), 3, 409, fn. 104.
97 Lukin, The Bear Watches the Dragon, 234-35.
98 Wishnick, Mending Fences, 189.
99 Lukin, The Bear Watches the Dragon, 234-35.
100 Zhu Chenghu, ZhongMei quanxi de fazhan bianhua ji qi qushi [The development, trans-
formation, and trends in Sino-American relations] (Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe,
1998), 341-46.
101 Survey of China Mainland Press (16-21 May 1991).
102 Tian, Gaige kaifang yilai de Zhongguo waijiao, 327-28.
103 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongChao juan [The People’s
Republic of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Korea volume] (Beijing:
Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2004); Daniel Gomà Pinilla, “Border Disputes between China
and North Korea,” China Perspectives 52 (March-April 2004): 2-8.
104 Seo Dong-shin, “NK Slams China for Koguryo Distortion,” Korea Times, 15 September
2004.
105 Gari Ledyard, “Cartography in Korea,” in The History of Cartography, vol. 2, book 2, ed.
J.B. Harley and David Woodward (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 289.
106 Yonson Ahn, “Competing Nationalisms: The Mobilisation of History and Archaeology
in the Korea-China Wars over Koguryo/Gaoguoli,” Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus,
http://www.japanfocus.org/; Austin Ramzy, “Rewriting History: China and the Koreas
Feud over the Ancient Kingdom of Koguryo,” Times Asia, 16 August 2004; James Brooke,
“Seeking Peace in a Once and Future Kingdom,” New York Times, 25 August 2004, A-3.
107 Ledyard, “Cartography in Korea,” 301.
108 Quoted in Marion Eggert, “A Borderline Case: Korean Travelers’ Views of the Chinese
Border (Eighteenth to Nineteenth Century),” in China and Her Neighbours: Borders,
Visions of the Other, Foreign Policy 10th to 19th Century, ed. Sabine Dabringhaus and
Roderich Ptak (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1997), 51-52.
109 J.R.V. Prescott, Map of Mainland Asia by Treaty (Melbourne: Melbourne University
Press, 1975), 499-508; Ledyard, “Cartography in Korea,” 302; Zhang Cunwu [Chang
Ts’un-wu], “Qingdai Zhong-Han bianwu wenti tanyuan” [An investigation of the Sino-
Korean border question during the Qing dynasty], Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi
yanjiusuo jikan (Taipei) 2 (1971): 463-503.
110 Interview with a former Chinese Foreign Ministry official who served as an ambassador,
Beijing, November 1993.
111 Facts about Korea (Pyongyang: Foreign Language Publishing House, 1961), 1-4; China
Pictorial 11 (November 1961): 30-31.
112 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongChao juan, 65-92.
113 Unless otherwise noted, the details of the negotiations and settlement are based on a
confidential interview with a former Chinese Foreign Ministry official who served as an
ambassador, Beijing, November 1993. For corroboration, see Chae-Jin Lee, China and
Korea: Dynamic Relations (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1996), 99-100.
114 Zhou Enlai confirmed this settlement to Prime Minister Tsedenbal of Mongolia in
December 1962 when concluding the Sino-Mongolian boundary treaty: “Record of
Conversation between Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai and Mongolian leader J. Tsedenbal”
(26 December 1962), Cold War International History Project, Digital Archive, Mongolia
in the Cold War, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112072. For a Korean
view, see “What Is Hwanggumpyong Island?” http://english.chosun.com/site/data/
html_dir/2011/06/10/2011061001158.html. In 2011, a PRC-DPRK joint development
project for a special economic zone on the islands was inaugurated.
115 Gomà Pinilla, “Border Disputes between China and North Korea,” 2.
116 Lee, China and Korea, 99.
117 Nav Bharat Times, 14 July 1965, cited in Kim Deuk Hwang, Paektusan-gua Bukbang
ganggye [Mt. Paektu and the northern border] (Seoul: Sa Sa Yon Publishers, 1988), 28;
Indian Express, 20 July 1965, cited in Thomas An, “New Winds in Pyongyang?” Problems
of Communism 15, 4 (July-August 1966): 68; Chin O. Chung, P’yŏngyang between
Peking and Moscow: North Korea’s Involvement in the Sino-Soviet Dispute, 1958-1975
(Tuscloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1978), 120.
118 Mitchell Lerner, “‘Mostly Propaganda in Nature’: Kim Il Sung, the Juche Ideology, and
the Second Korean War,” North Korea International Documentation Project Working
Paper 3 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, December
2010), 35-36.
119 Sunday Times, 25 May 1969, 9; Kim, Paektusan-gua Bukbangganggye, 28; Lee, China
and Korea, 101.
120 Nena Vreeland et al., Area Handbook for North Korea, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: US
Government Printing Office, 1976), 207-8.
121 New York Times, 23 November 1970, 5; Prescott, Map of Mainland Asia by Treaty, 502.
122 Kim, Paektusan-gua Bukbangganggye, 29-30; Jilin Provincial Map (Zhongguo ditu
chubanshe, May 1998).
123 Tai Sung An, North Korea in Transition: From Dictatorship to Dynasty (Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 1983), 112. Some Chinese scholars speculate that the PLA has raised
questions regarding the alignment of the boundary and China’s border security.
124 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongChao juan; Sébastien
Colin, “A Border Opening onto Numerous Geopolitical Issues,” China Perspectives 48
(July-August 2003).
125 Yang Zhaoquan, Zhongchao bianjie shi [History of the China-Korea border] (Jilin: Wenshi
chubanshe, 1993), 527-35; Daniel Gomà, “The Chinese-Korean Border Issue,” Asian Survey
46, 6 (November/December 2006): 877.
126 In the eyes of many Koreans, both China and Russia have imperial pasts and imperial
ambitions. South Korean commentators speculate that if the Pyongyang regime falls,
China will come as a “thief in the night” seeking more Korean territory. Just as Russia
has an older brother/younger brother relationship with Ukraine and is unwilling to lose
this buffer zone, China assumes a similar relationship with North Korea. See Cho
Guangdong, “Crimea, a Significant for Korean Reunification,” http://www.newdaily.co.kr/
news/article.html?no=197196.
Chapter 8: The Sino-Mongolian Boundary Settlement

1 Xiaoyuan Liu, Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence,
Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911-1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press, 2006), 85, 377-78, 389.
2 Records of the Department of State Relating to Political Relations between Russia (and
the Soviet Union) and Other States, 1910-29, National Archives Microfilm Publications,
Microcopy 340, 761.93/88 (1961).
3 Ibid.
4 “Declaration and Exchange of Notes Respecting Mongolia, October 23/November
5, 1913,” American Journal of International Law Supplement 10, 4 (October 1916):
246-58.
5 Girard M. Friters, Outer Mongolia and Its International Position (New York and Balti
more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1957).
6 Ibid., 186.
7 Eric Hyer, “‘The Great Game’: Mongolia between Russia and China,” Mongolian Journal
of International Affairs 4 (1997): 89-104.
8 The Republic of China rescinded this recognition following Soviet recognition of the
People’s Republic of China in 1949. Belatedly, the Republic of China again accepted
Mongolian independence in 2002.
9 Edgar Snow, Red Star over China (New York: Modern Library, 1944), 96.
10 Andre Ledovsky, “Mikoyan’s Secret Mission to China in January and February 1949,” Far
Eastern Affairs 23, 2 (1995): 88-89.
11 Craig Seibert, trans., “Stalin’s Dialogue with Mao Zedong” (S.N. Goncharov interview
with Ivan V. Kovalev), Journal of Northeast Asian Studies 10, 4 (Winter 1991): 69.
12 Andrei Ledovsky, “The Moscow Visit of a Delegation of the Communist Party of China
in June to August 1949,” Far Eastern Affairs 24, 4 (1996): 82-84.
13 See Robert A. Rupen, “The Mongolian People’s Republic and Sino-Soviet Competition,”
in Communist Strategies in Asia, ed. A Doak Barnett (New York: Praeger, 1963), 288.
14 “China–Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Communiqué,” American Journal of
International Law 44, 3 (July 1950): 83-84.
15 New China Daily (Nanjing), 5 March 1950, cited in Rupen, “The Mongolian People’s
Republic and Sino-Soviet Competition,” 288-89.
16 Shi Bo, Waimenggu duli neimu [Inside story of Outer Mongolia’s independence]
(Beijing: Renmin Zhongguo chubanshe, 1993), ch. 8; Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev,
Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), 285.
17 Pravda, 2 September 1964, in Current Digest of the Soviet Press 16, 34 (16 September
1964): 5-7.
18 Li Haiwen, “A Distortion of History: An Interview with Shi Zhe about Kovolev’s Memoirs,”
Chinese Historians 5, 2 (Fall 1992): 61-62.
19 Felix Chuev, Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee,
1993), 71.
20 “Information Memorandum: ‘About the Claims of the Chinese Leader with Regard to
the Mongolian People’s Republic’” (30 January 1964), Cold War International History
Project, Digital Archive, Mongolia in the Cold War, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.
org/document/113098; “Excerpts from Tsedenbal’s Diary on His Conversations with
Soviet Leader Anastas Mikoyan” (24 February 1956), ibid., http://digitalarchive.wilson
center.org/document/110480.
21 C.L. Sulzberger, “India and Russia – A Study in Contrasts,” New York Times, 14 February
1955, 18; Alexander Kaznacheev, Inside a Soviet Embassy: Experiences of a Russian
Diplomat in Burma (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1962), 142.
22 Christian Science Monitor, 9 August 1957, 9; Harrison E. Salisbury, “Chinese‑Mongol
Tension Rising; Ulan Bator Charges Subversion,” New York Times, 22 May 1964, 12.
23 Harrison E. Salisbury, To Moscow and Beyond (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959),
228; Harrison E. Salisbury, “Soviet Influence in Mongolia Rises,” New York Times, 17
December 1961, 32; 25 April 1964, 3; 22 May 1964, 12; Foreign Broadcast Information
Service, Daily Report, Far East 83 (28 April 1964): FFF1.
24 Renmin ribao, 30 August 1956, in Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 1363 (August
1956): 20, and no. 1439 (28 December 1957): 36; People’s China 18 (16 September 1956):
40; Christian Science Monitor, 9 August 1957, 9.
25 Renmin ribao, 4 October 1957; Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 1631 (15 October
1957): 42-44; Joint Publication Research Service 45,465 (23 May 1968): 33-35; Peking
Review, 30 December 1958, 22.
26 P.H.M. Jones, “Mongolia between Two Fires,” Far Eastern Economic Review, 17 August
1961, 307.
27 Harrison E. Salisbury, War between Russia and China (New York: W.W. Norton, 1969),
17-18.
28 Robert A. Rupen, “The Mongolian People’s Republic and Inner Mongolia,” China News
Analysis 540 (13 November 1964): 2; Rupen, “The Mongolian People’s Republic and
Sino-Soviet Competition,” 265.
29 The Times, 30 September 1958, 10; Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 1870 (8 October
1958): 56.
30 Current Digest of the Soviet Press 9, 20 (26 June 1957): 27-28.
31 Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict (New York: Praeger, 1961), 424.
32 Seymour Topping, “Red Bloc Speeds Economic Unity,” New York Times, 9 June 1962, 1;
Philip E. Uren, “Economic Relations among Communist States,” in The Communist
States at the Crossroads, ed. Adam Bromke (New York: Praeger, 1965): 204.
33 Tsedendambyn Batbayar, Modern Mongolia: A Concise History (Ulaanbaatar: Mongolian
Center for Scientific and Technological Information, 1996), 55; New York Times, 17
December 1961, 33.
34 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongMeng juan [The People’s
Republic of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Mongolia volume] (Beijing:
Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2004); Renmin ribao, 24 December 1962, 1; Survey of China
Mainland Press, no. 2889 (2 January 1963): 32-37; China News Analysis, 18 January
1963, 6-7.
35 Han Nianlong, ed., Diplomacy of Contemporary China (Hong Kong: New Horizon
Press, 1990), 185; Wang Taiping, ed., Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao shi (2) 1957-
1959 [Diplomatic history of the PRC (vol. 2) 1957-1969] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chuban
she, 1998), 100.
36 Renmin ribao, 27 December 1962, in Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 2889 (2 January
1963): 38; Wang, ibid., 100.
37 Christian Science Monitor, 9 August 1957, 9; 6 January 1964, 2; Theodore Shabad, “Soviet
and Chinese Disagree on Maps,” New York Times, 26 February 1961, 20; China News
Analysis, 2 March 1962, 5; O. Chuluun, “The Two Phases in Mongolian-Chinese Rela
tions (1949-1972),” Far Eastern Affairs 1 (1974): 26-27.
38 Wang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao shi, 100-1.
39 Reuters (Peking), 24 December 1962, cited by Guy Searls, “Communist China’s Border
Policy: Dragon Throne Imperialism?” Current Scene 2, 12 (15 April 1963): 104; Wang,
ibid., 101-2.
1963): 38-39; New York Times, 28 December 1962, 3; Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary
China, 186; “Record of Conversation between Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai and Mongo
lian Leader J. Zedenbal” (26 December 1962), Cold War International History Project,
Digital Archive, Mongolia in the Cold War, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/
document/112072.
1963): 38-39; Renmin ribao, 9 March and 26 March 1963, in Joint Publication Research
Service 18730 (15 April 1963): 1-18, and United States Consulate General, Hong Kong,
Current Background 707 (9 August 1963): 1-13; Joint Publication Research Service 19279
(17 May 1963): 1-30.
42 Renmin ribao, 3 July 1964, 3.
43 Ibid., 27 December 1962, 3; China News Analysis 452 (18 January 1963): 7; Survey of
China Mainland Press, no. 2889 (2 January 1963): 37; Henry S. Bradsher, “Sino-Soviet
Rift Catches Mongolia,” Christian Science Monitor, 6 January 1964, 2; Alastair Lamb,
Asian Frontiers: Studies in a Continuing Problem (New York: Praeger, 1968), 202;
Batbayar, Modern Mongolia, 57.
44 A.J.K. Sanders, The People’s Republic of Mongolia (London: Oxford University Press,
1968), 42-43; New York Times, 24 May 1964, 6; Wang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo
waijiao shi, 102.
45 Unen, 11 August 1967, 30.
46 Chuluun, “The Two Phases in Mongolian-Chinese Relations,” 26.
47 Sergey S. Radchenko, “The Soviets’ Best Friend in Asia: The Mongolian Dimension of
the Sino-Soviet Dispute,” Cold War International History Project, Working Paper 42
(Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2003), 6.
48 Current Digest of the Soviet Press 9, 2 (26 June 1957): 28.
49 Robert A. Rupen, Mongols of the Twentieth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1964), 272.
50 New York Times, 22 August 1959, 3; 11 September 1959, 3; 22 October 1959, 3; David
Floyd, Mao against Khrushchev: A Short History of the Sino-Soviet Conflict (New York:
Praeger, 1963), 261-62; C.R. Bawden, “Mongolian People’s Republic, Number 3,” China
News Analysis 493 (15 November 1963): 1.
51 Constitution of the Mongolian People’s Republic (reprinted in Rupen, Mongols of the
Twentieth Century, 413-26).
52 China News Analysis 410 (2 March 1962): 4 and 6; Rupen, “The Mongolian People’s
Republic and Inner Mongolia,” 2‑4; Tsedendamba Batbayar, “Mongolia’s Foreign Policy
in the 1990s: New Identity and New Challenges,” Regional Security Issues and Mongo
lia (Institute for Strategic Studies, Ulaanbaatar) 17 (2002): 123; Batbayar, Modern
Mongolia, 59.
53 China News Analysis 534 (25 September 1964): 2.
54 Renmin ribao, 25 December 1962, in Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 2888 (31
December 1962): 39.
55 Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 2889 (2 January 1963): 28-40 passim.
56 After concluding boundary treaties with Russia, on 24 June 1996, China and Mongolia
negotiated two protocols demarcating the China-Russia-Mongolia trijunctions (Zhong
hua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongMeng juan).
57 Renmin ribao, 27 December 1962, 3; Current Digest of the Soviet Press 14, 52 (23 January
1963): 35; Survey of China Mainland Press, no. 2889 (2 January 1963): 37-40; New York
Times, 26 December 1962, 1.
58 Current Digest of the Soviet Press 15, 2 (6 February 1963): 20.
59 Joint Publication Research Service 26544 (24 September 1964): 14.
60 MPRP official statement in Novosti Mongolii, 22 October 1963, cited in Robert A. Rupen,
“Recent Trends in the Mongolian People’s Republic,” Asian Survey 4, 4 (April 1964): 812;
Tsedenbal statement in Current Digest of the Soviet Press 16, 37 (7 October 1964): 15.
61 Renmin ribao, 22 March 1963; South China Morning Post, 23 March 1963, 18; Current
Digest of the Soviet Press 16, 37 (7 October 1964): 15.
62 New York Times, 6 September 1964, IV:3; Current Digest of the Soviet Press 16, 34 (16
September 1964): 3-7.
63 Christian Science Monitor, 5 March 1963, 8; China News Analysis 468 (17 May 1963): 5.
64 China News Analysis 534 (25 September 1964): 4.
65 Renmin ribao, 8 April 1964, 3; China News Analysis, ibid., 4.
66 “Information Note of Romanian Embassy from Beijing to Ministry of Foreign Affairs”
(23 May 1989), Cold War International History Project, Digital Archive, http://digital
archive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113148.
67 “China Stakes a Claim to All the Mongolias,” International Herald Tribune, 30 April
1992; Batbayar, “Mongolia’s Foreign Policy in the 1990s,” 128-29.
68 South China Morning Post, 1 July 1992, 12.
Chapter 9: The Sino-Japanese Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands Dispute

1 “Senkaku Islands” has become the most common and widely used name for the
islands. Other Chinese variations are rendered as “Tiaoyuyu” or “Tiaoyutai.”
2 Quoted in Han Nianlong, ed., Diplomacy of Contemporary China (Hong Kong: New
Horizon Press, 1990), 249.
4 Quoted in Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 253.
5 “The Struggle of the People of Ryukyu Opposing American Occupation,” Renmin ribao,
8 January 1953.
6 K.O. Emery et al., “Geological Structure and Some Water Characteristics of the East
China Sea and Yellow Sea,” Technical Bulletin 2 (1969): 39.
7 “Red China, Japan Claim Oil Islands,” Washington Post, 5 December 1970, A-10.
8 “Agreement with Japan Concerning the Ryukyu Islands and Daito Islands: Hearing be
fore the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations,” 92nd Congress, 1st Session (Washing
ton, DC: 1971), 91; Congressional Record, 92nd Congress, 1st Session (9 November 1971).
9 Peking Review, 1 January 1972, 12-13.
10 Peking Review, 10 March 1972, 16; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 424-25.
11 Peking Review, 12 May 1972, 18-22; 26 May 1972, 14.
12 Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), Daily Report: Asia and Pacific, 7 April
1971, C1; New York Times, 23 May 1971, IV:7; 21 June 1971, 14; 23 April 1972, 17;
Washington Post, 19 June 1971, A19.
13 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, “The Japan-China Summit Meeting between Prime
Minister Kakuei Tanaka and Premier Zhou Enlai on September 27, 1972,” http://www.
mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/senkaku/qa_1010.html#qa14.
14 Peking Review, 3 November 1978, 16; Besshi Yukio, “Nitchu kokko seijoka no seiji katei:
seisaku ketteisha to sono kodo no haikei” [Political process of the normalization of Sino-
Japanese diplomatic relations: decision makers and the background of their behaviour],
Kokusai seiji 66, 3 (1980): 3; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979, 526, 536.
15 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, “Fact Sheet on the Senkaku Islands (November
2012), http://www.mofa.go.jp/; Mamoru Ishida, “Finding Common Ground on the
Senkakus Dispute,” Japan Times, 19 March 2013, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/.
16 Takemura Kenichi, “Sonoda gaiso ni chokugeki intabyu” [A hard-hitting interview of
Foreign Minister Sonoda], Jiyu minshu 273 (10 October 1978), 49-50.
17 FBIS, Daily Report: Communist China, 4 December 1970, A15‑17; 7 December 1970, A8.
18 Ibid., 29 December 1970, A7.
19 New York Times, 20 March 1972, 13.
20 Besshi, “Nitchu kokko seijoka no seiji katie,” 3-7.

21 FBIS, Daily Report: Asia and Pacific, 2 October 1972, C1-2.
23 FBIS, Daily Report: PRC, 8 October 1974, A8; Ueji Tatsunori, Senkaku retto to Takeshima
(Tokyo: Kyoikusha, 1978), 81.
24 Ibid., 17-21.
25 FBIS, Daily Report: Asia and Pacific, 12 April 1978, C3.
26 Ibid., 17 April 1978, C4.
27 Ibid., 14 April 1978, C1.
28 FBIS, Daily Report: China, 17 April 1978, A6-8; New York Times, 16 April 1978, 8.
29 FBIS, Daily Report: Asia and Pacific, 17 April 1978, C2; 18 April 1978, C1.
30 FBIS, Daily Report: PRC, 25 April 1978, A7.
31 Ibid., 24 April 1978, C1.
32 Ibid., 2 May 1978, A9.
33 Ibid., 11 May 1978, A17-18.
34 Kenichi, “Sonoda gaiso ni chokugeki intabyu,” 49-50.
35 FBIS, Daily Report: PRC, 14 August 1978, A7.
36 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, “Fact Sheet on the Senkaku Islands”; Ishida, “Finding
Common Ground on the Senkakus Dispute.”
37 FBIS, Daily Report: Asia and Pacific, 16 August 1978, C2-3;Takemura Kenichi, “Sonoda
gaiso ni chokugeki intabyu,” 49.
38 Yang Gongsu, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao lilun yu shijian [Theory and practice
of People’s Republic of China diplomacy] (Beijing: Beijing daxue guoji guanxi xueyuan,
1997), 275-79; “Chairman of Chinese Delegation T’eng Hsiao-ping’s [Three Worlds]
Speech,” Peking Review, 19 April 1974, 6-11; “Chairman Mao’s Theory of the Differentiation
of the Three Worlds Is a Major Contribution to Marxism-Leninism,” Peking Review, 4
November 1977, 10-41.
39 Joseph Y.S. Cheng, “Normalization of Sino‑Japanese Relations: China’s Bargaining Pos
ition Regarding the Taiwan Question,” Asia Quarterly 4 (1980): 258-59.
41 Ibid., C6-9; Mainichi shimbun, 8 April 1978, 2.
42 FBIS, ibid., 17 April 1978, C4.
43 Ibid., C3-4.
44 Ibid., C2-3.
45 FBIS, Daily Report: China, 25 April 1978, A7.
46 Ibid., 31 May 1979, D5.
47 Daniel Tretiak, “Peking’s Policy toward Sinkiang: Trouble on the ‘New Frontier,’” Current
Scene 11, 24 (15 November 1963).
49 FBIS, Daily Report: China, 19 May 1978, N2.
50 Ibid., 17 August 1978, N1.
51 Renmin ribao, 16 April 1978, 3; FBIS, Daily Report: PRC, 11 May 1978, A17-18.
52 Peking Review, 3 November 1978, 16; Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, “Fact Sheet on
the Senkaku Islands.”
53 The CCP issued an internal document in September 1996 ordering university officials
to stop student protests over the Diaoyu Islands dispute. See China News Digest, 18
September 1996; Liu Binyan, “Big Drama about Small Islands,” China Focus 4, 10 (1
October 1996): 1; “Activists Warned to Halt Diaoyu Protests,” South China Morning Post,
29 May 1997. More recent efforts are detailed in M. Taylor Fravel, “Explaining Stability
in the Senkaku (Diaoyu) Islands Dispute,” in Getting the Triangle Straight: Managing
China-Japan-US Relations, ed. Gerald Curtis, Ryosei Kokubun, and Wang Jisi (Baltimore:
Brookings Institution Press, 2010), 153-55.
54 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, “The Basic View on the Sovereignty over the Senkaku
Islands” (May 2013), http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/.
55 State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, “Full Text: Diaoyu
Dao, an Inherent Territory of China” (September 2012), http://english.gov.cn/.
56 After 17 years of negotiations, in April 2013 Japan and Taiwan (ROC) concluded a fisheries
agreement after setting aside the Diaoyu/Senkaku issue which was excluded from the
scope of the agreement. See “Taiwan, Japan Reach Milestone Fisheries Agreement,”
Taiwan Panorama (38, 6 (June 2013): 53-55.
57 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, “Q&A on the Senkaku Islands,” http://www.mofa.
go.jp/region/asia-paci/senkaku/qa_1010.html#qa16.
58 Liu Jiangyong, “New Situation and Prospect of Disputes over Diaoyu Dao,” Foreign Affairs
Journal, issue 106 (Winter 2012): 39.
59 James Manicom, “The State of Cooperation in the East China Sea,” NBR Analysis Brief,
30 April 2013.
60 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, “China and Japan Reach
Principled Consensus on the East China Sea Issue” (18 June 2008), http://www.fmprc.
gov.cn/; Xinjun Zhang, “China’s ‘Peaceful Rise,’ ‘Harmonious’ Foreign Relations, and
Legal Confrontation and Lesson from the Sino-Japanese Dispute over the East China
Sea,” Foreign Policy Research Institute, Philadelphia, E-Notes, 16 April 2010, 6. China
unilaterally started development in 2013. See “Japan Complains over China Drill Rig
Near Disputed Gas Field,” BBC News, 3 July 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/.
61 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, “China and Japan Reach
Principled Consensus on the East China Sea Issue”; Martin Fackler, “China and Japan in
Deal over Contested Gas Fields,” New York Times, 19 June 2008; “Tokyo Nixed Joint
Senkaku Exploitation,” Japan Times, 22 October 2010, http://info.japantimes.co.jp/.
62 “Backing Off Not an Option for China,” Global Times, 15 September 2012, http://www.
globaltimes.cn/.
63 Jane Perlez, “Chinese President to Seek New ‘Power Relationship’ in Talks with Obama,”
New York Times, 29 May 2013, A6; Lin Hongyu, “Zhongguo haiyang zhanlue kunjing:
chengyin yu duice” [The predicament of Chinese maritime strategy: causes and counter
measures], Xiandai Guoji Guanxi 8 (2012): 7.
64 FBIS, Daily Report: China, 31 May 1979, D6 (emphasis added).
65 FBIS, Daily Report: East Asia, 2 October 1990, 11-12; 23 October 1990, 3; 24 October
1990, 2; “Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesman on Diaoyu Islands,” Xinhua Overseas
News Service, 25 October 1990.
66 FBIS, Daily Report: China, 27 February 1992, 15-16.
67 “Qian Qichen News Conference,” BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 29 March 1991;
“Jiang Zemin Tells Japanese Journalists Whole Party behind Economic Reforms,” BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts, 6 April 1992; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi: Zhonghua
Renmin Gongheguo shiqi 1979-1994 [A diplomatic history of China: the period of the
People’s Republic of China, 1979-1994] (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1995),
141-42.
68 Associated Press–Dow Jones, 10 September 1993, via China News Digest, 14 September
1993; 9 December 1993.
69 Erica Strecker Downs and Phillip C. Saunders, “Legitimacy and the Limits of Nationalism:
China and the Diaoyu Islands,” International Security 23, 3 (Winter 1998-99): 117; Phil
Deans, “Contending Nationalisms and the Diaoyutai/Senkaku Dispute,” Security Dialogue
31, 1 (2000): 119-31.
70 http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1208360.shtml.
71 M. Taylor Fravel, “Explaining Stability in the Senkaku (Diaoyu) Islands Dispute,” 157-59;
Suisheng Zhao, “Foreign Policy Implication of Chinese Nationalism Revisited: The
Strident Turn,” Journal of Contemporary China 22, 82 (2013): 553.
Chapter 10: The Sino-Vietnamese Territorial and Boundary Settlements

1 Xiaohong Liu, Chinese Ambassadors: The Rise of Diplomatic Professionalism since 1949
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), 136.
2 Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Advisor,
1977-81 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1983), 409.
3 Nguyen Manh Hung, “The Sino-Vietnamese Conflict: Power Play among Communist
Neighbors,” Asian Survey 19, 11 (November 1979): 1038.
1990), 344-46; Bruce Burton, “Contending Explanations of the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese
War,” International Journal 34, 4 (Autumn 1979): 704.
5 Allen S. Whiting, The Chinese Calculus of Deterrence: India and Indochina (Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press, 1975), 186‑98.
6 Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 346-7.
7 Ibid., 330-31.
8 “Note Sent by the Chinese Foreign Ministry to the Vietnamese Embassy in China, June
23, 1980,” United Nations Document S/14047; Ramses Amer, “Assessing Sino-Vietnamese
Relations through the Management of Contentious Issues,” Contemporary Southeast
Asia 26, 2 (August 2004): 321.
(Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1988), 516-21.
10 “Memorandum Dated 15 March 1979 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Socialist
Republic of Viet Nam Concerning the Chinese Authorities’ Provocations and Territorial
Encroachments in the Border Region of Viet Nam,” United Nations Document S/13234;
“Speech Made by Han Nianlong, Head of the Chinese Government Delegation and Vice-
Minister for Foreign Affairs, at the Fourth Plenary Meeting of the Sino-Vietnamese
Negotiations on 12 May 1979,” United Nations Document S/13318; Beijing Review, 25
May 1979, 20; Pao-min Chang, “The Sino-Vietnamese Territorial Dispute,” Asia Pacific
Community 8 (Spring 1980); John B. Allcock et al., eds., Border and Territorial Disputes,
3rd ed. (Essex, UK: Longman Current Affairs, 1992), 465; Yang Gongsu, Zhonghua Renmin
Gongheguo waijiao lilun yu shijian [Theory and practice of People’s Republic of China
diplomacy] (Beijing: Beijing daxue guoji guanxi xueyuan, 1997), 349.
11 Beijing Review, 25 May 1979, 19-20.
12 J.R.V. Prescott, Map of Mainland Asia by Treaty (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press,
1975), 453. See also Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 335; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao
shi … 1949-1979, 519.
13 Han, ibid., 337; Xie, ibid., 132-33; “Memorandum Dated 15 March 1979 of the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam Concerning the Chinese
Authorities’ Provocations and Territorial Encroachments in the Border Region of Viet
Nam,” United Nations Document S/13234; “Speech Made by Han Nianlong, Head of the
Chinese Government Delegation and Vice-Minister for Foreign Affairs, at the Fourth
Plenary Meeting of the Sino-Vietnamese Negotiations on 12 May 1979,” United National
Document S/13318.
14 “Memorandum on Vice-Premier Li Xiannian’s Talks with Premier Pham Van Dong, 10
June 1977,” Beijing Review, 30 March 1979, 17-22.
15 Beijing Review, 25 May 1979, 16-18.

16 Xie, Zhongguo dangdai waijiao shi, 338.
17 Beijing Review, 25 May 1979, 21; On Vietnam’s Expulsion of Chinese Residents (Beijing:
Foreign Language Press, 1978), 71-72, 103-6; “Memorandum Outlining Vice-Premier
Li Xiannian’s Talk with Premier Pham Van Dong on 10 June 1977,” United Nations
Document S/13255; “Memorandum Dated 14 February 1979 of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam on the Chinese Authorities’ Intensified
Armed Activities on the Viet Nam Border and Their Frantic War Preparations against
Viet Nam,” United Nations Document S/13093; “Statement Issued by the Xinhua News
Agency on 17 February 1979 on Authorization of the Chinese Government,” United
Nations Document S/13094; Xie, Zhongguo dangdai waijiao shi, 340.
18 Xie, ibid., 503-5, 523-25; Yang, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao lilun yu shijian,
345-46.
19 Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), Daily Report: PRC, 12 February 1979,
A7.
20 Ibid., 6 February 1979, A2.
21 Ibid., 21 February 1979, A4; 23 February 1979, A11.
22 “Statement Issued by the Xinhua News Agency on 17 February 1979 upon Authorization
of the Chinese Government,” United Nations Document S/13094; “Note Dated 1 March
1979 from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China to the Vietnamese Embassy in China,”
United Nations Document S/13129.
23 Burton, “Contending Explanations of the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War,” 699.
24 Xiaoming Zhang, “China’s 1979 War with Vietnam: A Reassessment,” China Quarterly
184 (December 2005): 856; Amer, “Assessing Sino-Vietnamese Relations through the
Management of Contentious Issues,” 324; Nayan Chanda, Brother Enemy: The War after
the War (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986), 261.
25 FBIS, Daily Report: PRC, 18 September 1978, A13.
26 FBIS, ibid., 26 December 1978, A13-16; Zhang, “China’s 1979 War with Vietnam,” 855-57,
868-69.
27 Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 409.
28 “Note Dated 2 March 1979 from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Socialist Republic
of Viet Nam to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China,” United
Nations Document S/13134.
29 “Note Sent by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China to the
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 31 March 1979,” United
Nations Document S/13212.
31 FBIS, Daily Report: PRC, 14 September 1978, A12-14; 13 November 1978, A8-9; 9 January
1979, A21-22.
32 “Speech by the Head of the Delegation of the Government of the Socialist Republic of
Viet Nam, Dinh Nho Liem, at the First Meeting of the Second Round of Viet Nam–China
talks (28 June 1979),” United Nations Document S/13434.
33 Beijing Review, 4 May 1979, 28.
34 “Speech by Vice-Foreign Minister Han Nianlong, Head of the Chinese Government Dele
gation, at the 13th Plenary Meeting of the Sino-Vietnamese Negotiations on 19 October
1979,” United Nations Document S/13583; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1949-1979,
523-24.
35 “Note Sent by the Chinese Foreign Ministry to the Vietnamese Embassy in China, 23
June 1980,” United Nations Document S/14047; “Note Addressed by the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
of the People’s Republic of China, 3 July 1980,” United Nations Document S/14054.
36 “Memorandum Outlining Vice-Premier Li Xiannian’s Talk with Premier Pham Van Dong
on 10 June 1977,” United Nations Document S/13255; Beijing Review, 25 May 1979, 16-17.
37 Nayan Chanda, “China and Cambodia: In the Mirror of History,” Asia-Pacific Review 9,
2 (2002): 5.
opening up and reform] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 1993), 81-82; New York Times,
4 November 1991, A4.
39 China News Digest, 27 January 1998. Overall trade grew from US$32 million in 1991 to
US$2.5 billion in 2000.
40 Nguyen Quy Binh, Ministry of Foreign Affairs interview, 26 May 1995, Hanoi; United
Press International, 28 August 1993; Kyodo News Service, 19 November 1993; China News
Digest, 23 December 1993 and 22 November 1994.
41 “Talks to Tackle Border Tensions,” South China Morning Post, 16 July 1997; China News
Digest, 22 October 1998.
42 “Border Deal Struck with Vietnam,” South China Morning Post, 3 December 1999;
“Vietnamese Border Agreement Signed,” South China Morning Post, 31 December 1999.
43 Amer, “Assessing Sino-Vietnamese Relations through the Management of Contentious
Issues,” 331.
44 Associated Press, 16 September 2002; “China, Vietnam Settle Land Border Issue,” China
Daily, 24 February 2009, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/.
45 FBIS, Daily Report, East Asia, 6 July 1994, 66; 20 October 1994, 84.
46 Ramses Amer, “The Sino-Vietnamese Approach to Managing Boundary Disputes,”
Maritime Briefing 3, 5 (2002): 41-42.
47 “Joint China-Vietnam Statement for Comprehensive Cooperation,” http://www.fmprc.
gov.cn/eng/6939.html; Xiao Jianguo, “Drawing the Line,” http://www.bjreview.com.cn/
200432/World-200432(A).htm.
48 Nguyen Quy Binh, Ministry of Foreign Affairs interview, 26 May 1995, Hanoi; Amer,
“The Sino-Vietnamese Approach to Managing Boundary Disputes,” 8.
49 Martin Stuart-Fox and Mary Kookyman, Historical Dictionary of Laos (London: Scare
crow Press, 1992), 22.
50 Han, Diplomacy of Contemporary China, 205-8; Peking Review, 28 April 1961, 7-8; 7
December 1962, 20.
51 Alastair Lamb, Asian Frontiers: Studies in a Continuing Problem (New York: Praeger,
1968), 175-80.
52 Prescott, Map of Mainland Asia by Treaty, 447-51.
53 Tian, Gaige kaifang yilai de Zhongguo waijiao, 87.
54 Lamb, Asian Frontiers, 175, fn.
55 Interviews with Chinese scholars at both the China Institute of International Studies
and the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations, July 1994.
56 Tian, Gaige kaifang yilai de Zhongguo waijiao, 87, 361; FBIS, Daily Report, East Asia, 12
February 1991, 37; 18 March 1991, 48.
57 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongLao juan [The People’s
Republic of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Laos volume] (Beijing:
Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2004), 155-74.
58 Ian Townsend-Gault, “The China-Laos Boundary: Lan Xang Meets the Middle Kingdom,”
in Beijing’s Power and China’s Border: Twenty Neighbors in Asia, ed. Bruce A. Elleman,
Stephen Kotkin, and Clive Schofield (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2013), 150.
Chapter 11: Boundary Settlements with Eurasian States

1 Hasan H. Karrar, The New Silk Road Diplomacy: China’s Central Asian Foreign Policy
since the Cold War (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2009), 3.
2 Ibid., 54.
3 Marlène Laruelle and Sébastien Peyrouse, China as a Neighbor: Central Asian Perspectives
and Strategies (Washington, DC: John Hopkins University–SAIS, Central Asia–Caucasus
Institute and Silk Road Studies Program, 2009), 24.
4 Bonnie Glaser, “China’s Security Perceptions: Interests and Ambitions,” Asian Survey
33, 3 (March 1993): 252-71; James Hsiung, “China’s Omni-directional Diplomacy:
Realignment to Cope with Monopolar US Power,” Asian Survey 35, 6 (June 1995): 573-86;
Tariq Mahmud Ashraf, “Afghanistan in Chinese Strategy toward South and Central
Asia,” China Brief 8, 10 (13 May 2008): 2.
5 Beijing Review, 2-8 May 1994, 19.
6 Renmin ribao, 5 July 1998.
7 Tarique Niazi, “The Ecology of Strategic Interests: China’s Quest for Energy Security
from the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea to the Caspian Sea Basin,” China and
Eurasia Forum Quarterly 6, 4 (November 2006): 111; Niklas Swanström, “China and
Central Asia: A New Great Game or Traditional Vassal Relations?” Journal of
Contemporary China 14, 45 (November 2005): 569-84.
8 Quoted in Keith Martin, “China and Central Asia: Between Seduction and Suspicion,”
RFE/RL Research Report 3, 24 (24 June 1994): 33.
9 Beijing Review, 23-29 March 1992, 12; The Independent (London), 13 January 1992.
10 Xu Tao and He Xichuan, “Gongtong gozhu mianxiang ershiyi shiji de chuanmian hezuo
huoban guanxi: Zhong-Ha shuangbian guanxi fazhan qingkuang” [Mutually building a
comprehensive cooperative partnership for the twenty-first century: the development of
Sino-Kazakh relations], Xiandai guoji guanxi 10 (1997): 3-5.
11 Xinhua General Overseas News Service, 8 September 1992.
12 Xinhua, 11 April 1996 and 27 April 1996.
13 Wenhui bao (Hong Kong), 26 April 1992.
14 Zhang Wenmu, “America’s Oil Geostrategy and the Security of Tibet and Xinjiang:
Considering New Trends in US Foreign Policy toward South and Central Asia,” Zhanlue
yu guanli [Strategy and Management] 2 (1998): 100-1.
15 Ibid., 103-4.
16 Beijing Review, 1-7 June 1992, 30; Foreign Broadcast Information Service [hereafter FBIS],
Daily Report: China, 3 September 1992; 22 December 1992), 51; Gaye Christoffersen,
“Xinjiang and the Great Islamic Circle: The Impact of Transnational Forces on Chinese
Regional Economic Planning,” China Quarterly 133 (March 1993): 130-51.
17 Evan A. Feigenbaum, “Central Asia Contingencies,” in Managing Instability on China’s
Periphery, ed. Paul B. Stares, Scott A. Snyder, Joshua Kurlantzick, Daniel Markey, and
Evan A. Feigenbaum. (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, Center for Preventive
Action, 2011), 65.
18 Niazi, “The Ecology of Strategic Interests,” 109-14; Pan Guang, “China and Central Asia:
Charting a New Course for Regional Cooperation,” Jamestown Foundation China Brief
7, 3 (5 February 2007):1-4.
19 “Chinese Challenge,” Economist, 12 May 1994, 30; Beijing Review, 1-7 June 1992, 30; 23-29
January 1995, 23; FBIS, Daily Report: China, 29 October 1992, 8; 18 June 1993, 8; 21 June
1993, 12; Nicolas Becquelin, “A New Xinjiang for a New Central Asia,” China Perspectives
15 (January-February 1998): 13, 16; Xinhua, 26 August 1999; Xinhua Economic News
Service, 31 March 2005; Jonson, Lena, Tajikistan in the New Central Asia: Geopolitics,
Great Power Rivalry and Radical Islam (London: I.B. Tauris, 2006), 86-87.
20 Many speculate that China’s real objective is to link Uzbekistan, viewed by many Chinese
as Central Eurasia’s regional leader, to China.
21 Beijing Review, 9-15 May 1994, 5.
22 “China’s Strike,” Economist, 16 August 1997, 32-33; Beijing Review, 27 October – 2
November 1997, 27.
23 “Kazakhstan’s Pipeline to Prosperity,” The Economist, 11 October 1997, 47; Becquelin, “A
New Xinjiang,” 15; Marat Yermukanov, “A Thorny Road to Sino-Kazakh Partnership,”
China Brief 4, 14 (8 July 2004): 6; Niazi, “The Ecology of Strategic Interests,” 112.
24 Beijing Review, 3-9 August 1992, 12-13.
1990), 176-77.
28 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo shiqi 1979-1994 [A diplomatic
history of China: the period of the People’s Republic of China, 1979-1994] (Zhengzhou:
Henan renmin chubanshe, 1995), 32, fn. 1.
29 Li Huichuan, “The Crux of the Sino-Soviet Boundary Question” [pt. 2], Peking Review, 3
August 1981, 16. See also Li Huichuan, “The Crux of the Sino-Soviet Boundary Question”
[pt. 1], Peking Review, 2 July 1981, 12-17.
30 Qian Qichen, Waijiao shiji [Ten foreign policy events] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe,
2003), 231.
31 Xinhua, 15 April 1993; BBC Worldwide Monitoring Central Asia Unit, 7 July 2001; Necati
Polat, Boundary Issues in Central Asia (Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 2002),
19-20.
32 “China is Quietly Occupying Kazakhstan,” Chinese translation of article published in
Pacific Star News, 15 January 1998; Research Institute for Peace and Security, Asian
Security: 1996-97 (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1997), 202; Becquelin, “A New Xinjiang
for a New Central Asia,” 13.
33 BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 11 August 1992; BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News
Wire – Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, 22 July 2005.
34 Xu and He, “Gongtong gozhu mianxiang ershiyi shiji de chuanmian hezuo huoban
guanxi,” 3.
35 Ibid., 4.
36 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongHa juan [The People’s
Republic of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Kazakhstan volume] (Beijing:
Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2005); BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News Wire – Asia Africa
Intelligence Wire, 3 August 2002, 27 November 2002, 13 February 2004, 22 July 2005.
37 WPS Russian Media Monitoring Agency, 18 June 1999; BBC Monitoring/BBC Global
News Wire – Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, 8 January 2002.
38 Beijing Review, 9-15 May 1994, 5; BBC Worldwide Monitoring Central Asia Unit/BBC
Worldwide Monitoring, 15 April 2000; BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News Wire – Asia
Africa Intelligence Wire, 9 July 2003.
39 Allen Carlson, “Constructing the Dragon’s Scales: China’s Approach to Territorial
Sovereignty and Border Relations in the 1980s and 1990s,” Journal of Contemporary
China 12, 37 (November 2003): 690; WPS Russian Media Monitoring Agency, 18 June
1999; BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News Wire – Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, 18 January
2002.
41 BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 2 May 1994.

42 Ibid., 13 January 1996.
43 Xinhua, 4 July 1996.
44 Renmin ribao, 29 April 1998.
45 BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News Wire – Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, 3 August 2002;
Associated Press, 20 February 2003.
46 BBC Worldwide Monitoring Central Asia Unit, 9 May 2001, 22 June 2001, 28 June 2001.
47 Ibid., 7 May 2002.
48 “Kyrgyz Legislature Continues to Discuss Chinese Border Controversy,” RFE/RL Newsline
5, 119 (22 June 2001).
49 Xinhua Domestic Service, 26 August 1999; ITAR-TASS News Agency, 26 August 1999;
Zhao Zongwei, “Border Accord Signed,” China Daily, 27 August 1999.
50 Dmitri Plenseev, “Kyrgyz Border Pact with China Stirs Tension in Bishkek” (17 May 2002),
http://www.eurasianet.org; Deutsche Presse-Agentur, 16 May 2002; ITAR-TASS News
Agency, 17 May 2002; Associated Press, 20 February 2003.
51 BBC Monitoring/BBC Monitoring International Reports – Asia Africa Intelligence Wire,
27 November 2002; Sergei Luzianin, “Materials and Documents on the Kyrgyzstan-China
Border,” Far Eastern Affairs 33, 1 (January-March 2005): 153-54.
52 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongJi juan [The People’s Republic
of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Kyrgyzstan volume] (Beijing: Shijie
zhishi chubanshe, 2005).
54 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1979-1994, 32, fn. 1.
55 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo bianjie shiwu tiaoyueji: ZhongTa juan [The People’s Republic
of China boundary affairs treaty collection: China-Tajikistan volume] (Beijing: Shijie
zhishi chubanshe, 2005); Gu Guanfu, “1996-1997 nian ZhongYa xingshi baogao” [1996-
1997 report on the situation in Sino–Central Asia relations], in Zhongguo zhanlue yu
guanli yanjiu hui, guoji xingshi fenxi baogao, 1996-1997, 74; BBC Monitoring Central Asia
Unit/BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 7 April 2000; BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News Wire
– Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, 3 August 2002.
56 China Central Television, 26 April 1996; BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News Wire – Asia
Africa Intelligence Wire, 31 July 2002.
57 Gregory Gleason, “Why Russia Is in Tajikistan,” Comparative Strategy 20 (2001): 84.
58 BBC Monitoring Central Asia Unit/BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 21 December 2001.
59 Xinhua, 12 January 1996.
60 Agence France-Presse, 31 October 1997; BBC Monitoring Central Asia Unit, 3 August
2002.
61 Xinhua, 13 August 1999; China Daily, 14 August 1999; BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News
Wire – Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, 27 November 2002; Gleason, “Why Russia Is in
Tajikistan,” 84; Jonson, Tajikistan in the New Central Asia, 85-86.
62 John C.K. Daly, “Sino-Kyrgyz Relations after the Tulip Revolution,” China Brief 5, 9 (26
April 2005): 6-7; Kambiz Arman, “US Geopolitical Position Takes a Hit in Tajikistan” (13
July 2004), http://www.eurasianet.org.
63 Polat, Boundary Issues in Central Asia, 45; “People’s Republic of China–Tajikistan Joint
Communiqué,” http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper464/938/130357.html.
64 Dagong bao (Hong Kong), 24 September 2001, in FBIS, Daily Report: China, 26 September
2001.
65 BBC Monitoring – Asia Pacific – Political, 26 December 2001.
66 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, “China’s Territorial and
Boundary Affairs” (30 June 2003), http://fmprc.gov.cn/.
67 Buzurgmehr Ansori, “Tajikistan Defines Border with China: Country Ceded 1,100 Sq.
Km. to China,” Central Asia Online, 29 January 2011, http://centralasiaonline.com/.
68 “Jiang Zemin – chumai Zhongguo lingtu zhuchuan maiguozei daibiao” [Jiang Zemin – a
national traitor who sold out China’s territorial sovereignty], http://kanzhongguo.com/
news/gb/articles/3/9/29/51772p.html.
70 Ibid.
71 BBC Worldwide Monitoring Central Asia Unit, 9 May 2001, 22 June 2001, 28 June 2001.
72 Xinhua, 4 July 1996.
73 Gu, “1996-1997 nian ZhongYa xingshi baogao,” 74; BBC Monitoring Central Asia Unit/
BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 7 April 2000; BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News Wire – Asia
Africa Intelligence Wire, 3 August 2002.
74 Yu Lei, “Five-Way Border Pledge Signed,” China Daily, 27 April 1996.
75 BBC Monitoring/BBC Global News Wire – Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, 3 August 2002.
76 Becquelin, “A New Xinjiang for a New Central Asia,” 13.
77 Antoine Blua, “Central Asia: Some in Region Worried about Growing Chinese Power,”
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 16 June 2003.
78 Ronald N. Montaperto, “Whither China? Beijing’s Policies for the 1990s,” Strategic Review
20, 3 (Summer 1992): 30.
79 Lillian Craig Harris, “Xinjiang, Central Asia, and the Implications for China’s Policy in
the Islamic World,” China Quarterly 133 (1993): 127-28.
80 Laruelle and Peyrouse, China as a Neighbour, 114-18, 146-48; Allen Carlson, Unifying
China, Integrating with the World: Securing Chinese Sovereignty in the Reform Era
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005), 237.
Chapter 12: The South China Sea Territorial Disputes

1 Over forty thousand ships transit the South China Sea annually, twice as many as pass
through the Suez Canal and triple the number passing through the Panama Canal.
2 Li Xiaokun, “Special Agency Set Up to Handle Sea, Land Disputes,” China Daily, 5 May
2009, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/.
3 The Republic of China (Taiwan) claim is spelled out in Second Workshop on Managing
Potential Conflicts in the South China Sea (Bandung, Indonesia, 8 July 1991), Second
Workshop Report (1991), 289-90.
4 John B. Allcock et al., eds., Border and Territorial Disputes, 3rd ed. (Essex, UK: Longman
Current Affairs, 1992), 542-45.
5 Zhou Enlai waijiao wenxuan [Selected works of Zhou Enlai on diplomacy] (Beijing: Zhong
yang wenxian chubanshe, 1990), 40.
1990), 332-33; Allcock et al., Border and Territorial Disputes, 469-71.
7 M. Taylor Fravel, Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China’s
Territorial Disputes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 62.
8 Peking Review, 18 June 1976, 4.
9 Pao-min Chang, “The Sino-Vietnamese Territorial Dispute,” Asia Pacific Community
8 (Spring 1980): 144.
10 Beijing Review, 30 March 1979, 21.
11 Ibid., 21; “Memorandum Outlining Vice-Premier Li Xiannian’s Talk with Premier Pham
Van Dong on 10 June 1977,” United Nations Document S/13255, 8, fn. d; Yang Gongsu,
Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo waijiao lilun yu shijian [The theory and practice of People’s
Republic of China diplomacy]. Beijing: Beijing daxue guoji guanxi xueyuan, 1997), 349.
12 Beijing Review, 30 March 1979, 17-22; “Memorandum Outlining Vice-Premier Li
Xiannian’s Talk with Premier Pham Van Dong on 10 June 1977,” ibid.
13 Foreign Broadcast Information Service [FBIS], Daily Report: PRC, 29 December 1978,
A5.
14 Xie Yixian, ed., Zhongguo dangdai waijiao shi [History of contemporary Chinese diplo-
macy] (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 1997), 436.
15 The Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the United Nations, 14 April
2011 note to the Secretary General with reference to the Republic of the Philippines’ note
verbale dated 5 April 2011, http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/
mysvnm33_09/chn_2011_re_phl_e.pdf.
16 Pan Shiying, “The Nansha Islands: A Chinese Point of View,” Window, 3 September 1993,
25.
17 Interview with scholars at China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations, 5
July 1994.
18 Chen Jie, “China’s Spratly Policy: With Special Reference to Its Approach to the Philippines
and Malaysia,” Asian Survey 3, 10 (October 1994): 893-94; Business Times (Singapore),
29 October 1992.
19 Joint Statement RP-PRC Consultations on the South China Sea and on Other Areas of
Cooperation, 9-10 August 1995; New York Times, 5 April 1995, 8; Far Eastern Economic
Review, 6 April 1995, 14-15; South China Morning Post, 5 August 1998.
20 South China Morning Post, 6 November 1998, 7 November 1998; Yangzi wanbao, 11 June
1999, 8; Wilfrido V. Villacorta, “The Philippines Territorial Claim in the South China
Sea,” in Fishing in Troubled Waters, ed. R.D. Hill, Norman G. Owen, and E.V. Roberts
(Hong Kong: Centre for Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1991), 207-15.
21 In May 2013, the Philippines coast guard fired on an unarmed Chinese fishing trawler
operating in disputed waters, killing the captain of the boat.
22 Khadijah Muhamed and Tunku Shamsul Bahrin, “Scramble for the South China Sea:
The Malaysian Perspective,” in Hill, Owen, and Roberts, Fishing in Troubled Waters, 237.
23 China News Digest, 26 March 1995.
24 “Chinese Ships Patrol Area Contested by Malaysia,” Reuters, 26 January 2014.
25 Deng Xiaoping wenxuan [Selected works of Deng Xiaoping], 3, 49.
(Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1995), 136, 139.
27 FBIS, Daily Report: East Asia, 24 March 1988, 44-45; 25 March 1988, 51-54; FBIS, Daily
Report: China, 31 March 1988, 7-8; Knight-Ridder, 19 May 1994; New York Times, 20
May 1994, 5; South China Morning Post, 26 July 1994; China Daily, 16 November 1995,
1; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1979-1994, 4, 137.
28 “Offering to Aid Talks, U.S. Challenges China on Disputed Islands,” New York Times,
23 July 2010; “Clinton Statement on South China Sea,” http://translations.state.gov/
st/english/texttrans/2011/07/20110723125330su0.9067433.html#axzz2Ja44foKJ.
29 Japan Economic Newswire, 25 July 1993; Free China Journal, 27 August 1993, 3.
30 Quoted in Eric Hyer, “The South China Sea Disputes: Implications of China’s Earlier
Territorial Settlements,” Pacific Affairs 68, 1 (Spring 1995): 34; Japan Economic Newswire,
19 May 1993; United Press International, 14 July 1993.
31 FBIS, Daily Reports: East Asia, 13 August 1990, 36; Nayan Chanda and Tai Ming Cheung,
“Reef Knots,” Far Eastern Economic Review, 30 August 1990, 11; 4 July 1991, 19; New
Straits Times, 13 August 1990; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1979-1994, 258-60. Chinese
statements are inconsistent, alternating between “shelving the territorial dispute” (gezhi
lingtu zhengduan), “shelving the dispute over sovereignty” (gezhi zhuquan zhengyi), and
“shelving the dispute” (gezhi zhengyi).
32 United Press International, 13 May 1994; China News Digest, 22 November 1994; China
Daily, 16 November 1995, 1.
33 Japan Economic Newswire, 19 May 1993.
34 Cai Penghong, “Reflections on Joint Development of Disputed Maritime Territory,”
Strategy and Management 2 (1995): 73-82.
35 Free China Journal, 19 July 1991, 1; 2 July 1992, 2.
36 “Offering to Aid Talks, US Challenges China on Disputed Islands,” New York Times, 23
July 2010; Peter Lee, “US Goes Fishing for Trouble,” Asian Times Online, 29 July 2010,
http://www.atimes.com/.
37 “China’s Warning on Spratlys Raises Spectre of Armed Clashes,” Straits Times, 11 March
1992.
38 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone
(Beijing: Legislative Affairs Commission of the Standing Committee of the National
People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China, 1992); Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi …
1979-1994, 259-60.
39 B.A. Hamzah, “China’s Strategy,” Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 August 1992, 22.
40 “ASEAN Declaration on the South China Sea,” 22 July 1992.
41 New York Times, 18 June 1992; Free China Journal, 2 July 1992, 2; 7 July 1992, 1; United
Press International, 13 July 1993; Agence France-Presse, 19 April 1994.
42 Interview with scholars at China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations, 5
July 1994.
43 Free China Journal, 19 July 1991, 1; 13 September 1991, 1; 29 May 1992, 2; Far Eastern
Economic Review, 4 July 1991, 19.
45 United Press International, 16 May 1993; Associated Press, 15 January 1993.
46 Japan Economic Newswire, 18 January 1993. The Chinese name for the South China
Sea is Nanhai (South Sea) and only on English maps is the term “South China Sea” used.
47 New China News Agency, 16 July 1971.
48 Beijing Review, 26 September 1983, 8.
49 Chi-kin Lo, China’s Policy towards Territorial Disputes: The Case of the South China Sea
Islands (New York: Routledge, 1989), 38-39, 94.
50 Nayan Chanda, “Fear of the Dragon,” Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 April 1995, 24.
51 New York Times, 21 July 1994; South China Morning Post, 26 July 1994; China News Digest,
22 July 1994.
52 Nayan Chanda, “Territorial Imperative,” Far Eastern Economic Review, 23 February
1995, 14.
53 “Philippine Chief of Staff General Angelo Reyes Speaks Out on China” (3 December 1999),
http://asia.biz.yahoo.com.
54 Chen Jie, “China’s Spratly Policy: With Special Reference to Its Approach to the Philippines
and Malaysia,” Asian Survey 3, 10 (October 1994): 893.
55 Xisha chundao he Nansha chundao zigu yilai jiushi Zhongguo di lingtu [The Xisha and
Nansha Islands have been Chinese territory since ancient times (Beijing: Renmin chuban-
she, 1981)]; Pan Shiying, “The Nansha Islands: A Chinese Point of View,” Window (3
September 1993), 23-27; China News Digest, 22 March 1995.
56 Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1979-1994, 259; Michael Leifer, “Chinese Economic
Reform and Security Policy: The South China Sea Connection,” Survival 37, 2 (Summer
1995): 51.
57 Chen Jie, “China’s Spratly Policy,” 893.

58 The Truong Sa and Hoang Sa Archipelagoes and International Law (Hanoi: Socialist
Republic of Vietnam, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1988), 21; Leifer, “Chinese Economic
Reform and Security Policy,” 53.
59 B.A. Hamzah, The Spratlies: What Can Be Done to Enhance Confidence (Kuala Lumpur:
Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ISIS) Malaysia, 1990), 13.
61 Quoted in Joseph Chin Yong Liow, “Malaysia-China Relations in the 1990s: The Maturing
of a Partnership,” Asian Survey 40, 4 (July-August 2000): 681.
62 China News Daily, 17 December 1997; Nayan Chanda and Tai Ming Cheung, “Reef Knots,”
Far Eastern Economic Review, 30 August 1990, 11.
63 China News Digest, 28 April1994, 6 April 1995.
64 Guoxing Ji, “China versus South China Sea Security,” Security Dialogue 29, 1 (1998):
101-12.
65 Scott Snyder, “The South China Sea Dispute: Prospects for Preventive Diplomacy,” a
special report of the United States Institute of Peace (Washington, DC: United States
Institute of Peace, August 1996), 14.
66 “Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea” (4 November 2002),
http://www.asean.org/asean/external-relations/china/item/declaration-on-the-conduct
-of-parties-in-the-south-china-sea.
67 Andrew Jacobs, “China Warns US to Stay Out of Islands Dispute,” New York Times, 26
July 2010.
68 This conclusion is based on interviews with PLA officers and Foreign Ministry officials.
For details on the miscommunication with the United States and the media-driven public
controversy, see Michael D. Swaine, “China’s Assertive Behavior Part One: On ‘Core
Interests,’” China Leadership Monitor 34 (Winter 2011): 8-10.
69 Ming Yang, “Taking Advantage of China’s Peaceful Stance,” China Daily, 30 June 2012,
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/.
70 “Don’t Take Peaceful Approach for Granted,” Global Times, 25 October 2011, http://
www.globaltimes.cn/.
71 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, “Foreign Ministry Spokes
person Jiang Yu’s Regular Press Conference on October 25, 2011,” http://www.fmprc.
gov.cn/.
72 Shao Feng, “Security Strategies for China’s Maritime Domain” (13 July 2012), http://
english.caixin.com/2012-07-13/100410946_all.html.
73 Quoted in Willy Lam, “China’s Hawks in Command,” Wall Street Journal, 1 July 2012,
http://online.wsj.com/.
74 “China-Philippines Cooperation Depends on Proper Settlement of Maritime Disputes,”
Xinhuanet, 31 August 2011, http://news.xinhuanet.com/.
75 Edward Wong, “China Hedges Over Whether South China Sea Is a ‘Core Interest’ Worth
War,” New York Times, 30 March 2011.
76 “Guidelines for the Implementation of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the
South China Sea,” http://www.asean.org/4979.htm; Li Mingjiang, Chinese Debates of
the South China Sea Policy: Implication for Future Developments, RSIS Working Paper
239 (Singapore: S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological
University, 17 May 2012), 9-11, 17; Barry Wain, “A South China Sea Charade: China Con
tinues Stalling Multilateral Efforts to Resolve Territorial Disputes,” Wall Street Journal,
22 August 2011.
77 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, “Foreign Ministry

Spokesperson Liu Weimin’s Regular Press Conference on October 12, 2011,” http://
www.fmprc.gov.cn/.
78 “South China Sea Conflict,” Global Times, http://www.globaltimes.cn/SPECIAL
COVERAGE/SouthChinaSeaConflict.aspx.
79 “Declaration of the Republic of China on the Outer Limits of Its Continental Shelf” (12
May 2009), http://www.mofa.gov.tw/EnOfficial/ArticleDetail/DetailDefault/ad125edc
-048e-45de-93bc-11427232687b?arfid=7b3b4d7a-8ee7-43a9-97f8-7f3d313ad781&opno
=84ba3639-be42-4966-b873-78a267de8cf1.
80 Free China Journal, 10 September 1993, 2; 6 May 1994, 6; China News Digest, 18 April
1995.
81 China News Digest, 30 March 1995.
82 Shim Jae Hoon, “Blood Thicker than Politics: Taiwan Indicates a Military Preparedness
to Back China,” Far Eastern Economic Review, 5 May 1988, 26; “Five-Handed Poker in
the Spratlys,” The Economist, 21 May 1988, 36.
83 In February 2008, President Chen Shui-bian (Democratic Progressive Party) became the
first ROC (Taiwan) head of state to visit Taiping (Itu Aba) Island, where he announced a
Spratly Islands initiative. He visited the Pratas Islands twice while president from 2000
to 2008.
84 Straits Times, 22 July 1993, 23 July 1992; Xie, Zhongguo waijiao shi … 1979-1994, 260.
85 Francesco Sisci, “The Spratlys Pact: Beijing’s Olive Branch,” Asia Times Online, 6
November 2002, http://www.atimes.com.
86 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (24 February 1976), http://www.
asean.org/news/item/treaty-of-amity-and-cooperation-in-southeast-asia-indonesia
-24-february-1976-3.
87 “China, ASEAN Set ‘Guidelines’ on Sea Row but No Deal Expected,” Reuters, 20 July
2011, http://www.reuters.com/.
88 Allen Carlson, “Constructing the Dragon’s Scales: China’s Approach to Territorial
Sovereignty and Border Relations in the 1980s and 1990s,” Journal of Contemporary
China 12, 37 (November 2003): 697.
89 Michael G. Gallagher, “China’s Illusory Threat to the South China Sea,” International
Security 19, 1 (Summer 1994): 169-94.
90 “Five-Handed Poker in the Spratlys,” The Economist, 21 May 1988, 36; Straits Times, 22
January 1992.
91 Xinjun Zhang, “China’s ‘Peaceful Rise,’ ‘Harmonious’ Foreign Relations, and Legal
Confrontation and Lesson from the Sino-Japanese Dispute over the East China Sea,”
Foreign Policy Research Institute, Philadelphia, E-Notes, 16 April 2010, 4.
and Future (Santa Monica: RAND, 2000), 131-33.
93 Li Mingjiang, “Chinese Debates of South China Sea Policy: Implications for Future
Developments,” RSIS Working Paper 239 (17 May 2012), 25.
94 James Reilly, Strong Society, Smart State: The Rise of Public Opinion in China’s Japan
Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 8-9.
95 Michael D. Swaine, “China’s Assertive Behavior Part Three: The Role of the Military in
Foreign Policy,” China Leadership Monitor 36 (Winter 2012): 5.
96 New York Times, 11 May 2012, A12.
97 “Phl and China Seek Diplomatic Solution on Scarborough Issue,” http://news.pia.gov.ph/
index.php?article=2271335414573. In January 2013, the Philippines took the case to the
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, seeking to invalidate China’s nine-dash
line. Beijing rejected this third-party arbitration. “The Republic of the Philippines v. The
People’s Republic of China,” http://www.pca-cpa.org/showpage.asp?pag_id=1529. See
Ian Story, “Manila Ups the Ante in the South China Sea,” China Brief 13, 3 (1 February
2013); Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, “Foreign Ministry
Spokesperson Hua Chunying’s Remarks on the Philippines’ Statement on the South China
Sea” (16 July 2013), http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/; “China Refutes Philippines’ South China
Sea Accusation,” Xinhuanet, 17 July 2013, http://news.xinhuanet.com/.
98 Minghao Zhao, “The Predicaments of Chinese Power,” New York Times, 12 July 2012.
99 “Road Map toward China’s Maritime Peace,” Global Times, 27 July 2010, http://www.
globaltimes.cn/.
100 “Exploring the Path of Major-Country Diplomacy with Chinese Characteristics,” remarks
by Foreign Minister Wang Yi at the Luncheon of the Second World Peace Forum (27
June 2013), http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/zyjh_665391/t1053908.
shtml.
101 “Statement by H.E. Mr. Wang Yi, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of
China at the General Debate of the 68th Session of the United Nations General Assembly
(New York, 27 September 2013),” http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/
zyjh_665391/t1082330.shtml.
102 “China Vows to Defend ‘Every Inch of Territory,’” http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/
Special_12_2/2014-03/09/content_1846605.htm; http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/
special/2014-03/08/c_133170657.htm.
Conclusion
1 M. Taylor Fravel, “The Dangerous Math of Chinese Island Disputes,” Wall Street Journal,
29 October 2012, 15.
and Future (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2000), 131-33.
3 Suisheng Zhao, “Foreign Policy Implication of Chinese Nationalism Revisited: The
Strident Turn,” Journal of Contemporary China 22, 82 (2013): 535-53.
4 “Press Conference of the PRC State Council Information Office for Contacts between
Central Gov’t, Dalai Lama,” Xinhua, 11 February 2010, http://news.xinhuanet.com/.
5 “Chinese Surveillance Ships Enter Diaoyu Waters,” Global Times, http://www.globaltimes.
cn/.
6 M. Taylor Fravel, “International Relations Theory and China’s Rise: Assessing China’s
Potential for Territorial Expansion,” International Studies Review 12, 4 (2010):507, 526.
7 Ernest R. May, “The Nature of Foreign Policy: The Calculated versus the Axiomatic,”
Daedalus 91, 4 (Fall 1962): 653-67.
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Index
Note: “(m)” after a page number indicates a map. Page numbers enclosed in square
brackets indicate textual references for endnotes
9/11 terrorist attacks, 61, 231 Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace

64 Chinese villages, 132(m), 135 along the Line of Actual Control [LAC]
1911 revolution, 40, 162, 174 in the India-China Border (1993), 59-60
1941 Line, 69, 72, 74, 75-77, 78 aid: to Afghanistan, 122, 126; to Burma,
1960s boundary disputes and settlements: 71, 74, 79, 81, 82-83; to Central Eurasia,
Mao’s control over policies on, 265; and 223, 231; from India, 91; to India, 17; to
shift in regional balance of power and, Laos, 211; to MPR, 169-70, 175, 178; to
11, 15, 16; strategic imperatives and, 7, Nepal, 91, 93; to North Vietnam, 199;
13, 18, 263. See also names of individual to Pakistan, 118, 119; from Soviet Union,
disputes and settlements 17, 126, 199; from US, 71, 74, 79, 82-83,
1970s boundary disputes and settlements: 118, 122; to Vietnam, 199, 203
Deng’s control over policies on, 265; Aitchison’s Treaties, 39
and shift in regional balance of power Akayev, Askar, 227, 228-29
and, 11, 15, 16; strategic imperatives Aksai Chin: on Chinese maps, 33; con-
and, 7, 14, 18, 263. See also names of struction of Xinjiang-Tibet Highway in,
individual disputes and settlements 47; on Indian maps, 42; map of, 43(m);
1990s boundary disputes and settlements: negotiations about, 7, 54, 56-57, 63;
Deng’s control over policies on, 265; Sino-Nepali settlement and, 93; Sino-
and shift in regional balance of power Pakistani dispute and, 117; strategic
and, 12, 15, 16; strategic imperatives importance to China, 48, 53
and, 7, 14, 263. See also names of indi- Aktyubinsk oilfields, 223
vidual disputes and settlements Albar, Syed Hamid, 252-53
All-China Congress of Soviets, First
Abagaitu (Bolshoi) Island, 134, 146, 150 (1931), 27-28
Afghanistan: boundary dispute with alliances. See relations with neighbouring
China, 120-25; boundary settlement states, improvement of
with China, 12, 13, 125-27; map of, Amu Darya (Oxus) River, 121
122(m); relations with China, 122-24; Amur River: map of, 132(m), 147(m);
Sino-Indian dispute and, 65-66; Sino- Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute/settlement
Pakistani dispute and, 110, 113, 114; and, 131, 133-34, 135-36, 138, 143, 144,
Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute and, 133, 145, 146-47, 150, 153, 268
135, 143; Sino-Tajik dispute and, 231 Anh, Le Duc, 208
Agreement on Confidence-Building anti-hegemony clauses, 184, 194-95, 199,
Measures in the Military Field along 206, 207, 249
the Line of Actual Control (1996), 60 Archarya, Tanka Prasad, 90, 92
Index 339
Argun River, 134, 146, 150 World Knowledge Handbook and, 33.
Arunachal Pradesh, 48, 58, 63. See also See also Sino-Bhutanese boundary
North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) dispute
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), 253, 259 Bhutanese maps, 104
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 111, 115
(APEC) summit (1998), 242 Bidan Island, 158, 298n114
Assam, 53, 71 Black River, 211, 212(m)
Association of Southeast Asian Nations Blagoveshchensk, 135
(ASEAN): fears China’s potential mil- Bogra, Mohammed Ali, 108
itary action, 248, 250, 252, 261; relations Bolsheviks and Bolshevik Revolution,
with China, 246-47, 253, 261, 269; Sino- 133, 165
Vietnamese settlement and, 210; South Bolshoi (Abagaitu) Island, 134, 146, 150
China Sea disputes and, 15, 244, 249, Border Defense Cooperation Agreement
253, 256, 258, 259 (2013), 64
Atasu, 224 Border Rivers Navigation Agreement
Auezov, Murat, 234 (1951), 136
autonomy. See independence border war, Sino-Indian, 39, 55-56, 58,
267; legacy of, 60, 63, 64; other bound-
Bach Long Vi (Bailongwei; White Dragon ary disputes and, 79, 95, 101, 135, 158,
Tail) Island, 201, 210, 238 205; Sino-Afghan dispute/settlement
Badakhshan (Khorog), 230 and, 124, 126, 127; Sino-Mongolian
Baekdu (Mount Changbai; Paektu), settlement and, 173, 176-77; Sino-
155(m), 155-57, 158-59, 160 Pakistani dispute and, 106, 112, 117
Baghdad Pact (Central Treaty border war, Sino-Russian. See Zhenbao
Organization), 108, 113, 114 (Damansky) Island confrontation
Bailongwei (Bach Long Vi; White Dragon border war, Sino-Vietnamese, 18, 159, 198,
Tail) Island, 201, 210, 238 199, 204-5, 210, 267
balance of power: and China’s policy Borneo, 236, 242
toward disputes, 3, 6, 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, boundaries: China’s view of its, 10-11, 29;
18, 267; as motivation for China’s settle- as “product of histories,” 20
ments, 4, 66, 265; shift in regional, boundary disputes, China’s: approach
11-12; theories of, 5-6. See also under to, 3-4, 5-8, 10; China’s willingness to
names of individual disputes and compromise in, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 16, 22, 23,
settlements 264, 265-66; difficulty of China’s com-
Balhae (Parhae), kingdom of, 154 promising in ongoing, 270; as legacy of
Balkhash, Lake, 224 imperialism, 34-35; other studies of, 3,
Bandung Conference (1955), 12, 33, 73, 4-5. See also names of individual
106, 108 disputes
Barnett, A. Doak, 8 boundary policy, development of China’s,
Bayik, 121 30-34
Beibuwan. See Tonkin, Gulf of (Beibuwan) boundary settlements, China’s, 4, 16, 22,
Beijing University. See Peking University 35. See also names of individual
Beijing University of Aeronautics and settlements
Astronautics, 221-22 boundary treaties, China’s early, 25, 32-
Belgrade, 230 33, 34. See also under names of individ-
Bhamo, 68, 72 ual disputes; unequal treaties
Bhutan: maps of, 43(m), 98(m); relations Brezhnev, Leonid, 59, 144
with China, 97, 100, 101, 102-4; Sino- Brief History of China, 99
Indian dispute and, 40, 42, 48, 53; Sino- Britain: boundary treaties with China,
Sikkim dispute/settlement and, 94, 96; 32; Mongolia’s independence and, 164,
340 Index
165; other boundary disputes and, 89, Changbai, Mount (Paektu/Baekdu),

94-95, 97, 213, 218; Sino-Afghan dispute 155(m), 155-57, 158-59, 160
and, 120, 121-22, 125; Sino-Burmese Chen Jie, 240
dispute and, 68-69, 72, 74, 75, 79; Sino- Chen Shui-Bian, 315n83
Pakistani dispute/settlement and, 107, Chen Yi: other boundary disputes and,
108, 113, 116; Sino-Soviet/Russian dis- 92, 123, 124, 138; Sino-Indian dispute
pute and, 131, 133; support for Tibetan and, 45, 49, 54, 56
independence, 41 Chervonenko, S.V., 52
British India, 25-26, 39-40, 42, 48 Chi Haotian, 252
Brunei, 20, 236, 237(m), 243 Chiang Kai-shek, 174
buffer states: Afghanistan, 120; Bhutan, chicken’s neck, 53, 105
97, 100; Burma, 81; China’s objective China. See People’s Republic of China
in having, 264, 265, 266; Laos, 211; (PRC)
Mongolia, 161; Nepal, 84, 89, 93; Tibet China Center for Contemporary World
and Xinjiang, 221 Studies, 261
Bulganin, Nikolai, 169, 170, 175 China Daily, 254
Burma: Guomindang army’s operations China Institute for Strategy and Manage
in, 18; map of, 68(m); Sino-Indian ment, 222
dispute and, 48, 49, 52-54, 65-67; China Institutes of Contemporary Inter
Sino-Laotian dispute and, 213; Sino- national Relations, 221
Mongolian settlement and, 173; Sino- China Mainland: Taiwan (PRC-ROC)
Nepali dispute/settlement and, 86, 93; relations, 256-58. See also Taiwan
Sino-Pakistani dispute and, 111, 114, China Map Verification Committee, 240
115. See also Sino-Burmese boundary China National Offshore Oil Corporation,
dispute; Sino-Burmese boundary 257
settlement; Sino-Burmese relations China Pictorial, 47, 49, 100
Burmese Communist Party, 70-71 China studies, 4
Burmese communists, 80 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences,
Buryatia, 178 255
Chinese books: Brief History of China,
Cairo Declaration (1943), 182 99; China Pictorial, 47, 49, 100; Chinese
Cambodia: Sino-Vietnamese dispute Revolution and the Chinese Communist
and, 199, 204-5, 206, 208; South China Party, The, 28-29, 99; Republic of New
Sea disputes and, 243, 244, 251 China Atlas, 182; textbooks, 30-31;
Carlson, Allan, 4-5 World Knowledge Handbook, 33; Zhong
Caspian oilfields, 223 guo sangdi shi (History of China’s Lost
CCP Central Committee, International Territory), 26
Department of, 261 Chinese Communist Party (CCP): as
CCP Politburo Standing Committee, 9, defender of Chinese sovereignty against
13, 51 imperialism, 6; Mongolia’s independ-
Center for Strategic Studies, Beijing ence and, 166, 167; non-coercive
University of Aeronautics and Astro approach to territorial disputes, 261;
nautics, 221-22 other boundary disputes and, 107, 144,
Center for Strategic Studies (Tajikistan), 201, 303n53; on self-determination, 27,
232 28; South China Sea disputes and, 243,
Central Military Commission, 190 255; on unequal treaties, 32-33. See
Central Treaty Organization (CENTO; also Renmin Ribao (People’s Daily)
Baghdad Pact), 108, 113, 114 Chinese Eastern Railway, 133
Ch’onji (Tianchi), Lake, 155-57, 159 Chinese Federation, 27, 28, 166
Index 341
Chinese maps: Chinese people’s view communists from other countries, 41, 52,
of, 31; as idealized depiction, 27; other 54, 80, 91, 174, 198
boundary disputes and, 87-88, 96, 110- Confederation of Himalayan States, 101
11, 146, 172; Sino-Afghan dispute and, Conference on the Question of Ideological
121, 125; Sino-Bhutanese dispute and, Work (1963), 177
99, 100, 101, 102, 104; Sino-Burmese core interest, South China Sea as, 254,
dispute and, 69, 70, 72-73, 74; Sino- 255-56
Eurasian disputes and, 219, 227, 230; Council on Mutual Economic Assistance
Sino-Indian dispute and, 33, 47, 49, 50, (COMECON), 171, 203
62; Sino-Korean dispute and, 156, 158, Crimea, 160
159; South China Sea disputes and, 240, Cuban Missile Crisis, 176
241(m) Cultural Revolution, 138, 267
Chinese military, power of, 244. See also Czarist Russia: Sino-Eurasian disputes
People’s Liberation Army (PLA) and, 218, 224-25, 229, 230; Sino-
Chinese Nationalists: Sino-Burmese dis- Mongolian dispute/settlement and, 161,
pute and, 69-70, 71, 72, 77, 79, 283n10; 164, 178; Sino-Pakistani dispute and,
Sino-Mongolian dispute and, 176; Sino- 107; Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute and,
Vietnamese dispute, 198 131-33, 135, 138, 140, 142, 147, 152. See
Chinese people: number living in Kazakh also Russia; Soviet Union
stan, 219; and vision of China’s bound-
aries, 23, 25, 152, 251, 264 Dagong bao, 231
Chinese People’s Institute of Foreign Dalai Lama, Fourteenth, 40, 44, 61, 94,
Affairs Second World Peace Forum 99, 102
(2013), 262 Dalai Lama, Sixth, 49
Chinese People’s Political Consultative Damansky Island. See Zhenbao
Conference (1957), 108 (Damansky) Island confrontation
Chinese Petroleum Corporation, 257 Dandong, 157, 158
Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Daoud Khan, Mohammed, 123, 127
Communist Party, The, 28-29, 99 Darjeeling, 40
Chinggis Khan, 170-71 Dawa Tsering, 102
Chosen ilbo (South Korean newspaper), Dawn (Pakistani newspaper), 110-11, 114
160 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in
Choybalsan (Mongolian leader), 165, 169 the South China Sea (DOC; 2002), 15,
Chuguchak Protocol (Protocol of 253, 255, 258, 267; guidelines for imple-
Tarbagatai; 1864), 131-32, 224 mentation of, 256, 258, 259
Chumbi Valley: map of, 98(m); Sino- Declaration of Principles for Relations
Bhutanese dispute and, 97, 99, 100, 103- and Comprehensive Cooperation (2003),
4, 105; Sino-Indian dispute and, 53, 54; 61, 96
Sino-Sikkim dispute and, 96 Declaration on the South China Sea
Chung, Chien-Peng, 5 (1992), 248, 250, 258
Chunxiao oil and gas fields, 193 Democratic Party of Japan, 193
Clinton, Hillary, 244, 247 Democratic Progressive Party (Taiwan),
Cold War: Sino-Eurasian disputes and, 257, 315n83
220; South China Sea disputes and, Deng Xiaoping: control over foreign
243-44, 251, 260; strategic imperatives policy, 8, 265; Sino-Indian dispute and,
and, 14, 16, 17. See also Soviet Union 52, 56-57, 58-59, 61; Sino-Japanese dis-
colonialism. See imperialism pute and, 183, 184, 186, 187, 190, 191-
Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 92, 195, 196, 270; Sino-Mongolian
171 settlement and, 178; Sino-Sikkim
342 Index
dispute and, 96; Sino-Soviet/Russian Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence:

dispute and, 135, 144, 146-47, 151, 152, definition of, 44; Sino-Burmese dispute/
153; Sino-Vietnamese dispute and, 204, settlement and, 67, 73, 74, 80; Sino-
205; South China Sea disputes and, Indian dispute and, 44, 50; Sino-Nepali
243, 246, 254, 255, 270 dispute and, 86; Sino-Soviet/Russian
Desai, Morarji, 56 dispute and, 143; Sino-Vietnamese dis-
Dixit, J.N., 43-44 pute and, 206, 207
Do Muoi, 208, 209 foreign policy, China’s: boundary settle-
Dokdo (Takeshima) islets dispute, 188 ments as elucidating, 4; calculated vs
domestic politics: China’s, 5, 8, 9, 265; axiomatic, 270-71; defensive vs offensive
India’s, 52, 58, 64. See also protests; realism and, 11; historical legacy as
public opinion influencing, 21, 23; impact of inter-
Dong Jiandao (Kando), 156 national system on, 6, 23; moral basis
Dongsha Islands. See Pratas Islands of, 5; as oligarchical, 8-9; as response to
(Dongsha) shifting balance of power, 7; “strident
turn” in, 269-70; structural realist
East China Sea, 194, 195, 264 explanations of, 10. See also strategic
East India Company, 97 imperatives
East Pakistan, 118 France: Sino-Burmese dispute and, 68;
Eastern Turkistan. See Xinjiang Sino-Laotian dispute/settlement and,
economic imperatives: Sino-Eurasian 211, 213; Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute
disputes/settlements and, 19-20, 222- and, 131; Sino-Vietnamese dispute
24, 227, 234-35; South China Sea dis- and, 197, 198, 199-201
putes and, 251, 252, 253, 257, 258, 260, Fraser-Tytler, W.K., 121
261, 270 Fravel, M. Taylor, 5
enemy, definition of, 41 Freedomland (Kalayaan) Islands, 236,
energy. See gas; oil 240, 248
English maps, 313n46 friendship associations, Sino-Japanese,
Estrada, Joseph, 242 186, 187
ethnic unrest, 5, 234 Friendship Treaty (2007), 98
Eurasia, 218(m). See also Sino-Eurasian Fu Hao, 186, 189
boundary disputes; Sino-Eurasian Fu Quanyou, 60, 227
boundary settlements; Sino-Eurasian Fukuda, Takeo, 184
relations
Everest, Mount (Jolmo Lungma; Sagar Gandhi, Indira, 56, 57, 58
Matha), 85(m), 86, 87-88, 89, 91, 112 Gandhi, Rajiv, 58, 59, 61
exclusive economic zone (EEZ), 239, 242 gas, 193, 196, 223-24, 238, 248
Gawlum (one of three villages in Kachin),
Fairbank, John K., 23 68(m), 72, 75-76, 77, 78-79
Far Eastern Economic Review, 170 Geneva agreement on Laos (1962), 211-12
Federation Council International Affairs Geneva Conference (1954), 198
Committee (Russia), 148 Geng Biao, 186-87, 190, 191
Fernandes, George, 60-61, 65 Gilgit, 106, 110
First Opium War, 22, 32, 131 Giri, Tulsi, 89
fishing boats: Sino-Japanese dispute and, Global Times, 9, 193-94, 254-55, 261-62
184, 186-88, 189-92, 194, 267; Sino- Goa, 137
Vietnamese dispute and, 210; South Goncharov, Sergei N., 149, 296n78
China Sea disputes and, 238, 242, 243, Gorbachev, Mikhail: other boundary
312n20 disputes/settlements and, 59, 178, 243;
Index 343
Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute/settlement Ho Ping-Ti, 25, 30

and, 14, 144-45, 146, 149, 152 Hong Kong, 137, 191, 220, 273n31
Gorno-Badakhshan, 223, 230 Hpimaw (one of three villages in Kachin),
Gotho Island, 201 68(m), 72, 75-76, 77, 78-79
Great Britain. See Britain Hu Jintao, 150, 196
Great Game, 120, 121, 218, 234 Hu Yaobang, 243
Great Khural (Mongolian national Hua Guofeng, 57, 186
assembly), 177 Huang Hua, 57-58, 144, 252
Great Leap Forward, 18, 79-80, 139 Huangyen Dao (Scarborough Shoal), 242,
Great Wall of China, 139, 154 261, 315n97
Gromyko, Andrei, 144-45 Hungary, 90, 108
Guidelines for the Implementation of the Hunza, 107, 110, 112
Declaration on the Conduct of Parties Hwanggumpyong Island (Huangjinping
in the South China Sea (2011), 256, Dao), 158, 298n114
258, 259
Gujral, Inder Kumar, 61, 96 ideology, China’s, 6, 8
Guonei, 154 Ikeda, Hayato, 180
Gurkhas, 85 Ili, 131-32
imperialism: boundary disputes as legacy
Hainan Island, 20, 210, 236, 237(m) of, 34-35; CCP as defender of Chinese
Hamzah, B.A., 248, 252 sovereignty against, 6; China as victim
Han Dynasty, 120, 217 of, 12, 22, 29; Mongolia’s independence
Han Nianlong, 187, 191, 207 and, 162, 168, 177; other boundary dis-
Hantenggeli (Khan Tengri) Peak, 226, 228 putes and, 70, 137, 192; Sino-Indian
hegemony, China’s, 22, 251, 252, 264. dispute and, 41, 46, 49, 51, 55; Sino-
See also anti-hegemony clauses; imper- Vietnamese dispute and, 199, 203;
ialism; irredentism, fears of China’s South China Sea disputes and, 239, 261;
potential South Korea’s view of China’s, 298n126.
Heixiazi (Ussuriysky) Island, 134, 146-48, See also irredentism; unequal treaties
147(m), 150, 266 independence: Burma’s, 69, 70; China’s
High Conical Peak, 68(m), 72 constitution on, 29-30; Mao on neigh-
highways, 83, 92, 93, 117, 223. See also bouring states’ desire for, 28; Mongolia’s,
roads; Xinjiang-Tibet Highway 30-31, 161-65, 166-69, 174, 176, 177,
Himalayan states, 39, 40 299n8; Tibet’s, 41, 90, 102, 221;
Himalayas, 52, 55, 63, 85, 85(m), 97 Xinjiang’s, 221
Hindu Kush Mountains, 120 India: maps of, 43(m), 85(m), 98(m); and
historical claims, China’s, 4, 8, 12 shift in regional balance of power, 11;
historical customary boundaries: China’s Sino-Afghan dispute/settlement and,
view of its boundaries as, 10; China’s 123-24, 126-27; Sino-Bhutanese dispute
willingness to negotiate treaties based and, 97-98, 99-102, 103, 104-5, 287n55;
on, 31, 235; imperialism and, 34; other Sino-Burmese dispute and, 73, 74, 78-79,
boundary disputes and, 49, 95, 100, 80, 81, 82, 84, 287n55; Sino-Mongolian
153, 240; Sino-Nepali dispute and, 85, dispute/settlement and, 173, 175; Sino-
87, 93; Sino-Vietnamese dispute and, Nepali dispute/settlement and, 84, 86,
202, 209. See also McMahon Line 89-93; Sino-Pakistani dispute/settlement
historical legacy, China’s, 22-35, 264, 265 and, 106, 107, 108, 109-18, 119, 290n31;
history books. See Chinese books Sino-Sikkim boundary dispute and, 94,
History of China’s Lost Territory (Zhong 95-96; Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute/
guo sangdi shi), 26 settlement and, 135, 137, 139, 150, 153;
344 Index
Sino-Vietnamese dispute and, 197; as Islamabad-Kashgar-Bishkek-Almaty

threat to China, 12. See also Sino- Highway, 223
Indian boundary dispute; Sino-Indian islands: in Sino-Korean dispute, 156,
relations 157-58; in Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute/
Indian Communist Party, 52 settlement, 133-34, 135-36, 143, 147,
Indian communists, 41, 54 148, 150, 151; in Sino-Vietnamese
Indian maps, 42, 287n55 dispute, 201; in South China Sea dis-
Indian National Congress, 58 putes, 239, 268. See also names of indi-
Indian Ocean, 117 vidual islands
Indian Parliament, 55 Itu Aba Island (Taiping Dao), 236, 240,
Indo-Pakistani War (1965), 95 256, 315n83
Indochina, 68, 197, 198, 206, 211, 244
Indonesia, 79, 247 James Shoal (Zengmu Ansha), 236, 242-43
Inner Mongolia: China’s desire to help Jammu, 39, 48
establish an autonomous state in, 28; Japan: conquest of Manchuria by, 28;
China’s desire for unification with, 31, map of, 181(m); Sino-Burmese dispute/
168; Outer Mongolia and, 166, 170; settlement and, 69, 79; Sino-Eurasian
Sino-Mongolian dispute/settlement disputes and, 223; Sino-Korean dispute/
and, 164, 171, 178-79. See also Mongolia; settlement and, 155-56, 160; Sino-
Mongolian People’s Republic (MPR); Mongolian dispute/settlement and,
Outer Mongolia; Sino-Mongolian 171, 178; Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute/
boundary dispute; Sino-Mongolian settlement and, 138, 139, 146-47, 148;
boundary settlement; Sino-Mongolian Sino-Vietnamese dispute and, 199, 204;
relations South China Sea disputes and, 236,
Institute of the Far East, 296n78 240, 246, 247, 249, 260. See also Sino-
international law: China’s acceptance of, Japanese relations; Sino-Japanese
265; Sino-Kyrgyz settlement and, 228; Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands dispute
Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute and, 145; Japan, Sea of, 131, 133, 147
Sino-Vietnamese dispute and, 206, Japan Socialist Party, 138, 180
209; South China Sea disputes and, Japan’s Diet, 189, 194
242, 248, 253, 260, 262 Japanese Maritime Safety Agency, 195
international relations, 4, 8 Jargalsaihen (Mongolian ambassador),
international system, 6, 7, 8, 23, 30 170
International Tribunal for the Law of the Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu (Living Buddha
Sea, [261n97], 315n97 of Urga), 161-65
Irrawaddy River, 68(m), 69 Jelepla Pass, 95
Irrawaddy Valley, 78 Ji Pengfei, 157, 158
irredentism: China’s grievances concern- Jiang Zemin: other boundary disputes
ing, 192; China’s potential pursuance and, 96, 195, 208-9; Sino-Eurasian
of, 267; Eurasian states, 20, 217, 219, disputes/settlements and, 219, 226, 227,
234-35; fears of China’s potential, 12, 228, 231, 232; Sino-Indian dispute and,
27, 33, 260; Mongolia, 136, 161, 167, 60, 61; Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute and,
174, 175, 178-79, 266; South Korea, 160, 146, 148; South China Sea disputes and,
298n126; Soviet Union/Russia, 134, 136, 242, 246
138, 143, 151-52, 161, 167 Jigme Dorji (Bhutanese prime minister),
Iselin Commission, 69, 72, 77 98, 100, 101
Iselin Line. See 1941 Line Jigme Dorji Wangchuk, King, 99, 100, 101
Ishaev, Viktor, 148 Jigme Singye Wangchuk, King, 102
Ishihara, Shintaro, 193 Jilin, 158
Index 345
joint defence agreements. See military Khabarovsk, 144, 146, 148, 149, 151, 268
alliances Khalkhin-Gol (Nomonhan), 178
joint development of resources: Sino- Khan, Mohammed Ayub, 109-11, 113-14,
Korean settlement and, [158n114], 115, 116, 117, 118, 126
298n114; in South China Sea, 243, 244, Khan Tengri (Hantenggeli) Peak, 226,
245-48, 250, 251, 253, 254, 255, 257, 228
259-60, 261-62, 270 Khasanski, 150
Jolmo Lungma, Mount. See Everest, Khorog (Badakhshan), 230
Mount (Jolmo Lungma; Sagar Matha) Khorog-Karakoram Highway, 223
Khrushchev, Nikita, 45, 136, 137-38, 158,
K-2, 112 168-69, 170-71
Kabul Times, 124 Khunjerab Pass, 117
Kachin, 68, 71, 72, 75-76, 77 Kim Il-sung, 157, 158-59
Kalayaan (Freedomland) Islands, 236, Kishi, Nobusuke, 180
240, 248 Kissinger, Henry, 20
Kalimpong trade route, 96 Koguryo, 154, 160
Kando (Dong Jiandao), 156 Koirala, B.P., 86-88, 89, 90, 91, 92
Kangfang (one of three villages in Kolkata, 96
Kachin), 68(m), 72, 75-76, 77, 78-79 Kore Pass, 88
Kangxi, Emperor, 155 Korea, 33, 70, 107-8, 236. See also North
Kapitsa, Mikhail, 145 Korea; Sino-Korean boundary dispute;
Karakhan Manifestos (1919 and 1920), Sino-Korean boundary settlement;
133, 134 Sino-Korean relations; South Korea
Karakoram Highway, 117 Kosovo, 230
Karakoram Mountains: map of, 110(m); Kosygin, Alexei, 141, 143
Sino-Afghan dispute and, 120; Sino- Kovalev, Ivan V., 166
Indian dispute and, 42, 52; Sino- Kozyrev, Andrey, 149
Pakistani dispute and, 107, 110, 112, 119 Krishna Menon, V.K., 41, 53, 54-55
Karakoram Pass, 48, 110, 110(m) Kulma Pass, 230
Karazak Pass, 229 Kuril Islands (Northern Territories), 146,
Kashgar, 120, 133, 230 188
Kashmir: maps of, 43(m), 110(m); Sino- Kyrgyzstan, 134, 218(m), 222, 231; dispute/
Afghan settlement and, 125; Sino- settlement with China, 217, 219, 227-29,
Indian boundary dispute and, 39, 42, 48, 233; relations with China, 227, 228
57; Sino-Pakistani dispute/settlement
and, 106, 107, 108, 110-12, 113-14, 115, Ladakh, 39, 40, 42, 48, 64, 106
117, 118, 119, 290n31 Lao People’s Democratic Government,
Kathmandu trade route, 97 212
Kathmandu-Tibet Highway, 92 Laos, 19, 211-14, 212(m)
Kaul, B.M., 55 Lavrov, Sergei, 151
Kautiliya (Indian political scientist), 41 Law of the People’s Republic of China on
Kazakhstan: dispute/settlement with the Territorial Sea and Contiguous
China, 217, 219, 226-27, 235; map of, Zone (1992), 247
218(m); relations with China, 227, 232- law of the sea. See United Nations Conven
33; resource development in, 223-24; tion on the Law of Sea (UNCLOS)
Sino-Kyrgyz settlement and, 228; Sino- Le Cong Phung, 209
Soviet/Russian dispute and, 134; Sino- Le Duan, 249
Tajik dispute and, 230, 231; trade with Le Kha Pieu, 209
China, 222 Le Yucheng, 270
346 Index
Lee Kuan Yew, 27 disputes, 20, 236, 242-43; map of,

Leninabadskaya Pravda (Tajik news- 237(m); and resource development in
paper), 233 South China Sea, 254, 259
Lhasa trade routes, 96-97 Malaysian Institute of Maritime Affairs,
Li Jijun, 25, 32 252
Li Keqiang, 64 Malaysian Institute of Strategic and
Li Peng: other boundary disputes and, 59, International Studies, 248
144, 209, 213; Sino-Eurasian disputes Manchu Dynasty. See Qing Dynasty
and, 218-19, 226, 227; South China Sea Manchuria, 28, 146, 154, 156, 171
disputes and, 245, 252, 260 Manila Treaty. See Southeast Asian
Li Xiannian, 202, 203, 239 Treaty Organization (SEATO)
Li Zhaoxing, 104 Manzhouli, 135
Liao Chengzhi, 187, 191 Mao Zedong, 6, 7, 10, 23, 33; control over
Liaoning, 158 foreign policy, 8, 265; desire for Chi
Liberal Democratic Party, Japan (LDP), nese historical unity, 27, 28, 165-66;
184 Mongolia’s independence and, 30-31,
Liberation Army Daily (Jiefangjun bao), 161, 167, 168-69, 174, 176, 177; other
261 boundary disputes and, 158, 201, 238;
Liu Shaoqi: Mongolia’s independence Sino-Burmese dispute and, 70, 82; Sino-
and, 166-67, 169; other boundary dis- Indian dispute and, 46, 55, 56; Sino-
putes and, 13, 70, 127; Sino-Mongolian Japanese dispute and, 180, 185, 186,
settlement and, 173-74; Sino-Nepali 188; Sino-Nepali dispute and, 87, 88, 91;
settlement and, 89, 93; Sino-Pakistani Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute/settlement
dispute and, 114, 118; Sino-Soviet/ and, 134, 136, 138, 143, 151
Russian dispute and, 136, 138 maps: Bhutanese, 104; English, 313n46;
Living Buddha of Urga (Jebtsundamba Indian, 42, 287n55; joint, 146, 158, 227,
Khutukhtu), 161-65 230; Mongolian, 171-72; Nepalese, 87-
“lost” territory: China’s position on, 26, 88; Soviet, 46. See also Chinese maps
31, 33, 264; Chinese textbooks describ- Marcos, Ferdinand, 249
ing, 30; communists’ hypersensitivity May, Ernest R., 270
about, 25; map of, 24(m); other bound- McMahon, Sir Henry, 40
ary disputes/settlements and, 155, 176, McMahon Line: Sino-Bhutanese dispute
224-25; Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute/ and, 102; Sino-Burmese dispute and,
settlement and, 136, 148, 152 75-76, 77, 78, 82; Sino-Indian dispute
Louisa Reef (Nantong Jiao), 236, 243 and, 40, 42, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55-56,
Lufang mines, 79 57, 58; Sino-Nepali dispute and, 93;
Luzon Island, 242 Sino-Pakistani dispute and, 110-11, 112
Luzon Strait, 236 Mearsheimer, John, 11
media: China Daily, 254; Dagong bao,
Macao, 137, 273n31 231; foreign, 75, 110-11, 114, 138, 160,
Macclesfield Bank (Zhongsha) and 168-69, 174, 229-30, 233; Global Times,
islands therein, 236, 237(m), 242, 247 9, 193-94, 254-55, 261-62; Liberation
Mahathir Mohamad, 245 Army Daily (Jiefangjun bao), 261; public
Mahendra, King, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92-93 opinion, foreign policy, and, 9; Sino-
Maintenance of Peace and Tranquility Japanese dispute and, 185, 191-92;
Along the Sino-Bhutanese Border Area Strategy and Management, 222;
(1998), 103 Wenhui bao, 220; Xinhua, 220, 222,
Malacca, Strait of, 236 255; Xinwanbao, 191; Zhongguo
Malaysia: China’s response to dispute huabao, 156. See also Renmin Ribao
with, 249; claims in South China Sea (People’s Daily)
Index 347
Meiji Jiao (Mischief Reef), 242, 250, 251, Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party
253 (MPRP), 170, 177, 178
Menon, Shivshankar, 65 mountains. See names of individual
Middle East, 221 mountains
Mikoyan, Anastas, 166, 169 Mustang, 88, 91
militarism, Japanese, 180-81, 184-85 Myanmar. See Burma
military, power of Chinese, 244. See also Myitkyina, 68(m), 69, 72, 74
People’s Liberation Army (PLA)
military alliances: Laos’s lack of, 211; in Namwan Assigned Tract, 53, 68(m), 72,
South China Sea, 244, 256; Soviet- 75-77, 78
MPR, 175, 178; US-Japanese, 180, 181; Namwan River, 72
US-Pakistani, 106, 109, 113, 114, 115, Nanhai. See South China Sea
123, 124; Vietnamese, 198, 206. See Nansha Islands. See Spratly Islands
also aid (Nansha)
military confrontations, 95-96. See also Nantong Jiao (Louisa Reef), 236, 243
under names of individual disputes Narayanan, K.R., 61
Military Secrets, 245 Nathu La Pass, 61, 95, 96
Ming Dynasty, 120, 198 Nation (Burmese newspaper), 75
Minutes from the Meeting Resolving National Congress, 27
Issues along the Contiguous Boundary National People’s Congress: Sino-
(1955), 156-57 Burmese settlement and, 76, 77, 80;
Mischief Reef (Meiji Jiao), 242, 250, 251, Sino-Indian dispute and, 49, 51; Sino-
253 Japanese dispute and, 187, 195; Sino-
Mohammed Zahir Shah, King, 125, 127 Pakistani dispute and, 106; Sino-Soviet/
Mongol Empire, 26 Russian settlement and, 148; South
Mongolia: China’s desire for unification China Sea disputes and, 245, 247, 262
with, 27; China’s recognition of in- nationalism, 9, 170, 179, 196, 269-70
dependence of, 299n8; map of, 172(m); Nationalist Party (Taiwan), 257
Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute and, 133, nationalization of Senkaku/Diaoyu
135, 138, 146; transition to democracy, Islands, 193, 196
178-79. See also Inner Mongolia; NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organiza
Mongolian People’s Republic (MPR); tion), 19, 217, 218, 221, 230
Outer Mongolia; Sino-Mongolian NATO Partnership for Peace, 220
boundary dispute; Sino-Mongolian natural resources. See gas; joint develop-
boundary settlement; Sino-Mongolian ment of resources; oil; resources
relations Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 232-33
Mongolian Communist Party, 174 Nazdratenko, Evgenii, 148
Mongolian maps, 171-72 Ne Win, 77-78
Mongolian People’s Republic (MPR): negotiations, 10. See also under names of
China’s desire for unification with, 136; individual disputes
constitution of, 175; establishment of, Nehru, Jawaharlal: on China, 44; com-
165; Mao’s recognition of independence munications with Zhou, 46-47, 49-53,
of, 30-31; Sino-Korean dispute and, 54; desire to discuss Sino-Indian dis-
[158n114], 298n114; Sino-Pakistani dispute, 43; on India’s boundaries, 42, 45;
pute and, 114; Sino-Soviet/Russian dis- other boundary disputes/settlements
pute and, 133, 138, 152. See also Inner and, 90, 95, 113, 127; Sino-Bhutanese
Mongolia; Mongolia; Outer Mongolia; dispute and, 99, 100-1; Sino-Indian
Sino-Mongolian boundary dispute; border war and, 55, 56; support for
Sino-Mongolian boundary settle Tibetan independence, 41
ment; Sino-Mongolian relations Nehru, R.K., 54
348 Index
neighbouring states. See irredentism, Northern Territories (Kuril Islands), 146,

fears of China’s potential; names of 188
individual; relations with neighbouring
states, improvement of October Revolution, 164
Nepal: maps of, 43(m), 85(m); other oil: in Chunxiao, 193; Sino-Eurasian dis-
boundary disputes/settlements and, putes and, 221, 223-24; Sino-Japanese
94-95, 101, 173; relations with China, dispute and, 181-82, 183, 185, 193, 195;
86, 89-90, 91-93; Sino-Indian dispute South China Sea disputes and, 238, 248,
and, 42, 46, 48, 65-66; Sino-Pakistani 254, 257, 270
dispute/settlement and, 112, 114, 115; Okinawa, 181, 182-83
as site of Tibetan resistance, 18. See “one hundred years of humiliation,” 22,
also Sino-Nepali boundary dispute; 23, 55
Sino-Nepali boundary settlement Opium Wars, 22, 32, 131
Nepal-Tibet treaty (1856), 85, 86 Ouan-Chan (Tch’a Kou; Tra-co) Island,
Nepalese Communist Party, 91 201
Nepalese maps, 87-88 Outer Mongolia: China’s desire for unifi-
Nepali Congress Party, 90 cation with, 28, 136, 165-67; declaration
neutrality. See non-aligned policies of independence by, 161-65; Sino-Russian
Nixon, Richard, 183, 199 discussions on status of, 164, 166-67,
Noktun-do (island), 295n70 168-69; Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute
Nomonhan (Khalkhin-Gol), 178 and, 133. See also Inner Mongolia;
non-aggression treaties, 79, 81-83, 115, Mongolia; Mongolian People’s Republic
122, 124 (MPR); Sino-Mongolian boundary dis-
Non-Aligned Movement, 113 pute; Sino-Mongolian boundary settle-
Non-Aligned Movement conference. See ment; Sino-Monoglian relations
Bandung Conference (1955) Oxus (Amu Darya) River, 121
non-aligned policies: Afghanistan’s, 123-
24, 127; Burma’s, 70, 80, 81, 90; China’s, Pacific Ocean, 194
119; Laos’s, 211-12; Mongolia’s, 171, 176, “package deals”: Sino-Bhutanese dispute,
266; Nepal’s, 89-90, 91, 94; Pakistan’s, 103-4; Sino-Burmese dispute, 74-78;
117; Soviet Union’s, 45 Sino-Indian boundary dispute, 57, 58,
Norodom Sihanouk, Prince, 13 61, 63, 65
North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Paektu (Mount Changbai; Baekdu),
See NATO (North Atlantic Treaty 155(m), 155-57, 158-59, 160
Organization) Pakhtunistan, 123
North East Frontier Agency (NEFA): map Pakistan: maps of, 110(m), 122(m); Sino-
of, 43(m); Sino-Indian dispute and, 48, Afghan dispute and, 123, 124, 126;
49, 53, 55, 58, 63; Sino-Pakistani dispute Sino-Indian dispute and, 53, 56, 57, 64,
and, 118 65-66; Sino-Mongolian settlement and,
North Korea, 147, 148, 155(m), 182, 173; Sino-Nepali settlement and, 93.
298n126. See also Korea; Sino-Korean See also Sino-Pakistani boundary
boundary dispute; Sino-Korean bound- dispute; Sino-Pakistani boundary
ary settlement; Sino-Korean relations; settlement; Sino-Pakistani relations
South Korea Pamir Mountains: maps of, 122(m),
North Vietnam, 197, 198-99, 238. See 218(m); Sino-Afghan dispute and, 120,
also Paracel Islands (Xisha); Sino- 121, 125; Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute
Vietnamese boundary dispute; Sino- and, 132-33, 134, 135, 144, 153; Sino-
Vietnamese boundary settlement; Tajik dispute and, 217, 225, 229, 230,
Sino-Vietnamese relations; Spratly 231
Islands (Nansha); Vietnam Pan Zili, 46
Index 349
Panghung and Panglao tribes, 77, 78 Podoprigora, Vladimir, 148

Panikkar, K.M., 41, 43 Polhane (Tibetan ruler), 99
Paracel Islands (Xisha): as administrative Politburo Standing Committee, CCP, 9,
centre, 246; map of, 237(m); military 13, 51
movements and confrontations in, Political Parameters and Guiding Prin
206, 238, 243, 245, 257, 267; resource ciples for the Settlement of the India-
development and, 253, 260; vs Spratly China Boundary Questions (2005), 63
Islands dispute, 20, 236; territorial Portugal, 137
claims to, 239, 240, 247, 249, 251 power. See balance of power
Parhae (Balhae), kingdom of, 154 Pratas Islands (Dongsha): China’s claim
Parigas, 48 to, 247; map of, 237(m); Sino-Filipino
Paris Peace Accords (1973), 199 dispute over, 242; Taiwan and, 236,
Paro, 96 242, 256, 257, 315n83
patriotism, 26. See also nationalism Pravda (Soviet newspaper), 138, 168-69
peace and friendship treaties, 87, 92. See Prescott, J.R.V., 122
also Treaty of Peace and Friendship press. See media
(1978) Primoria, 148
Peking Review, 191-92 Primorskii Krai, 150
Peking University, 256 Principled Consensus on the East China
Peng Zhen, 157 Sea Issue (2008), 193
People’s Daily. See Renmin Ribao (People’s prisoner’s dilemma, 260, 270
Daily) protests: over Sino-Eurasian settlements,
People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 9, 222, 226-27, 228-29; over Sino-Indian dis-
227, 254, 261, 298n123. See also names pute, 46; over Sino-Japanese dispute,
of individual border wars; references to 192-93, 195, 303n53; over Sino-Nepali
military confrontations under individ- dispute, 88, 91. See also public opinion
ual disputes Protocol on the Sino-Russian Boundary
People’s Liberation Army Academy of (1884), 133
Military Sciences, 25 Protocol of Tarbagatai (Chuguchak; 1864),
People’s Republic of China (PRC): con 131-32, 224
stitution of, 29-30; development of public opinion: influence on foreign
boundary policy by, 30-34; historical policy, 8, 9-10, 260-61; on Sino-Eurasian
legacy received by, 22-35, 264, 265; map settlements, 232, 233, 235; on Sino-
of, 2(m); publications of, 125, 245 (see Indian dispute, 45, 47, 54, 65; on Sino-
also Chinese books); Taiwan (PRC- Japanese dispute, 185, 192-93, 196; on
ROC) relations, 256-58; on unequal Sino-Soviet/Russian settlement, 148-50,
treaties, 10, 32-34. See also names of 151. See also protests
individual disputes and settlements Putin, Vladimir, 150
Perpetual Peace and Friendship Agree Pyongyang, 154
ment (1949), 97-98, 101
Pham Van Dong, 202, 239 Qian Qichen, 60, 195, 208, 252, 253
Phan Van Khai, 210 Qianlong, Emperor, 120
Philippines: China’s sidestepping of dis- Qiao Shi, 245
pute with, 12, 14; claims in South China Qin Jiwei, 179
Sea disputes, 20, 236; map of, 237(m); Qing Dynasty: boundary treaties in,
military movements and confrontations 32; Chinese world order based on
involving, 240, 242, 245, 248-49, 250, geographical realm of, 23, 25-27, 28;
251, 261, 312n20, 315n97; South China Mongolia’s independence and, 161-62,
Sea disputes, US, and, 244, 256, 259 164, 174; other boundary disputes and,
Phomvihane Kaysone, 213 85, 95, 99, 107, 120-21; Sino-Burmese
350 Index
dispute and, 68-69, 72, 74, 79; Sino- Rozov, Valery, 149
Korean dispute and, 155-56, 295n70; Russia: maps of, 132(m), 147(m), 172(m);
Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute and, 131, other boundary disputes and, 64, 188,
133, 135, 139, 140; Sino-Vietnamese 301n56; Sino-Afghan dispute and,
dispute and, 198, 199, 201 120-21, 125; Sino-Eurasian disputes
Qingdao, 186 and, 218-19, 220-21, 223-24, 225, 231,
Quemoy-Matsu crisis, 170 232, 233, 234-35; Sino-Korean settle-
Question of National Minorities (1931), ment and, 154, 159, 160, 298n126;
27-28 South China Sea disputes and, 244,
247-48. See also Czarist Russia; Sino-
Rakhmanin, Oleg B., 145 Soviet/Russian boundary dispute; Sino-
Rakhmanov, Emomali, 229-30 Soviet/Russian boundary settlement;
Ramos, Fidel, 242, 248 Sino-Soviet/Russian relations; Soviet
Rana family, 86 Union
Rangoon to Mandalay Highway, 83 Ryukyu Islands, 181-82
Rao, P.V. Narasimha, 59-60 Ryzhkov, Nikolay, 146
Reagan, Ronald, 144
relations with neighbouring states, Sagar Matha. See Everest, Mount (Jolmo
improvement of: China’s desire for, Lungma; Sagar Matha)
16, 73, 119; as motivation for China’s Salween Valley, 78
boundary settlements, 7, 13, 17, 23 San Francisco Peace Conference (1951),
Renmin Ribao (People’s Daily): as CCP’s 71, 107
official newspaper, 9; on China’s “lost” San Francisco Peace Treaty (1951), 182
territory, 26, 30; on other boundary Sansha, 246
disputes/settlements, 176, 205, 226, Sarawak, 243
239; on Sino-Afghan non-aggression Sato, Eisaku, 181
treaty/settlement, 124; on Sino- Sato, Shoji, 187, 191
Burmese non-aggression treaty/ Scarborough Shoal (Huangyen Dao), 242,
settlement, 67, 75, 80, 81; on Sino- 261, 315n97
Japanese dispute, 181, 185, 191, 194; secession. See independence
on Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute/settle- Second Opium War, 131
ment, 137, 153; on unequal treaties, 33 Second World Peace Forum, Chinese
Report of the CCP Central Committee People’s Institute of Foreign Affairs
Delegation (1949), 167 (2013), 262
Report on the Work of the Government Second World War, 184, 192, 240
(1959), 46 security: Mao’s approach to, 11; as
Republic of China (ROC). See Taiwan motivation for China’s boundary settle-
Republic of New China Atlas, 182 ments, 4, 13, 16-17, 18, 19-20, 22, 23, 66,
resources: Sino-Eurasian disputes/ 265, 266; territorial integrity of China
settlements and, 218, 235; South China as key to, 26. See also under names of
Sea disputes and, 15, 238, 240, 243, 251, individual disputes and settlements
252, 268. See also gas; joint development Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, The,
of resources; oil 152
Reyes, Angelo, 250 self-determination, Kashmir’s, 118, 119.
roads: Kachin-Shan, 72; Sino-Bhutanese See also independence
dispute and, 99, 100, 104; Sino-Eurasian Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands, 181(m), 302n1.
disputes and, 223, 230, 309n20; Sino- See also Sino-Japanese Senkaku/Diaoyu
Pakistani settlement and, 118-19. See Islands dispute
also highways Shan States, 71, 72
Rogachev, Igor, 144 Shanghai, 186
Index 351
Shanghai Cooperation Organization background and earlier treaties in, 67-69,

(formerly Shanghai Five): Chinese aid 75, 79, 82; Indian maps and, 287n55;
and, 223; establishment of, 220, 232, military movements and confrontations
233; as Sino-Eurasian security partner- in, 69-70, 72, 73-76, 267; negotiations
ship, 16, 231; Sino-Kazakh negotiations in, 73, 75-78; security and, 71, 81, 82;
and, 227 strategic imperatives and, 73, 74, 78;
Sharipov, Shukhrob, 232 territorial claims in, 72
Shevardnadze, Eduard, 146 Sino-Burmese boundary settlement, 67,
Shewli River, 72 71-72, 78-81, 82; strategic imperatives
Shi Zhe, 169 and, 12, 13, 18, 79-83
Shimshal Pass, 117 Sino-Burmese relations: China’s desire
Shultz, George, 58 for friendly, 75, 77, 79, 80, 82; deteriora-
Siberia, 33 tion of, 74; U Nu’s desire for friendly,
Sikkim: annexation of, [48n36], 96, 72-73; as uncertain, 69-71
278n36, 281n113; dispute/settlement Sino-Eurasian boundary disputes: balance
with China, 94-97; map of, 43(m); Sino- of power and, 224, 231; China’s willing-
Bhutanese dispute and, 97, 105; Sino- ness to compromise in, 231, 235;
Indian dispute and, 14, 16, 40, 53, 61-62, historical background of, 217, 224; mil-
65; Sino-Nepali settlement and, 89, 92; itary movements in, 220-21, 233; nego-
World Knowledge Handbook and, 33 tiations in, 134, 225-26, 227, 229-31;
Siliguri corridor, 53, 97 security and, 217, 218, 220-21, 225, 231,
Silk Road, 106, 120, 121, 217, 222 232-33; strategic imperatives and, 217-
Silla, kingdom of, 154 21, 225, 232-35
Simla Conference (1913-14), 25-26, 40, 48 Sino-Eurasian boundary settlements:
Singapore Strait, 236 balance of power and, 12; Deng’s
Singh, Digvijay, 63 control over, 265; details of, 226, 228,
Singh, Jaswant, 61 232; fallout from, 226-27, 228-29, 235;
Singh, K.I., 90 security and, 227; strategic imperatives
Sinkiang, 27, 30. See also Xinjiang and, 14, 19-20
Sino-Afghan boundary dispute, 120-25 Sino-Eurasian relations: China’s desire
Sino-Afghan boundary settlement, 12, for improved, 16, 19-20, 217, 218, 225;
13, 125-27 development of, 223; establishment of,
Sino-Afghan relations, 122-24 220; importance of good, 221; Soviet
Sino-ASEAN relations, 246-47, 253, 261, Union and, 219, 234
269 Sino-Filipino relations, 249
Sino-Bhutanese boundary dispute: Sino-French treaties, 211, 212-14. See
China’s “package deal” in, 103-4; his- also Sino-Vietnamese boundary dispute
torical background of, 97-99; interim Sino-Indian agreement on Tibet (1954),
agreement in, 103; military movements 44, 46, 47, 48, 49
in, 15, 99, 100, 101; negotiations in, 100- Sino-Indian boundary dispute: agree-
5; reasons for lack of settlement in, 105; ments in, 56, 59-60, 61-62, 63-64; bal-
security and, 103; strategic imperatives ance of power and, 59, 269; barriers to
and, 100; territorial claims in, 7, 102-3 and progress in settling, 63, 266, 268-
Sino-Bhutanese relations, 97, 100, 101, 69; causes of, 40-42; China’s “package
102-4 deal” in, 57, 58, 61, 63, 65; China’s un-
Sino-Burmese boundary dispute: balance willingness to discuss, 43-44, 46, 47;
of power and, 79; China’s “package deal” China’s willingness to compromise in,
in, 75-78; China’s two-track policy 51, 53-55, 57-58, 60, 61, 65, 265; histor-
toward, 70-71; China’s willingness to ical background and earlier treaties in,
compromise in, 74, 78-79, 82; historical 39-40, 48, 50; India’s denial of, 47-48,
352 Index
50; India’s inflexibility in, 52, 54, 56, Sino-Kazakh boundary dispute and
57-58, 60; military movements and settlement, 217, 219, 226-27, 235. See
confrontations in, 15, 45, 49, 50, 51, also Sino-Eurasian boundary disputes;
52, 58-59, 60, 61, 64 (see also border Sino-Eurasian boundary settlements
war, Sino-Indian); negotiations in, 13, Sino-Kazakh relations, 227, 232-33
42, 45, 46, 49-55, 56-58, 59-60, 61-65; Sino-Korean boundary dispute: balance
security and, 53; strategic imperatives of power and, 157; historical background
and, 45, 46, 51, 56, 59, 64-66; territorial of, 153-56; military confrontations in,
claims in, 7, 42, 48-49 158-59; negotiations in, 157-58; strategic
Sino-Indian relations: in 1940s, 41; at imperatives and, 157, 159-60; territorial
Bandung Conference, 33; China’s desire claims in, 154-55, 156, 160, 295n70
to improve, 16; deterioration of, 13, 17, Sino-Korean boundary settlement, 19,
66; as framework for discussion of 154, 158, 159-60, 298n123
boundary disputes, 18; as hostile, 7; Sino-Korean relations, 154, 157, 158-59
improvement in, 14, 44; India’s desire Sino-Kyrgyz boundary dispute and
to preserve friendly, 47; post-border settlement, 217, 219, 227-29, 233. See
war, 56-58, 59-62, 65; rivalry and, 45 also Sino-Eurasian boundary disputes;
Sino-Indonesian relations, 79 Sino-Eurasian boundary settlements
Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty (Treaty of Sino-Kyrgyz relations, 227, 228. See also
Taipei; 1962), 240 Sino-Eurasian relations
Sino-Japanese relations: in 1950s, 180; Sino-Laotian boundary dispute and
China’s desire for good, 186, 194, 196; settlement, 19, 211-14
deterioration of, 181; establishment of Sino-Laotian relations, 211-12, 213-14
diplomatic, 183, 184, 185, 188, 189, 195; Sino-Mongolian boundary dispute:
as hampered by ongoing dispute, 269; China’s reluctance to settle, 171, 173;
popular support for good, 191 China’s willingness to compromise in,
Sino-Japanese Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands 174; historical background of, 161-65;
dispute: balance of power and, 188; negotiations in, 173; security and, 171;
beginning of, 18; CCP and, 303n53; strategic imperatives and, 171; territor-
China’s changing negotiating position ial claims in, 172, 172(m)
in, 184-86; China’s desire to settle, 193- Sino-Mongolian boundary settlement:
94; China’s willingness to shelve, 12, 14, balance of power and, 161; China’s fail-
183, 185, 188, 189, 190, 191, 196, 268; ure to achieve its objectives in, 266;
Chinese fishing boat incident in, 184, details of, 174, 301n56; fallout from,
186-88, 189-92, 194, 267; Deng’s control 176-79; security and, 161; strategic
over, 265; enforcement of sovereignty imperatives and, 12, 13, 18, 161, 174-
in, 266; fisheries agreement and, 304n56; 76; uniqueness of, 176
future of, 15, 196, 269-70; historical Sino-Mongolian relations: China’s desire
background of, 181-84; as inflaming for improved, 176; cordiality of, 175;
public opinion, 9; Japan’s denial of, deterioration of, 173, 174, 177; improve-
183, 188, 192, 196; Japanese militarism ment in, 169-70; tensions in, 161
and, 180-81, 184-85; joint exploration/ Sino-Nepali boundary dispute: balance
development and, 182, 184, 193-94, 196, of power and, 90; China’s willingness
304n60; lack of Chinese media coverage to compromise in, 94; historical back-
of, 191-92; recent developments in, 192- ground of, 84-86; military movements
94, 195-96; security and, 185, 188-89; and confrontations in, 86, 87, 88-89, 91-
strategic imperatives and, 183, 185-86, 92, 267; negotiations in, 86-89; security
188-92, 194-95, 196 and, 89, 92; strategic imperatives and,
Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), 182 84, 86, 89-94
Index 353
Sino-Nepali boundary settlement, 12, 13, of, 17, 137-39; as framework for discus-
84, 89, 93 sion of boundary disputes, 18-19; as
Sino-Nepali relations, 86, 89-90, 91-93 hostile, 7; improvement in, 14, 16, 144-
Sino-Pakistani boundary dispute: balance 45, 151; settlement as precondition for
of power and, 113, 114; historical back- improving, 142-43; Soviet Union’s pos-
ground of, 106-10; military movements ition on pre-1917, 134; split in, 11, 131,
and confrontations in, 107, 111; nego- 161; uncertainty of, 148-49
tiations in, 110-12, 114-15, 116-17; Sino-Tajik boundary dispute and settle-
security and, 108-9, 111, 113, 115-16; ment, 225, 229-32, 233, 235. See also
strategic imperatives and, 109, 113-19; Sino-Eurasian boundary disputes;
territorial claims in, 110 Sino-Eurasian boundary settlements
Sino-Pakistani boundary settlement: Sino-Tajik relations, 230-31, 232. See also
balance of power and, 106; China’s Sino-Eurasian relations
delay in pursuing, 114-15, 116; details Sino-US relations, 7, 14, 18, 144. See also
of, 112, 290n31; strategic imperatives United States
and, 12, 13, 106 Sino-Vietnamese boundary dispute: bal-
Sino-Pakistani relations: China’s desire ance of power and, 197; China’s desire
for improved, 116-17; China’s lack of to settle, 198; division into three issues,
interest in closer, 115; deterioration 197; historical background and Sino-
]of, 108-9; as flourishing, 118; improve- French treaties in, 198-99, 199-202,
ment in, 106, 110, 113-14; tensions in, 206, 207, 208-9, 211; issues of “prin-
107, 111 ciple” in, 206-7; military confrontations
Sino-Russian Kashgar Boundary Treaty in, 11, 13, 202, 203; negotiations in, 14,
(1884), 121 15, 201-3, 205-10; security and, 203;
Sino-Sikkim boundary dispute and settle strategic imperatives and, 197-98, 199,
ment, 94-97 203-4, 205, 206, 208; territorial claims
Sino-Soviet/Russian boundary dispute: in, 200, 201. See also Paracel Islands
balance of power and, 152; China’s (Xisha); Spratly Islands (Nansha)
desire to settle, 135, 136, 139; China’s Sino-Vietnamese boundary settlement,
willingness to compromise in, 144, 147, 12, 209, 210-11, 265
149; China’s willingness to shelve, 268; Sino-Vietnamese relations: China’s desire
historical background and earlier treat- to stabilize, 202, 210; as cooperative,
ies in, 131-33, 139, 140, 142, 145-46; 201; deterioration of, 199, 203, 204-5,
issues of “principle” in, 140, 142-43; 207; as hostile, 197, 198; improvement
military movements and confrontations in, 209; re-establishment of, 208, 250;
in, 137, 138-39, 140-41, 142; miscom- South China Sea disputes and, 238-
munications in, 141-42, 143; negotiations 39, 243; Vietnam’s desire to restore
in, 138, 139-40, 141-48; security and, normal, 206
153; Soviet Union’s denial of, 137, 139, Sinocentrism, 5, 6, 23, 27
140; strategic imperatives and, 139, 144; Sinology, 6
territorial claims in, 133-34, 135-36, Snow, Edgar, 28, 165
146-47 social media, 9
Sino-Soviet/Russian boundary settlement: Song Qingling, 74, 106
balance of power and, 12, 15; details of, Sonoda, Sunao, 187-88, 189, 191
147, 150-51; fallout from, 148-50, 151; South China Sea, 196, 237(m), 241(m),
importance of, 14; strategic imperatives 264, 311n1, 313n46
and, 152-53 South China Sea territorial disputes: bal-
Sino-Soviet/Russian relations: China’s ance of power and, 243, 245, 249, 251,
desire for closer, 152-53; deterioration 260; China’s military buildup and, 244,
354 Index
245-46, 252, 260; China’s policies on, settlement and, 162, 170-71, 173, 174-78;
254-56; China’s willingness to com- Sino-Nepali dispute and, 84, 90, 91;
promise in, 243, 256, 265; China’s Sino-Pakistani dispute/settlement and,
willingness to shelve, 209, 245-46, 247- 106, 108, 109, 113, 114, 116, 118; Sino-
48, 252, 254, 262, 312n31; differences Vietnamese dispute and, 197, 198-99,
and similarities with other boundary 203-4, 205, 206, 208, 210; South China
disputes, 250-51, 262; future of, 246, Sea disputes and, 243, 249, 250, 251; as
259-62, 268, 269-70; as inflaming threat to China, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18. See
public opinion, 9; military movements also Czarist Russia; Russia; Sino-Soviet/
and confrontations in, 15, 242, 243-45, Russian boundary dispute; Sino-Soviet/
248, 250, 254, 257-58, 261, 262, 312n20; Russian boundary settlement; Sino-
as multilateral, 236, 245, 247, 250, 254, Soviet/Russian relations
259-60, 262; occupation of islands in, Soviet-Indian Treaty of Peace, Friendship,
238, 239, 240, 242, 244, 249, 250, 251- and Cooperation (1970), 56
52, 255, 256, 267; security and, 244-45, Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact (1945), 171
251, 255, 258-59, 261; strategic impera- Spratly Islands (Nansha): China prepares
tives and, 19, 238, 246, 249-50, 251-52, for possible battle in, 245; Malaysia and,
253, 256, 257, 258-59, 261; strategic 249; map of, 237(m); occupation of, 239,
roots of, 243-44; territorial claims in, 244, 252, 256, 267; Philippines and, 240,
20, 236, 238-40, 257, 315n97 248-49, 250; resource development
South Korea, 182, 188, 298n126. See and, 253, 260; Taiwan and, 239, 256-57,
also Korea; North Korea; Sino-Korean 315n83; territorial claims to, 20, 236,
boundary dispute; Sino-Korean bound- 238-40, 247; Vietnam and, 206, 208,
ary settlement; Sino-Korean relations 238-39, 243-44, 267
South Tibet. See North East Frontier Stalin, Joseph, 136, 166-67, 168-69
Agency (NEFA) Stein, Gunther, 28
South Vietnam, 198, 238. See also Paracel strategic imperatives, 3-4, 7, 10-20, 25,
Islands (Xisha); Sino-Vietnamese bound 35, 263-71. See also under names of
ary dispute; Sino-Vietnamese boundary individual disputes and settlements
settlement; Sino-Vietnamese relations; Strategy and Management, 222
Spratly Islands (Nansha); Vietnam Suez Crisis, 108
Southeast Asian Treaty Organization Sui Dynasty, 154
(SEATO), 74, 81, 108, 113, 114, 118 Sukhe Baatar, 165
sovereignty: China’s hypersensitivity to Suleymenov, T.S., 226
issues of, 22, 25, 33; China’s shifting Sumdorong Chu Valley, 58
stance on, 4 Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation,
Soviet maps, 46 148
Soviet Union: Mongolia’s independence
and, 165-69; and shift in regional bal- Taghdumbash Pamir, 121-22
ance of power, 11; Sino-Afghan dispute/ Taiping Dao (Itu Aba Island), 236, 240,
settlement and, 120, 122-23, 124, 125- 256, 315n83
27; Sino-Burmese dispute/settlement Taiping Rebellion, 121
and, 67, 73, 74, 78, 80, 81-82; Sino- Taiwan: approach to, 273n31; China
Eurasian disputes and, 217, 218-19, 222, on independence of, 28; cooperation
225, 234; Sino-Indian dispute and, 44- with China in South Sea China dispute,
46, 51, 52, 56, 59, 62, 269; Sino-Japanese 257-58; map of, 237(m); Mongolia’s
dispute and, 180, 183, 184, 185-86, 188, independence and, 169; as Nationalist
190, 194; Sino-Korean dispute and, 157, government’s base, 18; occupation of
158-60; Sino-Laotian dispute/settlement islands by, 239, 242, 256; other bound-
and, 212; Sino-Mongolian dispute/ ary disputes and, 70, 102, 109, 144, 204;
Index 355
Sino-Japanese dispute and, 181, 182, 183, Sino-Burmese dispute and, 76, 81; Sino-
189, 304n56; South China Sea disputes Indian dispute and, 39, 40, 41-42, 43-45,
vs dispute over, 254; territorial claims 46, 47, 48-49, 58, 61; Sino-Nepali dis-
in South China Sea dispute, 20, 236 pute and, 85, 89; Sino-Sikkim dispute
Taiwan Strait, 79, 236 and, 95, 96
Tajikistan: aid from China, 223; dispute/ Tibet-Sikkim boundary, 14, 16
settlement with China, 225, 229-32, Tibetan rebellion: other boundary
233, 235; maps of, 122(m), 218(m); disputes/settlements and, 79, 94, 99,
relations with China, 230-31, 232; Sino- 109; Sino-Indian dispute and, 44, 47;
Afghan dispute/settlement and, 120, Sino-Nepali dispute and, 84, 86, 88, 90,
125; Sino-Kazakh settlement and, 227; 91-92; strategic imperatives and, 18
Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute and, 134, Tiwari, N.D., 59
153; trade with China, 222 Tokayev, Kassim-Jomart, 227
Takeshima (Dokdo) islets dispute, 188 Tokyo, 193
Tanaka, Kakuei, 183, 185 Tonkin, Gulf of (Beibuwan): Chinese
Tang Dynasty, 25, 84, 120, 154 maps and, 240; international law and,
Tang Jiaxuan, 61, 208, 209 206, 209, 211; map of, 200(m); negotia-
Tarabarov (Yinlong) Island, 134, 146-47, tions for, 210; place in Sino-Vietnamese
147(m), 150 disputes, 197; settlement with Vietnam
Tarim Basin, 223 on, 12, 19; Sino-French treaties on, 199,
Tashkurgan, 230 201, 202; Sino-Laotian settlement and,
Tawang, 43(m), 49 214; South China Sea disputes and, 238
Tch’a Kou (Ouan-Chan; Tra-co) Island, Tra-co (Tch’a Kou; Ouan-Chan) Island,
201 201
Tengiz, 223 trade: Sino-Afghan, 120; Sino-Burmese,
textbooks, Japanese history, 192. See also 71, 81; Sino-Eurasian, 222-23, 234, 235;
Chinese books Sino-Indian, 65; Sino-Mongolian, 170,
thalweg principle: China’s acceptance of, 175, 177-78; Sino-Pakistani, 107, 119;
265; Sino-Korean dispute and, 157-58; on Sino-Sikkim border, 96-97; Sino-
Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute and, 134, Vietnamese, 209, 307n39
141, 143, 145, 146 traditional customary boundaries. See
Thimayya, Kodendara Subayya, 53 historical customary boundaries
Thirty Years of Sino-Vietnamese Relations Treaty of Aigun (1858), 131, 146
(1979), 207 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in
threats, prioritizing, 11, 12 Southeast Asia (1976), 16, 258
Three Worlds Theory, 188 Treaty of Beijing (Treaty of Peking; 1860),
“Tiananmen diplomacy,” 56 131, 132(m), 146-47, 150, 224, 295n70
Tiananmen Square massacre, 59 Treaty of Burinsk (Kiakhta) (1727), 131,
Tianchi (Ch’onji), Lake, 155-57, 159 132(m)
Tianjin, 186 Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in
Tiannan River Valley, 64 Border Regions (1996), 233
Tiaoyutai or Tiaoyuyu Islands. See Treaty of Friendship and Alliance (1945),
Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands 165
Tibet: China’s desire for unification with, Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Non-
27, 28, 31, 168; maps of, 43(m), 85(m); aggression (1960), 79, 81-83, 124
Mongolia’s independence and, 164; Treaty of Ili (Treaty of St. Petersburg;
motivations for Chinese army’s entry 1881), 132, 224
into, 30; other boundary disputes and, Treaty of Kashgar (1884), 224, 229
123, 138, 221, 254; Sino-Bhutanese dis- Treaty of Nanjing (1842), 22, 32
pute and, 97, 99, 100, 102-3, 104, 105; Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), 32, 131, 132(m)
356 Index
Treaty of Paris (1898), 240 United Nations: other boundary

Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1978), disputes and, 71, 90, 123, 135, 185;
14, 180, 184, 186, 187-89, 190-92, 194- Sino-Bhutanese dispute and, 98, 102;
95, 204 Sino-Pakistani dispute and, 107-8, 109,
Treaty of Punakha (1910), 97-99 115, 116; South China Sea disputes and,
Treaty of Qiqihar (1911), 132(m), 133, 135 252, 257, 262
Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895), 33 United Nations Commission for Asia and
Treaty of Sinchula (1865), 97 the Pacific, 181-82, 184
Treaty of St. Petersburg (Treaty of Ili; United Nations Convention on the Law
1881), 132, 224 of Sea (UNCLOS), 185, 238, 242, 253,
Treaty of Taipei (Sino-Japanese Peace 256, 258
Treaty; 1962), 240 United States: dominant position in Asia,
Tribhuvana, King, 86 15; escalating involvement in Southeast
tributary missions and relations, 67-68, Asia, 11, 13, 16, 17; Mongolia’s in-
85, 107, 120, 198 dependence and, 165; relations with
Tsedenbal, Umjagin, [158n114], 169, 170, Soviet Union, 14; Sino-Afghan dispute
171, 173, 175, 176-77, 298n114 and, 122, 124; Sino-Burmese dispute
Tu Wei-Ming, 23 and, 67, 71, 73, 74, 78, 79, 80, 81-83;
Tumen River: map of, 155(m); Sino- Sino-Eurasian disputes and, 19, 217,
Korean dispute/settlement and, 154, 218, 220, 221, 223, 230-31, 234; Sino-
155-56, 157-58, 159, 160, 295n70; Sino- Indian dispute and, 16, 46, 51, 52, 56,
Soviet/Russian dispute/settlement and, 59, 62, 65, 66; Sino-Japanese dispute
147-48, 149-50 and, 180, 182-83, 185, 189, 194; Sino-
Turkey, 217, 224, 234 Laotian dispute/settlement and, 211;
Turkmenistan, 223 Sino-Nepali dispute and, 89; Sino-
Pakistani dispute/settlement and, 106,
U Ba Swe, 75, 76, 77 108, 109, 113, 116, 118; Sino-Soviet/
U Nu: on Burma’s security predicament, Russian dispute and, 139, 152; Sino-
71; meets with Zhou, 75-76, 77; on Sino- Vietnamese dispute/settlement and,
Burmese relations, 69, 70, 72-73; on 14, 197, 198, 199, 204, 205; South China
Sino-Burmese settlement, 78, 79; Sino- Sea disputes and, 239, 243-44, 247-
Indian dispute and, 50 49, 251, 254, 255, 256, 259; strategic
Ukraine, 298n126 imperatives and, 12, 17; support for
Ulaanbaatar (earlier Urga), 165, 177 Tibetan independence, 41, 45, 84, 90,
Ulanfu (Chinese representative in 91-92
Mongolia), 170 unity, 27, 28, 29-30, 165-66. See also
Unen (Mongolian Communist Party independence
newspaper), 174 Upper Burma, 68
unequal treaties: as basis for new treaties, Urga (later Ulaanbaatar), 165, 177
235, 264; other boundary disputes/ US-Japan Okinawa reversion treaty
settlements and, 50, 72, 95, 178, 251, (1971), 182-83, 185
268; PRC’s view of, 10, 32-34; Sino- US-Philippines Mutual Security Treaty
Eurasian disputes and, 20, 224-25, 229; (1951), 256
Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute and, 133, Ussuri River: map of, 132(m), 147(m);
134-35, 137-38, 140, 141, 142, 143-44, Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute/settlement
147-48, 152, 268; Sino-Vietnamese and, 131, 133-34, 135-36, 138, 143, 144,
dispute and, 201, 202, 207, 211, 268; 145, 146-47, 150, 153, 268
Western powers as renouncing, 22 Ussuriysky Island. See Heixiazi
united front doctrine, 6, 11, 109, 188-89, (Ussuriysky) Island
257 Uzbekistan, 219, [223n20], 309n20
Index 357
Uzbel Pass, 231 West Germany, 83

Uzen oilfield, 223 White Dragon Tail (Bailongwei; Bach
Uzengi-Kuush river basin, 228 Long Vi) Island, 201, 210, 238
White Russians, 165
Vajpayee, Atal Bihari, 57, 60, 61-62, 96 Whiting, Allen S., 10
Vakhan (Wakhan) Valley, 120, 121, 125 Woody Island (Yongxing Dao), 238, 245
vassal states: ancient Korean kingdoms Workshops on Managing Potential
as, 154; Bhutan, 99; Burma, 67; China’s Conflicts in the South China Sea, 247
lists of, 29, 30; China’s recognition of World Knowledge Handbook, 33
independence of, 31; Hunza, 107; neigh- Wright, Quincy, 5
bouring states’ concern about becom- Wu Xueqian, 116, 145
ing, 27; Nepal, 84
Vietnam: maps of, 200(m), 237(m); mil- Xinhua, 220, 222, 255
itary confrontations in South China Xinjiang: Sino-Afghan dispute and, 125;
Sea disputes, 245; settlement with Sino-Eurasian disputes and, 220, 221,
China, 12, 209, 210-11, 265; Sino- 222, 223, 234; Sino-Pakistani dispute
Burmese non-aggression treaty and, and, 107, 110, 112, 114, 117; Sino-Soviet/
82; Sino-Indian dispute and, 57, 269; Russian dispute and, 131-32, 137, 138,
Sino-Japanese dispute and, 189, 190; 139; South China Sea disputes and, 254
Sino-Laotian dispute/settlement and, Xinjiang-Tibet Highway, 47, 48, 53, 108,
213-14; Sino-Pakistani settlement and, 117
118; South China Sea disputes, US, Xinwanbao, 191
and, 256, 259; South China Sea dis- Xiongnu, 120, 217
putes and, 246, 248, 249-50, 253, 254, Xisha Islands. See Paracel Islands (Xisha)
258; territorial claims in South China
Sea dispute, 236, 239; US involvement Yalta Conference (1945), 152, 165, 178
in, 18. See also Paracel Islands (Xisha); Yalu River, 154, 155-56, 157-59
Sino-Vietnamese boundary dispute; Yanbian, 160
Spratly Islands (Nansha) Yang Jiechi, 254
Vietnam War, 199, 243 Yang Shangkun, 103
Vietnamese communists, 198 Yasukuni Shrine, 192
Vo Van Kiet, 208 Ye Jianying, 198
Vorobyev, Vitaliy, 231-32 Yeltsin, Boris, 149, 151
Yinlong (Tarabarov) Island, 134, 146-47,
Wa, 72, 75, 76-77, 78 147(m), 150
Wakhan (Vakhan) Valley, 120, 121, 125 Yongxing Dao (Woody Island), 238, 245
Wakhjir Pass, 120, 121, 122(m) Yuan Dynasty, 67, 120
Wang Jisi, 255 Yuan Shikai, 162-64
Wang Xiaoyun, 186, 187, 189-90 Yunnan, 71
Wang Yi, 262
Wangchuk, King. See Jigme Dorji Wang Zarifi, Hamrohon, 232
chuk, King; Jigme Singye Wangchuk, Zayson, Lake, 224
King Zengmu Ansha (James Shoal), 236,
war, boundary disputes as cause of, 3, 4. 242-43
See also border war, Sino-Indian; border Zha Daojiong, 256
war, Sino-Vietnamese; Zhenbao Zhang Qingmin, 8-9
(Damansky) Island confrontation Zhang Wenmu, 221-22
Weinberger, Caspar, 58 Zhao Minghao, 261
Wen Jiabao, 62-63, 96 Zhenbao (Damansky) Island confronta-
Wenhui bao, 220 tion, 13-14, 138-39, 140-41, 188, 267
358 Index
Zhongguo huabao, 156 dispute and, 180, 183, 185, 186, 196;
Zhongguo sangdi shi (History of China’s Sino-Korean dispute and, 157-59,
Lost Territory), 26 298n114; Sino-Mongolian settlement
Zhongsha Islands. See Macclesfield Bank and, 171, 173, 176, 178; Sino-Nepali
(Zhongsha) and islands therein dispute/settlement and, 86-88, 91, 92,
Zhou Enlai: on China’s desire to settle 93; Sino-Pakistani dispute/settlement
disputes peacefully, 12, 46, 80; and, 106, 108, 118; Sino-Sikkim dispute
Mongolia’s independence and, 166, and, 94, 95; Sino-Soviet/Russian dispute
167, 168, 169; Sino-Afghan dispute/ and, 135, 136-37, 139, 141, 143; South
settlement and, 123, 125; Sino- China Sea disputes and, 238, 239; on
Bhutanese dispute and, 99, 100; Sino- unequal treaties, 33
Burmese dispute and, 73, 75-77, 82, 83; Zhu Feng, 256
Sino-Indian dispute and, 13, 43-44, Zhu Rongji, 209, 210, 258
46-47, 49-53, 54, 56-57; Sino-Japanese
Contemporary Chinese Studies
Glen Peterson, The Power of Words: Literacy and Revolution in South

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Wing Chung Ng, The Chinese in Vancouver, 1945-80: The Pursuit of
Identity and Power
Yijiang Ding, Chinese Democracy after Tiananmen
Diana Lary and Stephen MacKinnon, eds., Scars of War: The Impact
of Warfare on Modern China
Eliza W.Y. Lee, ed., Gender and Change in Hong Kong: Globalization,
Postcolonialism, and Chinese Patriarchy
Christopher A. Reed, Gutenberg in Shanghai: Chinese Print
Capitalism, 1876-1937
James A. Flath, The Cult of Happiness: Nianhua, Art, and History in
Rural North China
Erika E.S. Evasdottir, Obedient Autonomy: Chinese Intellectuals and
the Achievement of Orderly Life
Hsiao-ting Lin, Tibet and Nationalist China’s Frontier: Intrigues
and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49
Xiaoping Cong, Teachers’ Schools and the Making of the Modern
Chinese Nation-State, 1897-1937
Diana Lary, ed., The Chinese State at the Borders
Norman Smith, Resisting Manchukuo: Chinese Women Writers and
the Japanese Occupation
Hasan H. Karrar, The New Silk Road Diplomacy: China’s Central Asian
Foreign Policy since the Cold War
Richard King, ed., Art in Turmoil: The Chinese Cultural Revolution,
1966-76
Blaine R. Chiasson, Administering the Colonizer: Manchuria’s Russians
under Chinese Rule, 1918-29
Emily M. Hill, Smokeless Sugar: The Death of a Provincial Bureaucrat
and the Construction of China’s National Economy
Kimberley Ens Manning and Felix Wemheuer, eds., Eating Bitterness:
New Perspectives on China’s Great Leap Forward and Famine
Helen M. Schneider, Keeping the Nation’s House: Domestic Management
and the Making of Modern China
James A. Flath and Norman Smith, eds., Beyond Suffering: Recounting
War in Modern China
Elizabeth R. VanderVen, A School in Every Village: Educational Reform
in a Northeast China County, 1904-31
Norman Smith, Intoxicating Manchuria: Alcohol, Opium, and Culture
in China’s Northeast
Juan Wang, Merry Laughter and Angry Curses: The Shanghai Tabloid
Press, 1897-1911
Richard King, Milestones on a Golden Road: Writing for Chinese
Socialism, 1945-80
David Faure and Ho Ts’ui-P’ing, eds., Chieftains into Ancestors:
Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China
Yunxiang Gao, Sporting Gender: Women Athletes and Celebrity-Making
during China’s National Crisis, 1931-45
Peipei Qiu, with Su Zhiliang and Chen Lifei, Chinese Comfort Women:
Testimonies from Imperial Japan’s Sex Slaves
Julia Kuehn, Kam Louie, and David M. Pomfret, eds., Diasporic Chineseness
after the Rise of China: Communities and Cultural Production
Bridie Andrews, The Making of Modern Chinese Medicine, 1850-1960
Kelvin E.Y. Low, Remembering the Samsui Women: Migration and Social
Memory in Singapore and China
Jiayan Zhang, Coping with Calamity: Environmental Change and Peasant
Response in Central China, 1736-1949
Alison R. Marshall, Cultivating Connections: The Making of Chinese
Prairie Canada
Ruoyun Bai, Staging Corruption: Chinese Television and Politics
Christopher G. Rea and Nicolai Volland, The Business of Culture: Cultural
Entrepreneurs in China and Southeast Asia, 1900-65

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The Pragmatic Dragon

Contemporary Chinese Studies

This series provides new scholarship and perspectives on modern and

A list of titles in this series appears at the end of this book.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

and for my father

Part 1: The Strategic and Historical Context

Part 2: The Sino-Indian Dimension

Part 3: The Sino-Soviet/Russian Dimension

Part 4: Contemporary Settlements and Disputes

I was mentored by a group of excellent sinologists who adhered to what I

circumstances do territorial issues become part of Beijing’s foreign policy

to place greater value on international acceptance, it has become more

When a nation’s power is inadequate vis-à-vis that of an opponent, adroit

Systemic Constraints and China’s Boundary Settlements

Externally, China presented these settlements as examples of its reasonable-

disputes, but a high level of control makes “subversion of a decision” difficult.22

China’s Grand Strategy and Boundary Disputes

Vietnam escalated into violence; at the same time, Beijing sidestepped

necessitated adjustments in foreign policy. In the face of deteriorating

Union were on the brink of a larger war, although a summit in mid-September

Overview of the Case Studies

a function of the bilateral relationship, and China’s handling of boundary

As Beijing worried about worsening relations with India, China suffered

Any international settlement represents a stage in a process by which a na-

The understandable alarm on the part of China’s neighbours over Beijing’s

communists came to power harbouring a hypersensitivity about “lost terri-

China’s Territorial Legacy

The PRC expressed similar views on China’s historical frontiers in a

Patriotism is a kind of profound feeling towards the motherland shaped and

In the words of one sinologist, therefore, the PRC is “clinging to the

Evolution of the Communists’ Territorial Policy

In the Fundamental Law (constitution) of the Chinese Soviet Republic it shall

But Mao believed that:

In a 1944 interview with Gunther Stein, Mao excluded Manchuria and

The present boundaries of China are: Bordering on the Union of Soviet

This paragraph was revised in the 1952 edition:

The present boundaries of China are: Bordering on the Union of Soviet

The earlier edition classified several neighbouring states as “vassal states”

The revised edition changed this to:

In 1949, the establishment of a centralized state of multiple nationalities

a legitimate right and autonomous regions were considered “inalienable

Ho Ping-ti concludes that because of the historical legacy of foreign en-

Development of the PRC’s Boundary Policy

Such unbridled annexation of territory is rare in history. Moreover, people

Some people inquire: “Since we recognized Mongolia’s independence, in the

Any consideration of Beijing’s boundary policy must include a discussion

General Li Jijun expressed China’s sensitivity over this historical legacy:

During the pre-modern period, China did negotiate boundary treaties

Nehru’s vision of India as an ancient nation and an internalized historical

of contention, rooted in larger strategic concerns such as the Sino-Indian

Soviet leaders express the conviction that governments of the Chinese

China reacted strongly, accusing the Soviets of not upholding socialist

Indian protests, Soviet maps continued to depict the Sino-Indian boundary

clear that India missed several opportunities to seek a settlement of the

As to the boundary question between our two countries, it is in our opinion,

Zhou emphasized China’s desire to settle the boundary question because

1 A boundary dispute does exist.

According to different accounts, Zhou went to New Delhi “ready and

negotiations were set to continue. However, an outcry in the Indian Par­

negotiations were set to continue. However, an outcry in the Indian Par