Working Motions:

• Relative motion is required between the cutting tool and

workpiece to obtain the required shape.
• The relative movement b/n the workpiece and the
cutting edge can be obtained by
 the motion of the workpiece,
 the motion of the cutting tool or
 a combination of the motions of the workpiece and
cutting tool.
• These motions to impart the required shape to the
workpiece are called working motions.
• Working motions are further classified into two:
1. Drive motion or primary cutting motion
2. Feed motion
• Working motions in machine tools are generally of
two types: rotary and translatory.
• Nmvxm
Working motion of some Machine Tool
Auxiliary Motion:
• Beside the working motion, a machine tool also has
provision for auxiliary motion.
• are necessary to make the working motion fulfill their
assigned function.
 clamping and unclamping of the workpiece,
 idle travel of the cutting tool to the position from
where the cutting is proceed,
 changing the speed of drive and feed motions,
 engaging and disengaging of working motions, etc.
• The working motion of the machine tool are
numerically defined by their velocity.
• The velocity of the primary cutting motion or drive
motion is known as cutting speed.
• Velocity of feed motion is known as feed.

• The cutting speed is denoted by v and measured by

m/min.
• Feed is denoted by s and measured in the following units:
1. mm/rev in machine tools with rotary drive motion.
e.g. lathes, boring machine, etc….
2. mm/tooth in machine tool using multiple tooth cutters.
e.g. milling machine
3. mm/stroke in machine tools with reciprocating drive
motion.
e.g. shaping and planning machine
4. mm/min in machine tools which have a separate power
source for feed motion.
e.g. milling operation
 Terminologies of Machine tool working motion
Cutting Speed:
• Given in surface feet per minute (sfpm) & the speed
at which the metal is removed by the tool from
the work piece, (m/min).
Feed:
• Distance advanced by the tool for each revolution of
the workpiece, measured in the direction of the feed
motion, (mm/rev).
Depth of Cut:
• The penetration of the cutting tool into the workpiece
in a single cut, (mm).
 Procedures for Selection of Speed, Feed & Depth of Cut
• Useful tool life is influenced most by cutting speed.
• The feed rate is the next most influential factor in tool
life, followed by the depth of cut.
• When the depth of cut exceeds approximately 10 times
the feed rate, a further increase in depth of cut has little
effect on tool life.
• In selecting the cutting conditions for a turning or boring
operation, the first step is to select the depth of cut,
followed by selection of the feed rate & then the cutting
speed.
• The machinist/machine operator will know if the selected
speed, depth of cut & feed are more than the given
machine can tolerate & can make corrections accordingly.
Calculation of the working motions

Cutting Speed:
For machine tools with rotary primary motion

Where d is the diameter of the job (mm)

n is revolution per minute of the job (rpm)
Feed:
• Distance the tool advances for every rotation of
workpiece (mm/rev).

Depth of Cut:
• Perpendicular distance between machined surface and
uncut surface of the workpiece.
d = (D1 – D2)/2 (mm)
Lathe operation
To calculate the required power and metal removal rate
 Milling Operations: Horizontal or slab milling
Horizontal, Slab on knee type milling machine:
The feed f, which is equal to the distance moved by
the workpiece during one revolution of the tool, is
given by: f = Vf/Nt
Where: Nt, is the rotational frequency of the cutter, &
Vf , is the feed speed of the work-piece.
The cutting seed V, d n
v c t

1000
Metal removal rate: Z w  a e a p v f
Length for slab milling:
lw=length of workpiece+approach ae d t  ae  + overrun
lw  a e d t  a e   overrun
Machining time: tm 
vf
Metal removal rate: Z w  ae a p v f
dt/2
The power Pm & the power efficiency Pe
required to perform any machining operation:
Pm = ps Zw; Pe = pm /m
Over travel/overrun
Where: Pm, is the power required,
Ps , is the specific power.
, is the efficiency of the motor
Milling Operations: Vertical milling:
Vertical, Face or End milling machine:
The feed f, which is equal to the distance moved by
the work-piece during one revolution of the tool, is
given by:
f = Vf/Nt ; Vf=f *Nt
Where: Nt, is the rotational frequency of the cutter,
& Vf , is the feed speed of the work-piece.
Length for slab milling: FACE MILLING: Cutter Ø
larger than width of workpiece
lw=length of work-piece + Ø
FACE MILLING: Cutter Ø larger than width of l w  dt 
Machining time: t m 
work-piece vf
Metal removal rate: Z  a a v
w e p f

Length for slab milling: FACE MILLING: Cutter Ø

less than width of work-piece
lw=length of work-piece + 2 ae d t  ae 
Machining time: l w  2 a e d t  a e 
tm 
vf
Metal removal rate: Z w  ae a p v f
FACE MILLING: Cutter Ø less than width of
work-piece
Regulation of Speed & Feed rate:
Aim of speed & feed rate:
Machining operation parameters: Speed, Feed & Depth of cut.
Ensure minimum cost of machined surface.
C = Cmt + Cnpt + Ctc + Ct
Where:
General tool life equation: T = C/Va Sb t
Optimum Tool life can be obtained only by working at optimum
value of cutting speed, feed & depth of cut.
In order to machine arbitrary diameter, the RPM must be
n=1000V/πD, i.e. there must be a step-less regulation of V so any
desired value of RPM may be set corresponding to the optimum
cutting speed.
Economically step-less speed & feed rate regulation have
however, not yet been designed for majority of machine tool.
Most of the NC machine tools are still designed for stepped
regulation of speed & feed rate.
 The provision of regulating the spindle RPM & feed
rate is an essential requirement of machine tool to
ensure economic machining of work-pieces of different
materials & Size by cutting tools of different shapes &
composition.

Design of Speed Box

Principle of designing speed boxes, Gear boxes are

employed for stepped regulation of the RPM.
Various laws of Stepped Regulation:

In stepped regulation of speed only certain value of the

spindle RPM are available on the machine tools.
Criterion for choosing the discrete steps, Two extreme
available n1 & nZ spindle RPM.
The same number of Z intermediate steps may be placed
in number of ways.
The various series of RPM value have diff. operational
characteristics.
Let us analyze 4 cases & select the most suitable law of
speed range distribution:
Arithmetic, Geometric, Harmonic & Logarithmic progression
1. The RPM Values Constitute an Arithmeticn Progression:
The difference b/n adjacent RPM value is constant:

Where a=common diff of the arithmetic

progression
N12 = n1 + 11a
a = 375-30/11
= 31.4
For particular V the maximum selected cutting condition the
diameter range of workpiece that can be machined by a
particular spindle RPM value nx can be determined as:
Hence the dia. Range served
by this particular RPM is:
Stepping of Speeds According to Arithmetic Progression:
Let n1, n2, … , nz be arranged according to arithmetic
progression. Then n2 – n1= n3 – n2 = constant
For an economical cutting speed v0, the lowest speed vl is not
constant; it decreases with increasing diameter.

Speed stepping according to arithmetic progression.

Let us calculate the RPM value & dia. Range served by each
RPM for the following conditions n1=30RPM, nz=375RPM,
number of speed steps Z=12, V=20m/min. these value are
tabulated below in table.
Table1: Dia. Range for diff. rpm values in arithmetic progression.
Suppose we start machining a wp of dia. 212mm. For cutting
speed of V=20m/min, the value n1=30rpm will correspond to
optimum cutting.
Before we change over to the next higher rpm value of n2=61.4,
we must remove 108.3mm of metal from the dia. Assume depth
of cut of 5mm, this will involve 11passes.
During all passes except the first one, we would be machining
uneconomically as the actual cutting speed would be less than
the permissible value.
On the other hand in changing over from an rpm value of
n11=344 to n12=375, we have to reduce the wp. dia. only by
1.6mm. We could actually remove more than this allowance in
one pass.
It follows from the above analysis that in the high rpm range
some value of speed steps are redundant, whereas in the low rpm
range there is clearly a need to add more steps b/n the calculated
value.
EX.1 Let us calculate the RPM value & dia. Range served by
each RPM for the following conditions n1=20RPM,
nz=250RPM, number of speed steps Z=8, V=13.3m/min.
Formulate a table: dia. Range for diff. rpm values in arithmetic
progression

RPM  dx mm dx mm
N1 =
N2 =
N3 =
N4 =
N5 =
N6 =
N7 =
N8=
2. The RPM Values Constitute a Geometric Progression:

Stepping of Speeds According to Geometric Progression

The percentage drop from one step to the other is constant
& the absolute loss of economically expedient cutting
speed δv is constant all over the whole diameter range.
The relative loss of cutting speed δvmax/v0 is also constant.
 = (nZ /n1)1/(z-1)
= (n12 /n1)1/(12-1)
= (375 /30)1/(11)
= 1.26
 Stepping of Speeds According to Geometric Progression:
The percentage drop from step to step δn decreases as the speed
increases. Thus the speeds are not evenly distributed & more
concentrated & closely stepped, in the small diameter range than in
the large one.

Speed stepping according to geometric progression.

Let us calculate the RPM value & dia. Range served by each
RPM for the conditions n1=30RPM, nz=375RPM, number of
speed steps Z=12, V=20m/min. these value are tabulated below
in table2.
Table2: Dia. Range for diff. rpm values in geometric progression
Before we change over from a speed n1=30rpm to n2=37.5rpm
an allowance of 42mm must be machined from the wp dia.
Again, providing for a maximum depth of cut of t=5mm, this
allowance may be removed in 5 passes.
In changing over from n11=300rpm to n12=375rpm, we have to
take 4.2mm or a depth of cut of 2.1mm which can be easily
accomplished in one pass.
We thus see that in order to make the machine tool performance
equally feasible in the whole rpm range, the low rpm value
should be brought still closer while the high rpm value can
be widened a little.
EX.2 Let us calculate the RPM value & dia. Range served by
each RPM for the f0llowing conditions n1=20RPM,
nz=250RPM, number of speed steps Z=8, V=13.3m/min.
Formulate a table: dia. Range for diff. rpm values in geometric
progression
RPM  dx mm dx mm
N1 =
N2 =
N3 =
N4 =
N5 =
N6 =
N7 =
N8=
3. The RPM Values Constitute a Harmonic Progression:
The HP is developed from the basic idea that the dia. range served
each rpm of the progression is equal. i.e.

= 2.75x10-3

The harmonic progression can be

written as follows:

C= 1/nx – 1/nx+1
=1/n1 – 1/n1+1
= 1/30 – 1/32.7
= 0.00275229
The value of rpm & dia. range for the same data used in the
previous examples are tabulated in table3.
Table3: Dia. Range for diff. rpm values in harmonic
progression
It may be seen that in order to change from n11=183rpm
to n12=375rpm, the wp dia. must be reduced from 35mm
to 17mm.

On a slender wp of 35mm, a large depth of cut can’t be

taken as this would lead to the deformation of the wp.

Assuming a permissible depth of cut of t=2mm on the

slender wp, the total allowance will be machine in 4 to 5
passes.

It may be concluded that in harmonic progression the

rpm value in the high range are too wide apart, making
this range uneconomical for exploitation.
EX.3 Let us calculate the RPM value & dia. Range served by
each RPM for the following conditions n1=20RPM,
nz=250RPM, number of speed steps Z=8, V=13.3m/min.
Formulate a table: dia. Range for diff. rpm values in Harmonic
progression
RPM  dx mm dx mm
N1 =
N2 =
N3 =
N4 =
N5 =
N6 =
N7 =
N8=
4. The RPM Values Constitute a Logarithmic Progression:

In this progression the dia. range is a function of the dia.

Where: M is known as the location
coefficient; generally p=0.5.
The logarithmic progression can be written as follows
For a given value of n1, nz & Z it is difficult to develop
the logarithmic progression as this has to be done by
successive trials with different values of M.
For instance
Knowing d2 the next dia. Is found as
In this manner d12 can be found for two values of M. say
M=1.0 & 0.5. As it is known that d12=17mm, the correct
value of M is found by linear interpolation.
The logarithmic progression for the data of previous ex.
Is given in table4. It would be developed for a value of
M=0.88.
The value of rpm & dia. range for the same data used in the previous
ex. are tabulated in table4. It has been developed for a value of
M=0.88.
Table4: Dia. Range for diff. rpm values in logarithmic progression
EX.4 Let us calculate the RPM value & dia. Range served by
each RPM for the following conditions n1=20RPM,
nz=250RPM, number of speed steps Z=8, V=13.3m/min.
Formulate a table: dia. Range for diff. rpm values in
logarithmic progression
RPM  dx mm dx mm
N1 =
N2 =
N3 =
N4 =
N5 =
N6 =
N7 =
N8=
A comparison of the rpm value of table2-4 reveals that in the
low as well as high rpm range the value of table4 lie b/n the
values of table2&3.

It may be thus concluded that from the point of view of the

operational efficiency of the machine tool, logarithmic
progression is most suitable. The efficiency of geometric
progression if poorer in the low rpm range, whereas that of
the harmonic progression is poorer in the high rpm range.

Despite the major shortcoming discussed above, geometric

progression is commonly used in machine tool drives owing
to the following advantages:
1. Constant loss of economic cutting speed in the whole rpm
range
2. Constant loss of productivity in the whole rpm range
3. Better design feature
Geometric progression is commonly used in machine tool drives
owing to the following advantages:
1. Constant loss of economic cutting speed in the whole rpm range:
Suppose the spindle rpm value constitute: n1, n2, n3, …, nj, nj+1
Consider optimum cutting speed lie b/n nj & nj+1

Obviously, of the two rpm nj & nj+1, we select the one which gives a cutting speed
closer to Vopt. The diff. b/n the actual & optimum cutting speed is known as the loss
of economic cutting speed & hence the loss of economic cutting speed is maximum
when the optimum cutting speed lie at the middle of two speeds provided by nj &
nj+1

It may concluded that in order that (Vj)max may be constant & j must be
constant. this means that the rpm value must lie in a geometric progression.
2. Constant loss of productivity in the whole rpm range:

The productivity of a machining operation can be expressed as

the surface area of metal removed in unit time. i.e. by the
quantity:

Where: V= the cutting speed, m/min

S = the feed, mm/rev

____ =V

For a constant value of feed s & depth of cut t, the

productivity of machining operation is constant in the whole
rpm range.
3. Better design features:
When all the rpm value of a spindle are obtained from a single
transmission, i.e. by changing gears only b/n two shafts, then any of
the series discussed above can be utilized for designing the speed
box.
If the rpm value are changed by mounting a new pair of gears on the
shaft every time, then changing of speeds becoming time-
consuming, inconvenient & economically infeasible. If the rpm
values are obtained by mounting gear pairs of the transmission ratio
the dimension of the speed box becoming too large.
These consideration underline the fact that speed steps in a speed
box should be obtained not through a singe transmission b/n two
shaft but through a group of transmission b/n a number of shaft.
This feature can be realized in an actual speed box design only if the
rpm value lie in a geometric progression.
The Initial Information Required for Designing a Speed box:
Selection of Range of Ratio:
Essential information before start designing stepped drive:
1. The highest out put rpm, nmax
2. The lowest out put rpm, nmin
3. The number of steps Z into which the range b/n nmax
& nmin is divided
4. The number of stages in which the required number
of speed steps are to be achieved.
An important parameter in designing speed boxes is the range
ratio:

The very wide speed range is generally neither practicable

nor economically feasible. The value Rv should therefore,
be kept within reasonable limits.
The range of dia. Should be selected & reveals that a ratio of:
covers more than 85% of the wp., while
6 covers 92% of the wp.
After selecting the proper values of Rv & Rd, then the range
ratio Rn is determined. Typical values of Rn for some groups of
machine tools are given in table5:
Table5: typical range ratio value for some machine tools.
A variety of cutting tools of diff. shapes & compositions are
used on general-purpose machine tools, & therefore, Rn values
are relatively large.

On the other hand, in grinding machines the grinding wheel

diameter generally varies in the range Rd<2 & the wheel
material being the same, Rn values are small.

Low Rn value in the range of Rn=5-10 are also characteristic

of special purpose machine tools.

The Rn value calculated on the basis of conditions discussed

above should be increased about 25% to provide for future
progress in machining techniques, cutting tool materials &
design.
Stepped Regulation of Feed:
Design of Feed Box:

In machine tools the feed motion in generally obtained through

following kinematics train:
1. The driving member, it may be driven by the spindle through
gear, belt or chain transmission in lathe & drilling, or may be
powered by an independent motor as in milling machine;
2. The device for engagement & reversing the feed mechanism;
3. The feed box;
4. The single transmission which provide heavy speed regulation;
5. The traction device which is generally a screw & nut or rack &
pinion transmission;
6. A rapid travers mechanism which is generally powered by a
separate motor & is kinematically linked to the feed mechanism
immediately after the single gear transmission.
The accuracy of the kinematic train of the feed box is
determined by its function.
• Productivity & accuracy in turning, drilling, boring are
not high
• Generating obtain profile thread, gear, worm cutting
In a majority of machine tools stepped feed regulation is
employed b/c economically viable step-less methods of feed
regulation are not available.
The machining time of the
an operation is in general
calculated from the
expression The productivity of the machine tool, which
may be described as the length of machined
surface per unit time.
Let Qopt of the machine tool corresponding to
the nopt & sopt, which lie b/n spindle speeds nj
& nj+1 & feed rate sj & sj+1
End of Chapter Two