Module 1

1. List the members of these sets.

2. Find the power set of each of these sets, where a and b are distinct elements.
a) {a} b) {a, b} c) {∅, {∅}}

Ans:
a) {0,{a}}
b) {0, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}
c) {0,{0},{{0}},{0,{0}}}

3. Find the sets A and B if A − B = {1, 5, 7, 8}, B − A = {2, 10}, and A ∩ B = {3, 6, 9}.

Ans:

4. Suppose that the universal set is U = {1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Express each of these sets
with bit strings where the ith bit in the string is 1 if i is in the set and 0 otherwise.
a) {3, 4, 5}
b) {1, 3, 6, 10}
c) {2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9}
Ans:
a) 00 1110 0000
b) 10 1001 0001
c) 01 1100 1110

5. Let f (x) = 2x where the domain is the set of real numbers. What is
a) f (Z)? b) f (N)? c) f (R)?

Ans:
a) the set of even integers
b) the set of positive even integers
c) the set of real numbers
6. Determine whether each of these functions is a bijection from R to R.
a) f (x) = −3x + 4
b) f (x) = −3x 2+ 7
c) f (x) = (x + 1) ∕(x + 2)
d) f (x) = x5+ 1

Ans:
If we can find an inverse, the function is a bijection. Otherwise, we must explain why the function is
not on-to-one or not onto.
a) This is a bijection since the inverse function is f −1(x) = (4 − x)/3.
b) This is not one-to-one since f (17) = f (−17), for instance. It is also not onto, since the range is
the interval (−∞, 7]. For example, 42548 is not in the range.
c) This function is a bijection, but not from R to R. To see that the domain and range are not R,
note that x = −2 is not in the domain, and x = 1 is not in the range. On the other hand, f is a
bijection from R − {−2} to R − {1}, since its inverse is f −1(x) = (1 − 2x)/(x − 1).
d) It is clear that this continuous function is increasing throughout its entire domain (R), and it
takes on both arbitrarily large values and arbitrarily small (large negative) ones. So, it is a bijection.
Its inverse is clearly f −1(x) = √5 x − 1.

7. List the ordered pairs in the relation R from A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} to B = {0, 1, 2, 3}, where (a, b) ∈
R if and only if
a) a = b. b) a + b = 4. c) a > b. d) a ∣ b. e) gcd (a, b) = 1. f) lcm(a, b) = 2.
Ans: In each case, we need to find all the pairs (a, b) with a E A and b E B such that the condition
is satisfied. This is straightforward.
a) {(0,0), (1, 1), (2,2), (3,3)}
b) {(1,3), (2,2), (3, 1), (4,0)}
c) {(1,0), (2,0), (2, 1), (3,0), (3,1), (3,2), (4,0), (4, 1), (4,2), (4,3)}
d) Recall that a I b means that b is a multiple of a (a is not allowed to be 0). Thus, the answer is
{(1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 0), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 3), (4, O)}.
e) We need to look for pairs whose greatest common divisor is 1-in other words, pairs that are
relatively prime. Thus, the answer is {(0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2),
(4, 1), (4, 3)}. f) There are not very many pairs of numbers (by definition only positive integers are
considered) whose least common multiple is 2: only 1 and 2, and 2 and 2. Thus the answer is {(1,
2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}.

8. Show that the relation R = ∅ on a nonempty set S is symmetric and transitive, but not
reflexive.

Ans: If R = Ø, then the hypotheses of the conditional statements in the definitions of symmetric
and transitive are never true, so those statements are always true by definition. Because S "= Ø,
the statement (a, a) ∈ R is false for an element of S , so ∀a (a, a) ∈ R is not true; thus R is not
reflexive

9. Show that the relation R = ∅ on the empty set S = ∅ is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive.

Ans: Each of the properties is a universally quantified statement. Because the domain is empty,
each of them is vacuously true
10. How many different relations are there from a set with m elements to a set with n
elements?
Ans: There are mn elements of the set A x B, if A is a set with m elements and B is a set with n
elements. A relation from A to B is a subset of A x B. Thus, the question asks for the number of
subsets of the set A x B, which has mn elements. By the product rule, it is 2mn.

11. How many of the 16 different relations on {0, 1} contain the pair (0, 1)?
Ans: A relation is just a subset. A subset can either contain a specified element or not; half
of them do and half of them do not. Therefore 8 of the 16 relations on {O, 1} contain the pair
(0, 1). Alternatively, a relation on {O, 1} containing the pair (0, 1) is just a set of the form {(O, 1)}
U X, where XS: {(O, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1)}. Since this latter set has 3 elements, it has 23 = 8 subsets.

12. How many relations are there on a set with n elements that are
a) symmetric? b) antisymmetric? c) asymmetric? d) irreflexive?
e) reflexive and symmetric? f) neither reflexive nor irreflexive?
Ans: These are combinatorics problems, some harder than others. Let A be the set with n
elements on which the relations are defined.
a) To specify a symmetric relation, we need to decide, for each unordered pair {a, b} of distinct
elements of A, whether to include the pairs (a, b) and (b, a) or leave them out; this can be done in
2 ways for each such unordered pair. Also, for each element a E A, we need to decide whether to
include (a, a) or not, again 2 possibilities. We can think of these two parts as one by considering
an element to be an unordered pair with repetition allowed. Thus we need to make this 2-fold
choice C(n + 1, 2) times, since there are C(n + 2 - 1, 2) ways to choose an unordered pair with
repetition allowed. Therefore the answer is 2°Cn+l,2) = 2n(n+l)/2 .
b) This is somewhat similar to part (a). For each unordered pair {a, b} of distinct elements of A, we
have a 3-way choice-either include (a, b) only, include (b, a) only, or include neither. For each
element of A we have a 2-way choice. Therefore the answer is 3C(n, 2)2n = 3n(n-l)/2 2".
c) As in part (b) we have a 3-way choice for a -/=- b. There is no choice about including (a, a) in
the relation-the definition prohibits it. Therefore the answer is 3C(n, 2) = 3n(n-l)/2 .
d) For each ordered pair (a, b), with a-/=- b (and there are P(n, 2) such pairs), we can choose to
include (a, b) or to leave it out. There is no choice for pairs (a, a). Therefore the answer is 2P(n, 2 )
= 2n(n-l).
e) This is just like part (a), except that there is no choice about including (a, a). For each
unordered pair of distinct elements of A, we can choose to include neither or both of the
corresponding ordered pairs. Therefore the answer is 2C(n,2) = 2n(n-lJ/2 .
f) We have complete freedom with the ordered pairs (a, b) with a -/=- b, so that part of the choice
gives us 2P(n,2) possibilities, just as in part (d). For the decision as to whether to include (a,a), two
of the 2" possibilities are prohibited: we cannot include all such pairs, and we cannot leave them
all out. Therefore, the answer is 2P (n,2l (2" - 2) = 2"2 -"(2" - 2) = 2"2 - 2n2 -n+1.

13. Represent each of these relations on {1, 2, 3} with a matrix (with the elements of this set
listed in increasing order).
a) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3)}
b) {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
c) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}
d) {(1, 3), (3, 1)}

Ans:
14. How can the matrix representing a relation R on a set A be used to determine whether
the relation is irreflexive?
Ans: An irreflexive relation (see the preamble to Exercise 11 in Section 9.1) is one in which
no element is related to itself. In the matrix, this means that there are no 1 's on the main
diagonal (position mii for some i). Equivalently, the relation is irreflexive if and only if every
entry on the main diagonal of the matrix is 0.

15. How can the matrix for R, the complement of the relation R, be found from the
matrix representing R, when R is a relation on a finite set A?
Ans: Since the relation R is the relation that contains the pair (a, b) (where a and b are elements
of the appropriate sets) if and only if R does not contain that pair, we can form the matrix for
R simply by changing all the l's to O's and O's to l's in the matrix for R.

16. How can the matrix for R−1, the inverse of the relation R, be found from the matrix
representing R, when R is a relation on a finite set A?

Ans: We take the transpose of the matrix, since we want the (i, j)th entry of the matrix for R−1 to
be 1 if and only if the (j,i)th entry of R is 1.

17. Draw the directed graph that represents the relation

18. Let R be the relation on the set {0, 1, 2, 3} containing the ordered pairs
(0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2), and (3, 0). Find the
a) reflexive closure of R. b) symmetric closure of R.

Ans:

19. How can the directed graph representing the symmetric closure of a relation on a finite
set be constructed from the directed graph for this relation?

Ans: To form the digraph of the symmetric closure, we simply need to add an edge from x to
y whenever this edge is not already in the directed graph but the edge from y to x is
20. How can the directed graph representing the reflexive closure of a relation on a finite set
be constructed from the directed graph of the relation?
Ans: To form the reflexive closure, we simply need to add a loop at each vertex that does
not already have one

21. Let R be the relation on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} containing the ordered pairs (1, 3), (2, 4),
(3, 1), (3, 5), (4, 3), (5, 1), (5, 2), and (5, 4). Find
a) R 2. b) R 3. c) R4. d) R5. e) R6. f) R *.
Ans:
22. Which of these relations on {0, 1, 2, 3} are equivalence relations? Determine the
properties of an equivalence relation that the others lack.
a) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
b) {(0, 0), (0, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
c) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
d) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
e) {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0),(2, 2), (3, 3)}
Ans: In each case we need to check for reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity.
a) This is an equivalence relation; it is easily seen to have all three properties. The equivalence
classes all have just one element.
b) This relation is not reflexive since the pair (1, 1) is missing. It is also not transitive, since the
pairs (0, 2) and (2, 3) are there, but not (0, 3).
c) This is an equivalence relation. The elements 1 and 2 are in the same equivalence class; 0 and
3 are each in their own equivalence class.
d) This relation is reflexive and symmetric, but it is not transitive. The pairs (1, 3) and (3, 2) are
present, but not (1, 2).
e) This relation would be an equivalence relation were the pair (2, 1) present. As it is, its absence
makes the relation neither symmetric nor transitive.

23. Show that the relation R consisting of all pairs (x, y) such that x and y are bit strings of
length three or more that agree in their first three bits is an equivalence relation on the
set of all bit strings of length three or more. Also find al equivalence class.

Ans:

24. Let R be the relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers such that ((a, b),
(c, d)) ∈ R if and only if a + d = b + c. Show that R is an equivalence relation.\
Ans: By algebra, the given condition is the same as the condition that f ((a, b)) = f ((c, d)), where f
((x, y)) = x -y. Therefore, by Exercise 9 this is an equivalence relation. If we want a more explicit
proof, we can argue as follows. For reflexivity, ((a, b), (a, b)) E R because a + b = b + a. For
symmetry, ((a, b), (c, d)) E R if and only if a+ d = b + c, which is equivalent to c + b = d +a, which
is true if and only if ((c, d), (a, b)) ER. For transitivity, suppose ((a, b), (c, d)) E R and ((c, d), (e, f))
E R. Thus, we have a+ d = b + c and c + e = d + f. Adding, we obtain a + d + c + e = b + c + d + f.
Simplifying, we have a + e = b + f, which tells us that ((a, b), (e, f)) ER.
25. Let R be the relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers such that
((a, b), (c, d)) ∈ R if and only if ad = bc. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Ans: This follows from Exercise 9, where f is the function from the set of pairs of positive integers
to the set of positive rational numbers that takes (a, b) to a/b, since clearly ad = bc if and only if a/b
= c/d. If we want an explicit proof, we can argue as follows. For reflexivity, ((a, b), (a, b)) ∈ R
because a·b = b·a. If ((a, b), (c, d)) ∈ R then ad = bc, which also means that cb = da, so ((c, d), (a,
b)) ∈ R; this tells us that R is symmetric. Finally, if ((a, b), (c, d)) ∈ R and ((c, d), (e, f)) ∈ R then ad
= bc and cf = de. Multiplying these equations gives acdf = bcde, and since all these numbers are
nonzero, we have af = be, so ((a, b), (e, f)) ∈ R; this tells us that R is transitive.

26. Show that the relation R on the set of all bit strings such that s R t if and only if s and t
contain the same number of 1s is an equivalence relation.
Ans: This follows from Exercise 9, with f being the function from bit strings to nonnegative integers
given by f(s) =the number of l's ins.

27. What is the congruence class [n]5(that is, the equivalence class of n with respect to
congruence modulo 5) when n is
a) 2? b) 3? c) 6? d) −3?
Ans:
We have by definition that [n]s = { i I i = n (mod 5) } .
a) [2]s = { i I i = 2 (mod 5)} = { ... , -8, -3, 2, 7, 12, ... }
b) [3]s = { i Ii= 3 (mod 5)} = { .. .,-7,-2,3,8, 13, ... }
c) [6]s = { i Ii= 6 (mod 5)} = { ... , -9, -4, 1, 6, 11, ... }
d) [-3]s = { i Ii= -3 (mod 5)} = { ... , -8, -3, 2, 7, 12, ... } (the same as [2]s)

28. Give a description of each of the congruence classes modulo 6.

29. Which of these collections of subsets are partitions of {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}?
a) {−3, −1, 1, 3}, {−2, 0, 2} b) {−3, −2, −1, 0}, {0, 1, 2, 3}
c) {−3, 3}, {−2, 2}, {−1, 1}, {0} d) {−3, −2, 2, 3}, {−1, 1}

Ans:
a) This is a partition, since it satisfies the definition.
b) This is not a partition, since the subsets are not disjoint.
c) This is a partition, since it satisfies the definition.
d) This is not a partition, since the union of the subsets leaves out 0.
30. List the ordered pairs in the equivalence relations produced by these partitions of {0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5}.
a) {0}, {1, 2}, {3, 4, 5} b) {0, 1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}
c) {0, 1, 2}, {3, 4, 5} d) {0}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5}
Ans:
In each case, we need to list all the pairs we can where both coordinates are chosen from the
same subset. We should proceed in an organized fashion, listing all the pairs corresponding to
each part of the partition.
a) {(0,0), (1, 1), (1,2), (2. 1), (2,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5)}
b) {(0,0), (0, 1), (1,0), (1, 1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3), (4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5)}
c) {(0,0), (0, 1), (0,2), (1,0), (1, 1), (1,2), (2,0), (2, 1), (2,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5),
(5,3), (5, 4), (5, 5)}
d) {(0,0), (1, 1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5)}

31. Determine the number of different equivalence relations on a set with three elements by
listing them.
Ans: It is easier to write down a partition than it is to list the pairs in an equivalence relation, so
we will answer the question using this notation. Let the set be {1, 2, 3}. We want to write down
all possible partitions of this set. One partition is just {{1, 2, 3}}, i.e., having just one set
(This corresponds to the equivalence relation in which every pair of elements are related). At
the other extreme, there is the partition {{l}, {2}, {3}}, which corresponds to the equality relation
(Each x is related only to itself). The only other way to split up the elements of this set is into a set
with two elements and a set with one element, and there are clearly three ways to do this,
depending on which element we decide to put in the set by itself. Thus, we get the partitions (pay
attention to the punctuation!) {{l, 2}, {3}}, {{1, 3}, {2}}, and {{2, 3}, {1}}. If we wished to list the
ordered pairs, we could; for example, the relation corresponding to {{2,3}, {l}} is
{(2,2), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3), (1,1)}. We found five partitions, so the answer to the question is 5.

32. Which of these relations on {0, 1, 2, 3} are partial orderings? Determine the properties of
a partial ordering that the others lack.
a) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
b) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 0), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
c) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
d) {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}
e) {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2), (3, 3)}

Ans: The question in each case is whether the relation is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.
Suppose the relation is called R. a) Clearly this relation is reflexive because each of 0, 1, 2, and 3
is related to itself. The relation is also antisymmetric, because the only way for a to be related to b
is for a to equal b. Similarly, the relation is transitive, because if a is related to b, and b is related to
c, then necessarily a= b = c so a is related to c (because the relation is reflexive). This is just the
equality relation on {O, 1, 2, 3}; more generally, the equality relation on any set satisfies all three
conditions and is therefore a partial ordering. (It is the smallest partial ordering; reflexivity insures
that every partial ordering contains at least all the pairs (a, a) . ) b) This is not a partial ordering,
because although the relation is reflexive, it is not antisymmetric (we have 2 R 3 and 3 R 2, but 2 -
=F 3 ), and not transitive ( 3 R 2 and 2 R 0, but 3 is not related to 0 ). c) This is a partial ordering,
because it is clearly reflexive; is antisymmetric (we just need to note that (1, 2) is the only pair in
the relation with unequal components); and is transitive (for the same reason). d) This is a partial
ordering because it is the "less than or equal to" relation on {1, 2, 3} together with the isolated
point 0. e) This is not a partial ordering. The relation is clearly reflexive, but it is not antisymmetric
(0 R 1 and 1 R 0, but 0 -=F 1) and not transitive ( 2 R 0 and 0R1, but 2 is not related to 1).
33. Which of these pairs of elements are comparable in the
poset (Z+, ∣)?
a) 5, 15 b) 6, 9 c) 8, 16 d) 7, 7
Ans: a) These are comparable, since 5 | 15.
b) These are not comparable since neither divides the other.
c) These are comparable, since 8 | 16.
d) These are comparable, since 7 | 7

34. Find two incomparable elements in these posets.

Ans: We need to find elements such that the relation holds in neither direction between them. The
answers we give are not the only ones possible.
a) One such pair is {1} and {2}. These are both subsets of {0, 1, 2}, so they are in the poset, but
neither is a subset of the other.
b) Neither 6 nor 8 divides the other, so they are incomparable

35. Draw the Hasse diagram for the greater than or equal to relation on {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Ans:

36. What is the covering relation of the partial ordering

37. What is the covering relation of the partial ordering {(A, B) ∣ A ⊆ B} on the power set of
S, where S = {a, b, c}?
Ans:
38. Draw the Hasse diagram for divisibility on the set
a) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. b) {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}.
c) {1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48}. d) {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64}.

Ans:

39. Find a compatible total order for the divisibility relation on the set
{1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 12, 24, 36}.
Ans: Since a larger number can never divide a smaller one, the “is less than or equal to” relation
on any set is a compatible total order for the divisibility relation. This gives 1 ≺t 2 ≺t 3 ≺t 6 ≺t 8 ≺t
12 ≺t 24 ≺t 36.

40. Find all compatible total orderings for the poset ({1, 2, 4, 5, 12, 20}, |}
Ans:
Clearly 1 must come first, and 20 must follow each element except possibly 12. The relative
positions of 2, 4, and 12 are fixed. The 5 can go anywhere, as long as it lies between 1 and 20.
Following these guidelines, we see that the following seven total orderings are the ones
compatible with the given relation: 1 -< 5 -< 2 -< 4 -< 12 -< 20' 1 -< 2 -< 5 -< 4 -< 12 -< 20' 1 -< 2 –
< 4 -< 5 -< 12 -< 20' 1 -< 2 -< 4 -< 12 -< 5 -< 20' 1 -< 5 -< 2 -< 4 -< 20 -< 12' 1 -< 2 -< 5 -< 4 -< 20
-< 12' 1 -< 2 -< 4 -< 5 -< 20 -< 12.
41. Answer these questions for the poset ({3, 5, 9, 15,24, 45}, ∣).
a) Find the maximal elements.
b) Find the minimal elements.
c) Is there a greatest element?
d) Is there a least element?
e) Find all upper bounds of {3, 5}.
f) Find the least upper bound of {3, 5}, if it exists.
g) Find all lower bounds of {15, 45}.
h) Find the greatest lower bound of {15, 45}, if it exists.
Ans:

42. Determine whether these posets are lattices.

Ans:
43. Answer these questions for the poset ({{1}, {2}, {4}, {1, 2}, {1, 4}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}, {1, 3, 4},
{2, 3, 4}}, ⊆).
a) Find the maximal elements.
b) Find the minimal elements.
c) Is there a greatest element?
d) Is there a least element?
e) Find all upper bounds of {{2}, {4}}.
f) Find the least upper bound of {{2}, {4}}, if it exists.
g) Find all lower bounds of {{1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4}}.
h) Find the greatest lower bound of {{1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4}}, if it exists.

Ans:

44. Answer these questions for the poset ({2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 27, 36, 48, 60, 72}, ∣).
a) Find the maximal elements.
b) Find the minimal elements.
c) Is there a greatest element?
d) Is there a least element?
e) Find all upper bounds of {2, 9}.
f) Find the least upper bound of {2, 9}, if it exists.
g) Find all lower bounds of {60, 72}.
h) Find the greatest lower bound of {60, 72}, if it exists.
 Ans:
The reader should draw the Hasse diagram to aid in answering these questions.
a) Clearly the numbers 27, 48, 60, and 72 are maximal, since each divides no number in the list
other than itself. All of the other numbers divide 72, however, so they are not maximal.
b) Only 2 and 9 are minimal. Every other element is divisible by either 2 or 9.
c) There is no greatest element, since, for example, there is no number in the set that both 60 and
72 divide.
d) There is no least element, since there is no number in the set that divides both 2 and 9.
e) We need to find numbers in the list that are multiples of both 2 and 9. Clearly 18, 36, and 72 are
the numbers we are looking for.
f) Of the numbers we found in the previous part, 18 satisfies the definition of the least upper
bound, since it divides the other two upper bounds.
g) We need to find numbers in the list that are divisors of both 60 and 72. Clearly 2, 4, 6, and 12
are the numbers we are looking for.
h) Of the numbers we found in the previous part, 12 satisfies the definition of the greatest lower
bound, since the other three lower bounds divide it

45. Find the reflexive closure, the symmetric closure and transitive closure of the
relation
{(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1)} on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}.
46. a) Define a partial ordering.
b) Show that the divisibility relation on the set of positive integers is a partial
order.
47. Let R be the relation R = {(a, b) ∣ a < b} on the set of integers. Find
a) R −1. b) R2.
48. Let R be the relation R = {(a, b) ∣ a divides b} on the set of positive integers. Find
a) R −1. b) R’.
49. Prove, if A and B are sets, then (A ∪ B )’= A’ ∩ B’
50. Use Warshall’s algorithm to find the transitive closures of the relation on the set {1,
2, 3, 4, 5} containing the ordered pairs (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 5), (4, 3), (5, 1),(5, 2), and (5, 4).