Chapter 4: Analog Output tw rev. 26.8.

16

If you use or reference these slides or the associated textbook, please cite the original authors’ work as follows:
Toulson, R. & Wilmshurst, T. (2016). Fast and Effective Embedded Systems Design - Applying the ARM mbed
(2nd edition), Newnes, Oxford, ISBN: 978-0-08-100880-5.
www.embedded-knowhow.co.uk
Introducing Data Conversion
Microcontrollers are digital devices; but they spend most of their time dealing
with a world which is analog. To make sense of incoming analog signals, for
example from a microphone or temperature sensor, they must be able to
convert them into digital form. After processing the data, they may then need
to convert digital data back to analog form, for example to drive a
loudspeaker or dc motor. Here we consider digital to analog conversion.
The Digital-to-Analog Converter
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) converts a binary input number into an
analog output. The actual circuitry inside the DAC need not concern us. We
can however represent the DAC as a block diagram, as shown. This has a
digital input, represented by D, and an analog output, represented by Vo. To
work, the DAC needs a voltage reference - a precise, stable and known
voltage.

Most DACs have a simple relationship between

their digital input and analog output, as shown
here. Vr is the value of the voltage reference.
DAC Characteristics

Output Voltage
V
r
n n
(2 - 1) V 2
r
n n
(2 - 2) V 2
r

n
3V 2
r
n
2V 2
r
n
V 2
r

n n
000 001 010 011 (2 - 2) (2 - 1) 2n

D (Input Binary Number)

The LPC1768 (and hence the mbed) has a 10-bit DAC; there will therefore
be 210 steps in its output characteristic, i.e. 1024. Normally it uses its own
power supply voltage, i.e. 3.3 V, as voltage reference. The step size, or
resolution, will therefore be 3.3/1024, i.e. 3.22 mV.
Analog Output on the mbed
The mbed has an internal DAC. The output of this connects to the mbed’s
single analog output, on pin 18. This has a set of API utilities which can be
used with it.

Functions Usage
Create an AnalogOut object connected to
AnalogOut
the specified pin
Set the output voltage, specified as a
write
percentage (float)
Set the output voltage, represented as an
write_u16
unsigned short in the range [0x0, 0xFFFF]
Return the current output voltage setting,
read
measured as a percentage (float)
operator= An operator shorthand for write()

C code
feature
Check your understanding of keywords float, short and unsigned.
Setting Simple Analog Outputs
In this program we create an analog output labelled Aout, using
AnalogOut. It’s then possible to set the analog output simply by
setting Aout to any permissible value. Aout takes a floating point
number between 0.0 and 1.0. The actual output voltage on pin 18 is
between 0 V and 3.3 V; the floating point number is scaled to this.

/*Program Example 4.1: Three values of DAC are output in turn on

Pin 18. Read the output on a DVM.

*/
#include "mbed.h"
AnalogOut Aout(p18); //create an analog output on pin 18
int main() {
while(1) {
Aout=0.25; // 0.25*3.3V = 0.825V
wait(2);
Aout=0.5; // 0.5*3.3V = 1.65V
wait(2);
Aout=0.75; // 0.75*3.3V = 2.475V
wait(2);
}
}
Generating a sawtooth waveform
/*Program Example 4.2: Sawtooth waveform on DAC output. View on
oscilloscope */

#include "mbed.h"
AnalogOut Aout(p18);
float i;

int main() {
while(1){
for (i=0;i<1;i=i+0.1){ // i is incremented in steps of 0.1
Aout=i;
wait(0.001); // wait 1 millisecond
}
}
}
Generating a sine wave

/*Program Example 4.3: Sine wave on DAC output. View on oscilloscope

*/

#include "mbed.h"
AnalogOut Aout(p18);
float i;

int main() {
while(1) {
for (i=0;i<2;i=i+0.05) {
Aout=0.5+0.5*sin(i*3.14159); // Compute the sine value,+ half the range
wait(.001); // Controls the sine wave period
}
}
}

C code Here we apply the sin( ) function,

feature
part of the C standard library.
Questions from the Quiz
1. A 7-bit DAC obeys the equation shown earlier, and has a voltage reference of
2.56 V.
a) What is its resolution?
b) What is its output if the input is 100 0101?
c) What is its output if the input is 0x2A?
d) What is its digital input in decimal and binary if its output reads 0.48 V?

3. What is the output of the LPC1768 DAC, if its input digital word is
a) 00 0000 1000
b) 0x80
c) 10 1000 1000 ?

4. What output voltages will be read on a DVM while this program loop runs on the
mbed?
while(1){
for (i=0;i<1;i=i+0.2){
Aout=i;
wait(0.1);
}
}

5. The program in Question 4 gives a crude saw tooth waveform. What is its period?
Another Form of Analog Output: Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is an alternative to the DAC; PWM represents a neat
and simple way of getting a rectangular digital waveform to control an analog
variable, usually voltage or current. PWM is used in a variety of applications, ranging
from telecommunications to robotic control.
Whatever duty cycle a PWM stream has, there is an average value, as shown. By
controlling the duty cycle, we control this average value. When using PWM, it is this
average that we’re usually interested in.

𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = ∗ 100%
𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
Simple Averaging Circuits
The average PWM value can be extracted from the PWM stream in a number of
ways. We can use a low-pass filter, like the resistor-capacitor combination below
left. In this case, and as long as PWM frequency and values of R and C are well-
chosen, Vout becomes an analog output, with a bit of ripple, and the combination of
PWM and filter acts just like a DAC. Alternatively, if we switch the current flowing in
an inductive load, below right, then the inductance has an averaging effect on the
current flowing through it. This is important, as the windings of any motor are
inductive, so we can use this technique for motor control.

VS S

D
L

Resistor-capacitor low-pass filter An inductive load

PWM on the mbed
The mbed has six PWM outputs, on pins 21-26. Each
has two variables, period and pulse width, or duty
cycle derived from these. Similar to previous
examples, a PWM output can be established, named
and allocated to a pin using PwmOut. All PWM
outputs share the same period/frequency.

Functions Usage
PwmOut Create a PwmOut object connected to the specified pin
write Set the output duty-cycle, specified as a normalised float (0.0 – 1.0)
read Return the current output duty-cycle setting, measured as a normalised float (0.0 – 1.0)
period Set the PWM period, specified in seconds (float), keeping the duty cycle the same.
period_ms Set the PWM period, specified in milliseconds (int), keeping the duty cycle the same.
period_us Set the PWM period, specified in microseconds (int), keeping the duty cycle the same.
pulsewidth Set the PWM pulse width, specified in seconds (float), keeping the period the same.
pulsewidth_ms Set the PWM pulse width, specified in milliseconds (int), keeping the period the same.
pulsewidth_us Set the PWM pulse width, specified microseconds (int), keeping the period the same.
mbed-defined
An operator shorthand for write()
operator =
A Trial PWM Output
This program generates a 100 Hz pulse with 50% duty
cycle, i.e. a perfect square wave, appearing on pin 21.

/*Sets PWM source to fixed frequency and duty cycle. Observe output on
oscilloscope.
*/

#include "mbed.h"
PwmOut PWM1(p21); //create a PWM output called PWM1 on pin 21
int main() {
PWM1.period(0.010); // set PWM period to 10 ms
PWM1=0.5; // set duty cycle to 50%
}
Speed Control of a Small Motor
/*Program Example 4.5: PWM control to DC motor is repeatedly ramped
*/

#include "mbed.h"
PwmOut PWM1(p21);
float i;

int main() {
PWM1.period(0.010); //set PWM period to 10 ms
while(1) {
for (i=0;i<1;i=i+0.01) {
PWM1=i; //update PWM duty cycle
wait(0.2);
}
}
}

(Gate of MOSFET should now be connected to pin 21)

Generating PWM in Software
Although we have just used PWM sources on the mbed, it is useful to realise that
these aren’t essential for creating PWM; this can be done just with a digital output,
and some timing.
/*Program Example 4.6: Software generated PWM. 2 PWM values generated in turn, with
full on and off included for comparison.
*/
#include "mbed.h"
DigitalOut motor(p6);
int i;

int main() {
while(1) {
motor = 0; //motor switched off for 5 secs
wait (5);
for (i=0;i<5000;i=i+1) { //5000 PWM cycles, low duty cycle
motor = 1;
wait_us(400); //output high for 400us
motor = 0;
wait_us(600); //output low for 600us
}
for (i=0;i<5000;i=i+1) { //5000 PWM cycles, high duty cycle
motor = 1;
wait_us(800); //output high for 800us
motor = 0;
wait_us(200); //output low for 200us
}
motor = 1; //motor switched fully on for 5 secs
wait (5);
}
}
Questions from the Quiz

7. A PWM data stream has a frequency of 4 kHz, and duty cycle of 25%.
What is its pulse width?

8. A PWM data stream has period of 20 ms, and on time of 1 ms. What is
its duty cycle?

9. The PWM on an mbed is set up with these statements. What is the on

time of the waveform?
PWM1.period(0.004); // set PWM period
PWM1=0.75; // set duty cycle
Servo Control
A servo is a small rotary position control device, often used in radio-
controlled cars and aircraft to control angular position of variables such as
steering, elevators and rudders. Servos are now popular in certain robotic
applications. The servo shaft can be positioned to specific angular positions
by sending the servo a PWM signal, as shown.

20ms

0 degrees
1.25ms

90 degrees
1.5ms

180 degrees
0 1.75ms
Servo Control with the mbed
The servo requires a higher current than the USB standard can provide, and so
it must be powered using an external supply, e.g. with a 4xAA (6 V) battery
pack. The app board has PWM output connectors, so both breadboard or app
board builds are possible.
Producing Audio Output
/*Program Example 4.7: Plays the tune "Oranges and Lemons" on a piezo
buzzer, using PWM
*/

#include "mbed.h"
PwmOut buzzer(p21);

//frequency array
float frequency[]={659,554,659,554,440,494,554,587,494,659,554,440};
float beat[]={1,1,1,1,1,0.5,0.5,1,1,1,1,2}; //beat array
int main() {
while (1) {
for (int i=0;i<=11;i++) {
buzzer.period(1/(2*frequency[i])); // set PWM period
buzzer=0.5; // set duty cycle
wait(0.4*beat[i]); // hold for beat period
}
}
}

C code
feature
The program uses two arrays, one defined for frequency data, the other for
beat length. There are 12 values in each, for each of the 12 notes in the tune.
From the frequency array the PWM period is calculated and set, always with a
50% duty ratio.
Chapter review
• A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) converts an input binary number
to an output analog voltage, which is proportional to that input
number.
• DACs are widely used to create continuously varying voltages, for
example to generate analog waveforms.
• The mbed has a single DAC, and associated set of library functions.
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) provides a way of controlling certain
analog quantities, by varying the pulse width of a fixed frequency
rectangular waveform.
• PWM is widely used for controlling flow of electrical power, for
example led brightness or motor control.
• The mbed has six possible PWM outputs. They can all be individually
controlled, but must all share the same frequency.