UNIT 1

TOPIC: INTRO TO VIDEO CAMERA

VIDEO CAMERA

●A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition (as
opposed to a movie camera, which records images on film), initially developed for
the television industry but now common in other applications as well.

WORKING

● All camera work on same principles whether we shooting with professional or

consumer camera

● When the camera is pointed at a subject, the lens gathers the light reflected from
that scene first and focuses it on the beam splitter. The amount of light can be
controlled by an aperture ring here.

● The beam splitter (consists of various prisms or filters) splits the white light into red
green and blue light beams, usually referred to as RGB

● Once the white light has been divided into the three primary colours, the light
beams are directed imaging devices (CCD or CMOS or a Camera pick-up tube)
which converts light into electrical signals. Generally 3CCDs are used for separate
channels.

● After the information is converted into electric charge, all the electrical charges
combine to become the video signals for the three primary light colours. These RGB
signals makeup the chrominance (colour) information. The black and white signal
(Luminance) information is generated internally.

● Here, these signals are amplified and processed which can be recorded on
videotape or memory card.

● This information can be viewed through the viewfinder and LCD panel also.

PARTS OF A VIDEO CAMERA

1. A camera lens​consists of one or more pieces of glass that focuses and

frames an image within the camera. The lens contains an aperture control ring
that allows the camera operator to adjust the lens iris manually to control
exposure and the focus control ring on Lens allows the camera operator to
turn the ring manually to obtain the optimal focus.
2. Microphone: ​Most portable video cameras include a microphone intended for
environmental (natural) sound pickup. It may be built in or removable. A foam
sponge cover over the microphone reduces low-pitched wind rumble. The
camera may or maynot have sockets for more audio inputs
 3. The power zoom rocker switch located on the side of the lens, allows the
camera operator to electronically zoom the lens. The speed of the zoom may
vary, depending on the switch pressure.
4. The focus control ring on a lens allows the camera operator to turn the ring
manually to obtain the optimal focus.
5. The lens aperture control ring allows the camera operator to adjust the lens
iris manually to control exposure.
6. Lens shades​protect the lens elements from picking up light distortions from
the sun or a bright light.
7. Viewfinder: The viewfinder contains a small screen with a magnifying lens
that ​enlarges the image to be viewed by the camera operator. Depending on
the camera, a viewfinder can come in various shapes and sizes.
8. Battery: Battery power is essential for camera use. Every camera is equipped
with a rechargeable battery. Most batteries are lithium-ion based, and each is
made and designed to work specifically with its camera model only. A full
battery charge can usually take 12 hours, meaning an overnight charge will
suffice.
9. Controls: The camera's main controls include the Power switch and the
Record Button. It will also include playback buttons such as Play, Stop,
Rewind, Fast Forward and Pause. The controls also include output ports to
connect the camera for playback. All cameras should include the basic
red/white/yellow RCA cables to connect to any playback machine, but they
can also include USB or FireWire control for connection to a computer.

TOPIC 2: Types of Video Camera, Equipment and Accessories

Modern video cameras are available in a number of different configurations, shapes

and sizes that suit all kinds of different situations. They range from units that fit in a
pocket to cameras that are so heavy that they can take a couple of people to lift
them. But on the basis of manufacturing they can be divided into 2 types:

Analogue and Digital cameras

All cameras, analogue and digital, large or small, start out with an analogue video
signal. The light that is transported through the lens till splitting into three primary
colours remains analogue.

Analogue Video cameras : After splitting into RGB, the video signal remains analog
throughout the processing inside the camera and during the recording, assuming
that the VTR is also analogue.

Digital Video cameras: ​The RGB video signals are digitised and processed right
after leaving the CCDs.

Despite the difference between Analogue and Digital, high end or low end, television
cameras fall into three groups according to their usage.
● Studio cameras

● ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders

● Consumer cameras

Studio cameras: ​Studio cameras are very high quality cameras including
high-definition television (HDTV) cameras. They use high quality lenses and CCDs.
These cameras are heavy and generally need a pedestal or some other mount.
These cameras are used for various studio based productions such as news,
interviews, and panel shows or daily soaps. Also used in locations like concert and
convention halls and sports.

Any video camera when used along with other video cameras in a multiple-camera
setup is controlled by a device known as CCU(camera control unit) in the production
control room (PCR). Studio cameras are bulky, and have no recording compartments
as they are not needed to be taken out in the field.

ENG (Electronic news gathering): ​ENG cameras are larger and heavier (helps
dampen small movements), and usually supported by a camera shoulder support or
shoulder stock on the camera operator's shoulder, taking the weight off the hand,
which is freed to operate the zoom lens control.The lens is focused manually and
directly, without intermediate servo controls. However the lens zoom and focus can
be operated with remote controls with a television studio configuration operated by a
camera control unit (CCU) in case of outdoor broadcast.

EFP(Electronic Field Production): T ​ hese versatile cameras can be carried on the

shoulder, or mounted on camera pedestals and cranes, with the large, very long
focal length zoom lenses made for studio camera mounting.

These cameras are self-contained and hold the whole CCU in them. High quality
pictures that can be recorded on a separate VTR, or inbuilt VTR. ENG/EFP cameras
have more buttons and switches than a studio camera or a home camcorder. Option
to go for fully automatic and manual functions.

These cameras usually have recording abilities, so that the footage gathered can be
cut on the edit table.

Consumer Cameras:

●Camcorders​combine a camera and a VCR or other recording device in one unit;

these are mobile, and are widely used for television production, home movies,
electronic news gathering (ENG) (including citizen journalism), and similar
Applications.

● Closed-circuit television (CCTV) generally uses pan tilt zoom cameras (PTZ), for
security, surveillance, and/or monitoring purposes. Such cameras are designed to be
small, easily hidden, and able to operate unattended.
● Webcams​are video cameras which stream live feed to remote computers.
Camera phones - nowadays most video cameras are incorporated into mobile
Phones.

● Special camera systems​are used for scientific research, e.g. on board a satellite
or a space probe, in artificial intelligence and robotics research, and in medical use.

For example the hubble space telescope. Such cameras are often tuned for
non-visible radiation for infrared (for night vision and heat sensing) or X-ray (for
medical and video astronomy use)

TOPIC 3: Broadcasting

Broadcasting is sending audio or video content to a world wide audience using the
electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves), for a mass media like TV or radio. It is a
classic example of a one-to-many model of communication.

Broadcast standard is a system or protocol followed to broadcast and receive

television signals.

Transmission of programs from a radio or television station to receivers at homes

across the world is known as OTA (over the air) or terrestrial broadcasting and
requires a licence in most of the countries. Thus calling for a standardised approach.
The three prime most accepted standards of formats for broadcasting are:

NTSC (National Television Standards Committee) the first colour TV broadcast

system was implemented in the United States in 1953. This was based on the NTSC
- National Television System Committee standard. NTSC runs on 525 lines & 30
frames/second. It is used in the USA,Canada, Japan and Latin America. It has a
lower resolution than other standards but a faster frame rate, which reduces the
flicker. NTSC standards for TV defines a composite video signal with 60 half frames
(interlaced) per second.

PAL (Phase Alternating Line) PAL​- Phase Alternating Line standard was
introduced in the early 1960's and implemented in most European countries except
for France. The PAL standard utilises a wider channel bandwidth than NTSC which
allows for better picture quality. A standard used almost everywhere else in the
world, has the ability to display 625 lines of resolution with a frame rate of 25 frames
per second. It has higher resolution than NTSC but less frame rate. There are 50
fields per second.

SECAM (Sequential Color Memory)The SECAM - Sequential Couleur Avec

Memoire or Sequential Color with Memory standard was introduced in the early
1960's and implemented in France. SECAM uses the same bandwidth as PAL but
transmits the colour information sequentially. SECAM runs on 625 lines & 25
frames/second. is used sparingly around the world and can be found in France, parts
of Greece, Eastern Europe, Russia, Africa and a few other parts of the world.
 TOPIC 4 : Lenses & Filters: Types and Functions

A Lens is a curved piece of glass that causes Light rays to bend. Because glass is
denser than air, Lenses bend light so that it can be controlled and Projected in
Proper focus and size at a specific Point behind the Lens where a Light-Sensitive
material can record or transmit the image. A camera Lens – consists of one or more
pieces of glass that focus and frame an image within the camera. Simply Single
Lenses fall into two basic categories: Concave and Convex.

1. Concave Lenses​which are thinner at the Center than at the edges bend
Light rays away from the centre of the Lens.
2. Convex Lenses​are thickest at the centre and bend light toward the centre of
the Lens.
3. Compound lens: Modern film and video camera Lenses are composed of
more than one piece of glass and are called Compound Lenses. Compound
Lenses – Combine several concave and convex lenses.

Types of Lenses based on Focal Length

Here’s a brief list of the main types of lenses:

1. Prime Lenses

Prime lenses have a fixed focal length, which means you cannot zoom in and
out. Prime lenses are considered to be of a much higher quality than zoom
lenses and are easier on the wallet. You also have the advantage of higher
maximum apertures which means they perform really well in low light settings.

2. Normal or Standard Camera Lens

Lenses with a focal length of about 40mm to 60mm are considered “normal”
lenses because they tend to replicate most accurately what the naked human
eye sees. They do not have as much distortion as wide-angle lenses, but they
are still wide enough to replicate the peripheral vision of the human eye.

3. Wide Angle Lenses

Angle of view is greater than the human eye, achieved at less than 50 mm.
They are good for shooting scenery and creating the illusion of space. A good
wide angle will have a focal range from 16 mm to 50 mm. Beyond 16 mm, the
image starts getting distorted.

4. Telephoto Lenses

Angle of view is lesser than human eye, achieved at focal length greater than
55 mm. Telephoto zoom lenses are great for sports enthusiasts and nature
photographers. They Allow you to get close to your subject from a safe
distance. A typical telephoto zoom will offer a focal length range of 75mm to
300mm..
 5. Macro Lenses

Macro lenses are used mainly for close-up or macro photography. They allow
for sharp focus at very close distances while objects further off would be
completely out of focus. Their focal length ranges from 50 to 200 mm, and
they are used to photograph tiny objects.

Types of Filters

Ultraviolet Filters

News photographers often put an ultraviolet filter (UV filter) over the camera lens to
protect it from the adverse conditions encountered in ENG (electronic news
gathering) work. A damaged filter is much cheaper to replace than a lens. Protection
of this type is particularly important when the camera is used in high winds where dirt
or sleet can be blown into the lens. By screening out ultraviolet light, the filter also
slightly enhances image colour and contrast and reduces haze in distant scenes.

Neutral Density Filters

A neutral density filter is a grey filter that reduces light by one or more f-stops without
affecting colour. Professional video cameras normally have one or more neutral
density filters included in their internal filter wheels

Polarising Filters

Most people are familiar with the effect that polarised sunglasses have on reducing
reflections and cutting down glare. Unlike sunglasses, the effect of professional
polarising filters can be continuously varied—and, as a result, go much further in
their effect. Polarising filters can:

• Reduce glare and reflections

• Deepen blue skies

• Penetrate haze

• Saturate (intensify) colours

Contrast Control Filters

For critical exterior scenes the professional videographer must often consider ways
to reduce the brightness range. One way is with the use of a contrast control filter.
There are actually three types of these filters—low contrast, soft contrast, and the
Tiffen Ultra Contrast. The latter filter seems to affect sharpness the least and result in
the least amount of highlight or shadow flare.
Special Effect Filters ​Although there are scores of special effect filters available,
we’ll just highlight four of the most popular: the star filter, the starburst filter, the
diffusion or soft focus filter, and the fog filter.

Star Filters

You’ve undoubtedly seen scenes in which “fingers of light” projected out from the
sides of shiny objects—especially bright lights. This effect is created with a glass star
filter that has a microscopic grid of crossing parallel lines cut into its surface. Notice
in the picture on the right that the four-point star filter used slightly softens and
diffuses the image. Star filters can produce four, five, six, or eight-point stars,
depending on the lines engraved on the surface of the glass. The star effect varies
with the f-stop used.

Soft Focus and Diffusion Filters​

Sometimes you may want to create a dreamy, soft focus effect. By using a soft focus
filter or a diffusion filter (on the right, above) you can do this. These filters, which are
available in various levels of intensity, were regularly used in the early cinema to give
starlets a soft, dreamy appearance (while hiding signs of ageing). The f-stop used
will greatly affect the level of diffusion. In the case of soft focus filters or diffusion
materials it’s important to white balance your camera with these items in place.

Fog Filters

A certain amount of “atmosphere” can be added to dramatic locations by suggesting

a foggy morning or evening. Without having to rely on nature or artificial fog
machines, fog filters can create somewhat of the same effect.

TOPIC 5: Camera Control and Adjustment

APERTURE CONTROL

● Inside the lens, is a mechanism that opens to allow light to pass through the lens
into the camera (and onto the sensor). The amount or size of the opening varies and
is referred to as an ‘f’ number, for example f2, f2.8, f4 etc. The range of apertures is:
f1.4, f2, f2.8, f4, f5.6 f8, f11, f16, f22, f32.

● Smaller the f number, the bigger the opening and the more light allowed in.
● The aperture opening determines the ‘depth of field’ in a photograph. When you
focus on a subject, a certain distance, both in front of the subject and behind the
subject is also in focus. This area is called the depth of field. So, by controlling the
aperture, you can determine how much of the picture is in focus and use it to be
creative.

DEPTH OF FIELD

Depth-of-Field: When a lens focuses on a subject at a distance, all subjects at that

distance are sharply focused. Subjects that are not at the same distance are out of
focus and theoretically are not sharp.

DOF is the distance between the nearest and furthest point from the camera within
which the subject is in focus

DOF area begins with the object closest to the lens that appears in focus, and ends
with the most distant object in the scene that is still in focus

DOF is zone of sharpness

Factors affecting DOF:

1.Focal length of the lens

The depth of field is inversely proportional to the focal length of the lens; that is, the
smaller the focal length number of the lens, the greater the depth of field. For
example, a 28mm lens has the ability to capture more of the picture in sharp focus
than a 100mm lens.

2.Distance from the camera to the subject

Depth of field is directly proportional to distance; i.e. a subject at a greater distance

will have greater depth of field than a close-up subject. Therefore, you need not
worry as much about a distant subject being out of focus.

3.The size of the aperture or the setting of the f-stop

Large apertures (smaller f-stop number) give shallow DOF while small apertures
(larger f-stop number) give greater DOF

DEPTH OF FOCUS

D. FOCAL LENGTH

Focal length is defined as the distance from the optical centre of the lens to the focal
plane (CCD or target) of the camera when the lens is focused at infinity.
Focal length is generally measured in millimetres. In the case of lenses with fixed
focal lengths, We can talk about a 10mm lens, a 20 mm lens, a 100 mm lens, etc. As
we will see, this is a designation that tells a lot about how the lens will reproduce
subject matter.

E. ASPECT RATIO

An image's Aspect Ratio, or AR, represents a comparison of its width to height.

Notation for Aspect Ratio is normally in the form of X:Y, where X represents screen
width and Y represents height.

A standard analog TV has an AR of 4:3 which means that for every 4 units of width
it's 3 units high. And 16:9 is recent research and development of high definition
television (HDTV) HDTV systems differ from existing Conventional television
systems.

1- The first difference is in the shape of the screen. The conventional television
frame maintains an aspect ratio of 4:3 and the HDTV system provides a wide angle
of view with a screen ratio of 16:9.

2-The number of horizontal scanning lines has (625 to 1125) increased to provide
greater image detail and resolution.

3- The quality of the audio signal is greatly improved over existing systems.

For digital files there are really two types of AR. The first, and easiest to understand,
is the Storage Aspect Ratio, which is simply the ratio of horizontal Resolution to
vertical resolution. For example, a standard NTSC DVD has a Storage AR of 1.5:1
(720 / 480 = 1.5), while a typical PAL DVD has a Storage AR of 1.25 (720 / 576 =
1.25).
 UNIT 2

TOPIC 1 : TYPES OF SHOTS

A shot is the basic element of any video. It is a span of video recorded between each
take, or switching on and off the camera. These shots are arranged in sequence to
take the narrative forward and show different aspects or elements one by one. The
primary job of the producer is to shoot the shots to emphasise the elements of the
narrative to attract the attention of the audience, while conveying the meaning.

1.Extreme Long Shot (ELS)

A very wide field of view in which the camera takes in the entire viewing area. The
subject or subjects are small in relation to the background and tend to compete with
the surroundings for the viewer's attention. The ELS is often used early in a scene as
an "establishing shot". An establishing shot is used to show the audience where the
action is taking place. Background in dominating.

2.Long Shot (LS) or Wide Shot (WS)

A slightly closer field of view than the extreme long shot, but the subject remains
dominated by the much larger background area.

3.Medium Long Shot (MLS)

Used to clearly show body gestures. In the case of a standing actor, the lower frame
line cuts off his feet and ankles. Some documentaries with social themes favour
keeping people in the longer shots, keeping social circumstances rather than the
individual as the focus of attention.

4.Medium Shot (MS)

The subject becomes larger and more dominant. The background is still important
but now shares space with the subject. Used to help viewers easily recognize the
subject and see what they are doing.

5.Close-up (CU)

The subject becomes the primary focus within the shot. Only a small portion of the
background is visible.

6.Extreme Close-up (ECU)

The subject fills the screen and is clearly the central focus of the shot. It could be a
shot of eyes, or hands or the object of interest in the frame.
7.Two-Shot

When there is a group of subjects, most video directors refer to the shot by the
number of subjects, i.e., two-shot or three-shot. If there are more than three people
in the shot it is generally just called a wide shot

8.Over-The-Shoulder Shot (OS)

Another grouping that is commonly used is the over-the-shoulder shot (OS). This
shot establishes a relationship between two characters and also enhances the depth
of the shot.

TOPIC 2: Camera Angles

It is important to angle your shots and scenes. Not only can a variety of camera
angles provide

the viewer with the most advantageous or interesting viewpoint, but certain camera
angles add

a unique perspective which can affect the audience's perception of what is

happening on the

screen. Here are some of the most commonly used camera angles :

1.Bird’s Eye View

● Extreme version of High angle

● This shows a scene from directly overhead, a very unnatural and strange angle
with a perspective as though the observer were a bird.

● Familiar objects viewed from this angle might seem totally unrecognisable at first
(umbrellas in a crowd, dancers' legs).

● Ex. setting a location, helicopter

● In Gilles MacKinnon’s Regeneration (1997), an incredible bird’s-eye shot of a

World War I Battlefield is used to open the movie.

2.Normal Angle or Eye Level

● In a normal angle shot the camera is positioned at approximately the subject's eye
level,shooting the scene as we would normally view the world.

● Eye level shots are incredibly common because they are neutral.
● They often have no dramatic power whatsoever, thus they are ideal for romantic
comedies and news casting.

3.High Angle

● In a high angle shot the camera is positioned above eye level, with the camera
shooting down on the subject

● A high camera angle tends to make the subject appear smaller in size. Looking
down on a subject suggests a feeling of loneliness, lack of power, weak, submissive,
or frightened.

● Extreme high angle shots are called Bird's eye shots.

4.Low Angle

● In a low angle shot the camera is positioned below eye level, with the camera
shooting up at the subject.

● Shooting up from a low angle makes the subject appear larger and suggests a
feeling of power and dominance.

● Often directors will use this kind of shot to symbolically announce the power and
authority of one of their characters without literally telling the audience this
information. For instance, in Star Wars the rst time the audience meets Darth Vader,
he is shot from a low angle to immediately announce his role as the arch villain in the
story

● Extreme low angle shots are called a worm's eye shot.

5.Canted Angle or Dutch Angle

●In a canted angle the camera is tilted on its horizontal plane to produce a slightly
unstable picture.

●This suggests a feeling of excitement, suspense or fantasy to the viewer.

●Since this is a view of the world that we are not used to seeing, this effect is used
rarely.

6.Subjective Angle or point of view shot

●In a subjective angle the camera is put in place of a character and shows us the
scene from the character's point of view.

●Subjective angles are useful for bringing the viewer into the action.
●Think of the difference between showing an auto race from the point of view of
somebody watching in the grandstand, and showing it from the point of view of a
driver in a car speeding around the track. When used effectively a subjective camera
angle can make a great impact on the viewer.

● The camera effectively acts as the character’s eyes, and so point of view shots are
often used to create empathy with a character. It should be noted that some
directors, like the Japanese master Yasujiro Ozu, use only eye-level shots in their
films. Ozu argued that using anything but straight-on shots implied a value
judgement by the director against the characters. Ozu wanted to let his characters
reveal themselves, with all their strengths and weaknesses, and allow audiences to
make up their own minds based on the simple portrayal presented.

TOPIC 3: Camera Movements

Camera movement can help to create dominance or establish visual emphasis in a

shot. Movement is an obvious way to focus your audience's attention where you
want it. Viewers tend to direct their attention towards a moving object rather than one
standing still.

Zoom

● Zooming gives the impression of moving closer or further away from the subject.

● It can be used effectively to magnify a certain focus point in the frame.

● Like all other types of movement, zooms should be smooth and slow.

● Zooms happen at the push of a button. Zoom in refers to seemingly “approaching”

the subject, thus making it look bigger in the frame. Zoom out refers to seemingly
“distancing” the subject, thus making it look smaller.

● Note that zooms change focal length, thus affecting depth of field.

● Zoom in transforms the lens into telephoto, while zoom out changes it into
wide-angle. Zooming is considered amateurish and is not preferred by professional
cinematographers,

Pan

● A pan is the horizontal movement of the camera while its base is fixated on a
pedestal or tripod.

● To follow a subject or show the distance between two objects.

●Great for panoramic views such as a shot from a mountaintop to the valley below.
● A special kind of pan called the swish pan or whip pan. This is a rapid move that
looks like a swish on the screen.

● The pan is also commonly used to survey surroundings,revealing what is beyond

the confines of the original frame and to place characters or objects more firmly
within their environment.

● One of the earliest and best appearances of panning was in Edwin S. Porter’s
1903 movie Life of An American Fireman. While the camera follows the fire brigade
approaching their destination, the operator plans to reveal it – a house burning.
Remember: the best pans are used to reveal information.

Tilt

● A tilt is the vertical movement of the camera on a stationary pedestal or tripod.

● Used to establish vertical subjects or to follow vertical movement. It is used to view

the subject's height or other vertically established properties.

● A tilt should have a definite starting and ending point.

● These shots are popular when introducing a character, especially one of grandeur,
in a movie.

Dolly

● A dolly is the movement of the entire camera toward or away from the subject or
scene.

● The command is usually "Dolly in" or "Dolly out". The camera is rolled on a special
track to ensure smooth movement.

● A dolly gives the illusion that the viewer is walking towards the subject and can be
a great way of creating a sense of intimacy.

● though they look very similar at rst glance— when zooming in on an object, by
simply enlarging part of a frame, the object seems to be propelling itself towards the
camera. Zooming the camera changes the focal length of the lens, which can
introduce wide-angle distortion

Truck

● A truck is the lateral or side-to-side movement of the entire camera.

● Often the truck shot is used to follow a moving subject as it crosses the set.

● It is different from planning to follow a subject because with a truck you are moving
the whole camera, thereby changing the shooting angle at the same time.
● Trucking is like dollying, but it involves motion left or right. Truck left means “move
the camera physically to the left while maintaining its perpendicular relationship.”
This is not to be confused with a pan, where the camera remains firmly on its axis
while the lens turns to one direction or the other. You might truck left to stay with a
pedestrian as she walks down a street rather than using a pan, which would show
her back after she passed the camera.

Pedestal

● In a pedestal move, the camera body will physically be lowered or elevated.

● The difference between tilts and pedestals is that in the former, the camera lens is
just being aimed up or down, whereas in the latter, the camera is being moved
vertically.

TOPIC 4 : Rules of Composition

Composition refers to the organisation of pictorial elements in a frame. Every image

should have a single story to tell. The purpose of composition is to direct your
viewer's eye to the central point or "story" in your scene. Regardless of the particular
subject, composition of the frame is important.

1. Rule of Thirds

Mentally divide your viewfinder into thirds horizontally and vertically. Place your
primary point of interest on the intersection of two lines. Lines of interest should
occur at 1/3 or 2/3 of the way up (or across) the frame, rather than at the centre. In
these shots the main line of interest is the imaginary line going through the subject's
eyes.

The theory is that if you place points of interest in the intersections or along the lines
that your photo becomes more balanced and will enable a viewer of the image to
interact with it more naturally.

Studies have shown that when viewing images that people’s eyes usually go to one
of the intersection points most naturally rather than the centre of the shot – using the
rule of thirds works with this natural way of viewing an image rather than working
against it.

2. Framing

Look for natural "frames" within your scene. Also, beware of horizontal and vertical
lines in the frame (edges of buildings, counter tops, picture frames, and so forth).
Make sure the horizontal lines are level and the vertical lines are straight up and
down.

Framing is actually defined by wikipedia as ‘a technique used to bring focus to a

subject’. So, like more advanced compositions like leading lines, or golden triangles,
using elements to frame your subject can really make an image a bit more
interesting and engaging, and make your subject really stand out.

Framing your subject at eye-level creates a sense of equality. The opposite angle
creates the opposite feeling. If you film the subject from above, you create a feeling
of the subject being powerless, vulnerable and smaller than the viewer. You can go
even further and go really high up, creating a bird’s eye view of the subject. This
sense of distance between the subject and the viewer creates a “voyeuristic” feel.
You can also combine the high and low angle within the scene, to tell your audience
who’s in command.

3. Leading Lines

Direct the viewer's eyes with leading lines. Use leading lines to direct them to focus
on the main subject of your shot. The direction of the dominant lines in a picture has
psychological connotations.

Horizontal​-serenity and inactivity.

Vertical​ -strength and dignity.

Diagonal​-action, imbalance, insecurity.

Curved -softness or movement.

4. Balance

There are two main forms of balance:

Symmetrical balance creates a formal appearance.

Asymmetrical balance creates a creative and dynamic mood.

Use the form of balance that is most appropriate for your subject. For example, a
shot of the state Capitol may call for symmetrical balance, whereas a shot of the
county fair would be more interesting with asymmetrical balance.

5. THE 180-DEGREE RULE

This one is simple and complicated at the same time. The 180-degree rule draws an
imaginary line that connects the characters in the scene. The camera should be on
one side of this line for every shot in the scene. This way, the first character is
always frame right of the second character, and the second one is frame left of the
first. This rule helps with continuity and eye lines.
6. Head Room.

The idea being that you want to have some space between the top of the subject’s
head and the top of the frame. Similar to the rule of thirds, this rule of thumb is taken
largely from painting, where the subject’s eyes are placed about 1/3 of the way down
the frame, as a centre of interest. The idea is largely aesthetic, but images of
subjects where the head appears to approach the end of the frame creates a
cramped look to the subject, and if they move around, they end up having their
heads cut off. It is also important to stay within the TV safe zone of the frame for the
very same reason. Of course, this can change depending on how close the shot is,
with extreme close ups having no headroom at all to speak of. But in general shots,
you don’t want the image to appear like the frame is tugging at the subject because
there’s no room.

Even though the principles that have emerged for good composition seem rather
clear, they should always be considered guidelines and not rules. Composition is an
art and not a science. Since composition is part of an art, the guidelines can
occasionally be broken. But when they are broken, it’s generally by someone who
understands the principles and

recognizes how, in the interest of greater impact, they can be successfully

transcended in specific instances.
 UNIT 3

TOPIC 1 :Light and its Properties

The subject of light as a form of radiant energy has been theorised upon,
experimented with, and studied by many physicists and scientists. Until about three
centuries ago, in Europe no one had developed a reasonable theory of the nature of
light. Then Max Planck, a physicist, published a theory in which light was supposed
to consist of a stream of high-speed particles. This then was known as quantum
theory. About the same time other physicists, Christiann Huygens and Thomas
Young, introduced a theory called the wave motion theory. The wave motion theory is
used to explain reflection, refraction, diffraction and polarisation. In wave motion
theory, light, speed, wavelength, and frequency are important characteristics, and
they are interrelated.

Any photographer who wishes to reach their full creative potential should, likewise,
make it a point to understand the vital characteristics of light. Lighting is the essence
of filmmaking. Visual artists refer to lighting as painting with light. A lighting director
can use lights just as effectively and impressively as any painter uses colour
pigments to evoke a specific mood or visual impression. Lighting can be used to
emphasise and dramatise a subject by bringing objects into sharp relief or contrast,
or it can be used to soften and to harmonise. Lighting directly affects the overall
impressions and feelings generated by recorded visualimages. It is a complex art,
but basic video and film lighting can be reduced to a limited number of concepts and
techniques.

1. Intensity:

The intensity of light is measured in lux or candela. For the purpose of a camera, it
can be quantified in terms of aperture or F stops. This is measured with a light metre,
or the metre in the camera. It also varies with the distance from the subject.

2. Colour:

If you turn on an electric stove element you will notice that it radiates both heat and
light - it glows. The hotter the element, the brighter it glows. At the range of
temperatures you can get from a stove, the colour of the radiated light is red. If you
were able to heat up the element further, the colour would change, first becoming
orange, then more yellow and eventually what we see as "white" light. This is the
principle behind colour temperature. Similarly, all light sources have a colour
temperature which is measured in Kelvin.

3. Angle:

The shadows depend on the angle of the source of light.

4. Distance:

The distance has a major impact on the intensity and sharpness of light

5. Source:

A point source will have distinct qualities compared to a scattered one

TOPIC 2: Different types of Lights

TOPIC 3: Other tools used in Lighting: Diffusers, Reflectors,

Cutters and Gels

GELS

These are flexible sheets of transparent coloured plastic that can act as colour filters
when they are placed in front of lightsource such as windows or lamps. A gel can be
used to convert 5, 400 degree K light coming through a window to a 3,200 degree K
light, which is the same colour temperature as interior room lighting.

DIFFUSER

To diffuse or soften the light from a hard source instrument, you can use diffusion,
which is a material, often in a metal frame that spreads the light beam or enlarges
the light source to give shadows a softer edge. The amount of diffusion is dependent
on two factors, the density of the diffusing material and its size. Diffusion can be
placed on the light itself or placed out in front of the light. The actual diffusion
material is usually some type of flameproof gel, spun glass, or white glass. Cold
glass is usually placed over the opening of the light housing. Its use is limited in field
production because of its breakable nature; several companies make a multitude of
diffusion materials.

REFLECTORS

Unlike flags, reflectors have a light-coloured surface that reflects light into desired
areas rather than blocking it from certain areas. Reflectors can be stiff boards, metal,
or even light coloured clouds. And can come in sizes ranging from a six-inch square
to panels of six-feet square. Far and away the most popular form of the reflector is
the circular flex-type cloth using a highly reflective silver material on one side and a
bright white material on the other. These reflectors can be mounted but are generally
hand-held by the camera person or other crew members and are usually used to
reflect light onto non-moving subjects, such as a reporter appearing on camera.

CUTTERS

Solid pieces of metal, plastic or cardboard that prevents light from spilling into an
undesired area.
 TOPIC 4 : Basic Lighting Techniques

In Television lighting there are two goals: get enough light; use the light you have to
shape and define objects in the scene. Lighting is often tried out "on paper" by using
a lighting diagram before it's actually set. Many potential problems can be spotted in
the process of constructing a lighting diagram. The most common of these is to light
for a theoretical "stage front" instead of lighting for specific camera positions. It's also
useful in anticipating problems with shadows falling where they're not wanted. Every
light casts a shadow. The lighting diagram will make it easier to see where those
shadows might fall.3.4.1

1.Three point lighting

This lighting technique is the most elementary and widely practised one. It consists
of 3 lights– key, back, fill.

Key Light

★ The key lights are the brightest and, in some ways, the most important lights on
the set. The key light determines the overall recording or exposure level. It's
positioned thirty to forty-five degrees to the side of the camera and should strike the
subject at an angle of about forty-five degrees from vertical.

★ Moving the light closer to the camera will reduce the amount of modelling in the
face and make the subject appear heavier than he is.Conversely, moving the light
farther from the camera will throw more of the face in shadow, making it appear
narrower.

★ The key light is focused on the subject by putting the bulb in the "full spot" position
and centering the beam on the subject. The light is then flooded out until a
reasonable overall level is reached.

Fill light

★ Fill light is used to provide general illumination on the set and to fill in the shadows
created by the key lights.

★Fill Light is usually softer than key light. It is frequently diffused by reflectors or
translucent materials placed in front of the lighting instrument.

★ The fill light is usually set up opposite of the key light. Often a broad,scoop, or soft
light is used instead of a spotlight to provide fill.
★ It’s important to remember that the fill light should not be as bright as the key light.
A common mistake is having the intensity much too high. This can cause the subject
to get blown out.

★Not using a fill at all can result in stark contrasts (due to shadows) across the
subject's surface, depending upon the key light's harshness.

Back Light

★ The back light is placed directly behind the subject, in line with the camera. The
backlight is spotted down and aimed at the subject's neck. It is then flooded until it
has about the same intensity as the key light.

★ The back light should be adjusted to produce a crisp but subtle border around the
subject. People with blonde (or missing) hair require less intensity.People with very
dark hair require more. When the backlight is still too bright in the full flood position,
ascrim can be fitted in front of the housing to soften and reduce the light.

Background Light

★ The background light, or fourth light, is often used to locate the subject in the set,
that is, to show the relationship of the subject to the background.

★ The placement of this light can vary, but the idea is to illuminate part of the
background to show its texture, shape, and depth relative to the subject. It may be
extra trouble to purchase, carry, and set a fourth light, but it becomes very important
when you must videotape a subject with dark hair or a dark shirt against a dark
background. The fourth light can give the viewer a better understanding of volume
within the shot.

2. Lighting for Moving Subject

But what if the subject moves? Depending on the movement, there are two ways of
handling this problem. Suppose the subject moves from one important area to
another along a predetermined path. It is neither necessary nor desirable to provide
full key,back, and fill along the entire path. It is necessary only to provide about the
same overall illumination along the path of travel. This may be accomplished either
by making sure the lighted areas overlap sufficiently that no drop in level will be
detected by the viewer, or, where distances are greater, by adding sufficient fill along
the path to keep the level reasonably constant. In general,backlight for a movement
from one lit area to another isn't necessary.

When movement of the subject is likely to be random or to cover too large an area of
the set, it is possible to provide diffuse fill lighting to the entire area. This is
commonly called "base light" and is designed to keep all shadows within acceptable
contrast range. Key and back lights are then added for specific areas and camera
positions as necessary. While this kind of lighting might be helpful in certain
situations, it generally results in a flat and dull overall appearance. Since every light
used creates its own shadows, this technique can also result in multiple shadows
detracting from the modelling effects rendered by a more orthodox application of key,
back, and fill techniques.

3. Managing Contrast

High Contrast or low key

The technique of eliminating fill lighting or reducing it to bare minimum, leaving only
key and back light, is called "high contrast" lighting. While it may be appropriate for
some content, its use in other contexts should besparing. Not only can it easily be
overdone, but it also tends to aggravate some technical shortcomings in low-cost
cameras and recorders. This is used for high drama situations.

​Low Contrast or High key light

The ratio between key and fill is very less. There are almost no shadows. This type
of lighting is used for low drama, peaceful effect.

4. Backlighting

Backlighting is generally used in the attempt to conceal the identity of people on

camera or to provide an "interesting" background for program titles and credits. Key
and fill lights are eliminated, leaving only back and background lights.

4.4.4 Cameo Lighting Certain television shows, especially those of a dramatic

nature, are staged in the middle of an empty studio against an unlighted background.
This technique where the performers are highlighted against a dark background is
known as cameo lighting.

4.4.5 Silhouette Lighting We use this to conceal the identity of a person appearing
on-camera. To achieve this lighting, use highly diffused light to evenly illuminate the
background

5. Realist Lighting

Realist lighting appears to come from actual light sources in a setting or location. It
enhances an illusion of reality. Realist lighting conforms to the audience's
expectations of how a scene should normally or naturally appear in real life. In
conventional popular dramas, the lighting is usually realistic. The major problem for
the lighting director is to determine the actual light source in the scene. The brightest
lights are positioned according to the direction and intensity of the central or main
source of light. Directional lighting continuity is maintained from one shot to the next
in the same scene.
6. Expressionist lighting

Modernist lighting has no real-life referent. The lighting director is much freer to
design a lighting setup according to purely abstract or subjective emotional criteria.
That is, to stylize the use of light. The lighting director literally paints with light to
create emphasis and special impressions. Modernist lighting tries to achieve a
specific emotional effector abstract design through non-naturalistic patterns of light.
 Unit IV

Topic 1: Audio Elements in Video Programmes: Lip

Synchronized Sound, Voice Over, Music, Ambience and

Sound Effects
Various audio elements

Voice: Human voice is one of the prime elements in audio. Be it a

commentary,songs, a play or news, without human voice, nothing would be possible
in audio.

The dialogue is the foremost of the three “ingredients” of a soundtrack. The dialogue
brings forth the story by showing the communication and interaction of two or more
characters in the film. The dialogue is derived from the film script, but there goes
more than just recording a character speaking in designing the film’s soundtrack.

Dialogue itself could have been recorded two ways. One is the raw recording of the
dialogue on filming the scene. This is done using professional audio recording
equipment deployed onto the set like boom mics, and others. In most cases, the
production could opt to bring the actors to the studio to re-record the dialogue in a
controlled environment to cancel out noises that might have been recorded outside.

Voiceover

(also known as off-camera or off-stage commentary) is a production technique where

a voice—that is not part of the narrative (non-diegetic)—is used in a radio, television
production, filmmaking, theatre, or other presentations.[1] The voiceover is read from
a script and may be spoken by someone who appears elsewhere in the production
or by a specialist voice talent. Synchronous dialogue, where the voiceover is
narrating the action that is taking place at the same time, remains the most common
technique in voice overs. Asynchronous, however, is also used in cinema. It is
usually prerecorded and placed over the top of a film or video and commonly used in
documentaries or news reports to explain information. Voiceovers are used in video
games and on-hold messages,[3] as well as for announcements and information at
events and tourist destinations. It may also be read live for events such as award
presentations.

Voiceover is added in addition to any existing dialogue, and it is not to be confused

with the process of replacing dialogue with a translated version, which is called
dubbing or revoicing.

Music:
The melodious arrangement of various musical instruments is called music. Music
can be used for a number of effects. The most obvious way music scores are used is
to guide the emotional response of the audience.

Simply adding a track of background music can greatly improve your videos. Music
has great power to impact your viewers emotionally, and the pros use it all the time
to add zing to a scene. Listen carefully to the music tracks that accompany the
programs that you watch on TV tonight. Music often creeps in quietly-unnoticed by
the viewer-then builds as emotions heighten. Want to tell your audience how to feel?
Use music. Some of the most suspenseful movies of all time are known by their
music tracks (Jaws and Psycho, for instance). The anticipation at the sound of the
music in these movies could scare an audience out of its seat.

In the same way that it can build tension and fear, music can build joy or excitement.
Imagine how the music would swell (along with the hearts of the viewers) as a hero
triumphantly emerged from a smouldering building with a child in his arms.

Background music is an easy way to add professionalism to a video with dialogue or

narration. Background music should be mixed low, so as not to interfere with the
words that are spoken.

In other productions, music may be the only audio track. Music montages without nat
sound can be particularly moving if you make wedding or event videos. You’ll find
that it helps to lay the song on your timeline, then edit your footage to the music.

sound effect: There are two categories of sound in the visual medium:

Diegetic and Non-Diegetic.Diegetic Sound refers to all those audio elements that
come from sources inside the world we see on the screen, including dialogue, doors
slamming, footsteps, etc. Non-Diegetic Sound refers to all those audio elements that
come from outside of the fictional world we see on screen, for example the
background score.

Foley sound effects are those made in a recording studio called a Foley stage, while
watching the picture a Foley artist performs the acting more or less synchronously
with the picture (the perfect example of Foley effects are footsteps, who are always
made with this sound effect).

The Foley sound effects are the most responsible for the realistic impression of the
movies. However, they often exaggerate the real-life sounds to make them audible.
Foley recording was invented early in the history of film sound by a man named Jack
Foley, working at the time at Universal Studios.

However, it is not necessarily that Foley effects are recorded on the Foley stage.
Sometimes, like in Godfather II (1974), sound designer Walter Murch had recorded
them in spaces that duplicated the real space of the scene.
Ambience

Ambience is the recording of background sounds present on the location or set. It

gives artificial "presence" of the space. Ambience most typically consists of more or
less continuous sound, often with a low-frequency emphasis associated with
background noise of spaces. It plays a significant role in scene continuity. If
ambience stays constant across the picture cut, the audience becomes the
impression that the action stays in the same space. Conversely, if there is an
ambience change at a picture change, the audience gets the impression of the
completely new scene.

Ambience is referred to as the atmosphere associated with a particular environment.

From music to film ambient sound is something that creates an atmospheric setting
and engages the viewer/listener into the surroundings of said environment. Ambient
sound is used not only to correlate a particular setting to the story, but to also
transition into other parts of a specific setting in film, maintaining the current flow the
film proceeds to take when moving from one scene or cut to another.

Ambience may even be overlapped across certain scene transitions, either to create
an effect of the former scene lingering into a new one or to anticipate a cut to a new
scene. One crucial spatial question about ambience is whether it should include
sound in the surround channels during the reproduction. The difference between an
ambience on the screen and ambience that includes surround sound is related to the
degree of involvement of the audience. The use of surround sound creates greater
involvement on the part of the listener by breaking the bounds of the rigid screen
edges, and brings the audience into the action.

TOPIC 2: Use of Microphones, Audio Mixers for Recording

Microphones

A microphone is a transducer - a device which converts energy from one form to

another. The microphones convert acoustical energy (sound waves) into electrical
energy (the audio signal). Different types of microphones have different ways of
converting energy but they all share one thing in common: The diaphragm. This is a
thin piece of material (such as paper, plastic or aluminium) which vibrates when it is
struck by sound waves. The diaphragm is located in the head of the microphone.
When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the microphone to
vibrate. These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which becomes the
audio signal.

Types of Microphones

There are various types of microphones in common use. The differences can be
divided into three areas:

1) The type of conversion technology they use:

This refers to the technical method the mic uses to convert sound into electricity. The
most common technologies are dynamic, condenser, ribbon and crystal.

1. a. Dynamic Microphones

Dynamic microphones are versatile and ideal for general-purpose use. They are
relatively sturdy and resilient to rough handling. They are also better suited to
handling high volume levels, such as from certain musical instruments or amplifiers.

They have no internal amplifier and do not require batteries or external power. The
diaphragm is attached to the coil. When the diaphragm vibrates in response to
incoming sound waves, the coil moves backwards and forwards past the magnet.
This creates a current in the coil which is channelled from the microphone along
wires.

1.b. Condenser Microphones

This type of microphone, which uses a capacitor to convert acoustical energy into
electrical energy. It requires power from a battery or external source. The resulting
audio signal is a stronger signal than that from a dynamic. A capacitor has two plates
with voltage between them. In the condenser mic, one of these plates is made of
very light material and acts as the diaphragm. The diaphragm vibrates when struck
by sound waves, changing the distance between the two plates and therefore
changing the capacitance. Specifically, when the plates are closer together,
capacitance increases and a charge current occurs. When the plates are further
apart, capacitance decreases and a discharge current occurs.

2) The Directional Properties

Every microphone has a property known as directionality. This describes the

microphone's sensitivity to sound from various directions. Some microphones pick up
sound equally from all directions, while others pick up sound only from one direction
or a particular combination of directions. The types of directionality are divided into
three main categories:
2.a. Omni directional

It picks up sound evenly from all directions. The disadvantage is that it cannot
discriminate between the sound you want to hear and unwanted sounds such as
reflections from walls, noises from nearby people or equipment, ventilation noise,
footsteps, and so on. Omni sound is very general and unfocused - if you are trying to
capture sound from a particular subject or area it is likely to be overwhelmed by
other noise.

2.b. Bidirectional

It picks up sound from two opposite directions. Or Uses a figure-of-eight pattern and
picks up sound equally from two opposite directions. Uses: As you can imagine,
there aren't a lot of situations which require this polar pattern. One possibility would
be an interview with two people facing each other (with the mic between them).

2.c.Unidirectional

Picks up sound predominantly from one direction. This includes cardioid and
hypercardioid microphones.

2.c.a. Cardioid Cardioid means "heart-shaped", which is the type of pick-up pattern
these mics use. Sound is picked up mostly from the front, but to a lesser extent the
sides as well. Uses: The cardioid is a very versatile microphone, ideal for general
use. Handheld mics are usually cardioid.

2.c.b Hypercardioid This is an exaggerated version of the cardioid pattern. It is very

directional and eliminates most sound from the sides and rear. Due to the long thin
design of hyper cardioids, they are often referred to as shotgun microphones. Uses:
Isolating the sound from a subjector direction when there is a lot of ambient noise;
Picking up sound from a subject at a distance.

2.d. Variable Directionality

Some microphones allow you to vary the directional characteristics by selecting

omni, cardioid or shotgun patterns. This feature is sometimes found on video camera
microphones, with the idea that you can adjust the directionality to suit the angle of
zoom, e.g. have a shotgun mic for long zooms. Some models can even automatically
follow the lens zoom angle so the directionality changes from cardioid to shotgun as
you zoom.
​

3). Types according to usage

Microphones used in Television

The most popular type of camera microphone is the shotgun mic, attached to the top
of the camera.Plugged into the camera’s external mic socket, this mic will give the
best quality long-distance pickup from the subject. These mics are known to pick up
sound from all around the camera, including noise from the camera zoom lens and
camera operator sounds. This basic microphone is useful for general atmospheric
background sounds (traffic, crowds) and is almost adequate for close-up voice.

The handheld microphone

Handheld microphones with cardioid patterns help reduce the amount of extraneous
sound overheard, so this type of mic can be used about 1 to 1.5 feet from the person
speaking. It is a familiar sight on television, as it is used by reporters, interviewers,
singers, and commentators.

Lavalier (lapel or clip-on mic) microphones

The lavalier microphone, also known as a “lav,” lapel, or a clip-on mic, has become a
favourite mic in productions where it is unimportant whether the viewer sees a mic
attached to someone’s outside clothing (such as the tie, lapel, shirt, or blouse).
These microphones are compact, unobtrusive, and provide high sound quality. A
lavalier mic can only be relied on to effectively pick up the sound of the person
wearing it. When two or three people are speaking, each will need to wear his or her
own microphone. Regular users will conceal the lavalier mic’s cable beneath a jacket
or shirt.

AUDIO MIXERS

Every studio includes some kind of audio mixer – analogue, digital or fully
computerised. This is essentially a device for mixing together the various programme
sources, controlling their level or volume, and sending the combined output to the
required destination – generally either the transmitter or a recorder. Traditionally, it
contains three types of circuit function:

Programme circuits:

A series of differently sourced audio channels, with their individual volume levels
controlled by separate slider faders. In addition to the main output, a second or
auxiliary output – generally controlled by a small rotary fader on each channel – can
provide a different mix of programme material typically used for public address,
echo, foldback into the studio for contributors to hear, a clean feed or separate audio
mix sent to a distant contributor, etc.
Monitoring circuits:

A visual indication (either by a programme metre or a vertical column of lights) and

an aural indication (loudspeaker or headphones) to enable the operator to hear and
measure the individual sources as well as the final mixed output.

Control circuits.

The means of communicating with other studios or outside broadcasts by means of

‘talkback’ or telephone. In learning to operate a mixer there is little substitute for first.

A talkback is a microphone-and-receiver system installed in a recording/mixing

console for communication between people in the control room and performers in the
recording studio. Most semi-professional and professional consoles include such a
system. The typical setup includes an internal microphone built directly into the
console, and a series of switches. The switches allow the recording engineer to route
the microphone signal to a variety of audio paths in the studio, such as the
performer's headphones, a set of speakers in the recording area, or directly to a tape
recorder. Using this tool, the engineer can communicate with a performer with
headphones while they are performing in the studio without interfering with the
recording. Another use is to announce the title or other relevant information at the
beginning of a recording (called a "slate").

TIPS

1.In mixing sources together – mics, computer playout, music, etc. – the general rule
is to bring the new fader in before taking the old one out. This avoids the loss of
atmosphere which occurs when all the faders are closed. A slow mix from one sound
source to another is called ‘crossfade’.

2.The question of how loud speech should be against music depends on a variety of
factors, including the nature of the programme and the probable listening conditions
of the audience, as well as the type of music and the voice characteristics of the
speech. There will certainly be a maximum level which can be sent to the line
feeding the transmitter, and this represents the upper limit against which everything
else is judged.

3.Probably the most important aspect of mixer operation is self-organisation. It is

essential to have a system for handling any physical items: that is, the running order,
scripts, CDs, etc. The second requirement is accurate reading of the computer
screens. The good operator is always one step ahead, knowing what has to be done
next and, having done it, setting up the next step.
 TOPIC 3: Audio Control and Adjustment in Video Camera:

Audio Level & Audio Channel

TOPIC 4: In-camera Editing and File Formats

Recording is the process of saving data, and audio in this case, for future references
and use. Signal processors: devices and software which allow the manipulation of
the signal in various ways. The most common processors are tonal adjusters such
as bass and treble controls. Record and playback section: devices which convert a
signal to a storage format for later reproduction. Recorders are available in many
different forms, including magnetic tape, optical CD, computer hard drive, etc. 4.2
File Formats

Different audio formats

1.wav - standard audio file format used mainly in Windows PCs. Commonly used for
storing uncompressed (PCM), CD-quality sound files, which means that they can be
large in size - around 10 MB per minute of music.

2.mp3​- the MPEG Layer-3 format is the most popular format for downloading and
storing music. By eliminating portions of the audio file that are essentially inaudible,
mp3 files are compressed to roughly one-tenth the size of an equivalent PCM file
while maintaining good audio quality.

3.aiff​- the standard audio file format used by Apple. It is like a wav file for the Mac.

4.wma - the popular Windows Media Audio format owned by Microsoft. Designed
with Digital Rights Management (DRM) abilities for copy protection

5.aac​- A copy-protected version of this format has been developed by Apple for use
in music downloaded from their iTunes Music Store.

6.Real Audio (.ra .ram .rm): ​Real Audio is a proprietary format, and is used for
streaming audio that enables you to play digital audio files in real-time. To use this
type of file you must have RealPlayer (for Windows or Mac), which you can
download for free. Real Audio was developed by RealNetworks.

7.MIDI​- Musical Instrument Digital Interface (.mid): Short for musical instrument
digital interface, MIDI is a standard adopted by the electronic music industry for
controlling devices, such as synthesisers and sound cards, that emit music. At
minimum, a MIDI representation of a sound includes values for the note's pitch,
length, and volume. It can also include additional characteristics, such as attack and
delay time.
Different video formats

1. AVI ​– Audio Video Interleave - Developed by Microsoft and introduced to the

public in November 1992. AVI format is one of the oldest video formats. It is
so universally accepted. AVI files are able to run on Windows, Macintosh,
Linux; and are also supported by popular web browsers.

2. FLV (Flash Video Format) - FLV files are videos that are encoded by Adobe
Flash software. They can be played via the Adobe Flash Player, web browser
plugins or one of several other programs. It has become the most common
online video viewing platform used on the Web today.Almost all video sharing
sites such as Youtube stream videos in Flash, practically all browsers support
and are compatible with the Flash Video format and can play the video with
ease.

3. WMV (Windows Media Video) - Developed by Microsoft, WMV was originally

designed for web streaming applications, as a competitor to Real Video, but it
can now cater to more specialised content.WMV files are the tiniest video files
over the Web, as their file size decreases significantly after compression,
which results in poor video quality. One advantage of this small file size is that
it is probably the only video file format that allows users to upload and share
their videos through the e-mail system. Windows Media Player is the main
application that is used to play WMV files on all Microsoft’s Windows
operating systems, but there are also WMV players available.

4. M
​ OV (Apple QuickTime Movie) - Developed by Apple. Inc, the QuickTime
file format is a popular type of video sharing and viewing format amongst
Macintosh users, and is often used on the Web, and for saving movie and
video files. In recent years, Apple came up with a newer version called
QuickTime X, currently available on Mac OS X Snow Leopard, Lion and
Mountain Lion. MOV files are most commonly opened via the Apple
QuickTime Player for the Macintosh Operating System. MOV files can also be
played on Windows computers. Considered one of the best looking file
formats, MOV files are of high quality and are usually big in file size.

5. MP4 (Moving Pictures Expert Group 4) ​- First introduced in 1998, the

MPEG-4 video format uses separate compression for audio and video tracks;
video is compressed with MPEG-4 or H.264 video encoding; and audio is
compressed using AAC compression. The MP4 file format is also another
great file sharing format for the Web, MP4 file sizes are relatively small but the
quality remains high even after compression. The MP4 standard is also
becoming more popular than FLV for online video sharing, as it is compatible
with both online and mobile browsers and also supported by the new HTML5.
Commonly used for sharing video files on the Web.