Communicative Data Driven Learning

Communicative data-driven learning:
a two-year pilot study
Yoko Hirata and Paul Thompson
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With the development of language corpora, linguists have been able to identify
how often specific words, phrases, and expressions are used, and in which
contexts. However, applications of corpora in the wider domain of language
teaching have remained limited. This article presents an approach to utilizing
corpora, combining principles from communicative language teaching and
data-driven learning, and based on a two-year action-research-based trial of
the approach with a monolingual class at a Japanese university. Beginning with
learner training in their L1, students learned to analyse concordance lines and
were given the opportunity to recontextualize and conceptualize any identified
language patterns and features through realistic communicative activities.
While challenges remain in relation to the effectiveness of learner training and
the preparation of suitable concordance lines, students were found to have
increased their fluency and accuracy, and to have made improvements to their
speaking confidence and complexity.
Key words: data-driven learning, communicative language teaching,
schemata
Introduction Communicative language teaching (CLT) encompasses a wide variation

of teaching approaches that emphasize student interaction in the
language learning process, with the primary goal of acquiring speaking
proficiency. CLT is regarded as an important methodology which has
achieved widespread interest, especially in Asia. However, barriers to its
proper implementation remain. This is due in part to inadequacies in
teacher training, by which teachers gain little experience communicating
in English (Aspinall 2013: 90). In addition, teacher-centred, examination-
oriented approaches to English education continue to be perceived
as having greater value than those that emphasize English for
communicative purposes (Littlewood 2007).
Japan is an example of a nation that continues to struggle with English
speaking competence despite the government’s attempts to prioritize
communication skills (MEXT 2011). This is most widely believed to be
the result of students’ limited opportunities to speak English beyond the
classroom, which is a common challenge in countries where English
learning is compulsory, but the language is not regularly used for
communication in daily life. In addition, teachers and students alike are
356 ELT Journal Volume 76/3 July 2022; https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab066

© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
Advance Access publication 23 November 2021
generally accustomed to test-oriented English language learning habits
which are fostered in secondary school. This takes the form of a focus on
lexical and grammatical accuracy often at the expense of verbal fluency
and confidence—skills that do not directly contribute toward students’
being able to pass their entrance examinations (Aspinall 2013: 124–25).
English teachers in Japan also continue to struggle with how to integrate
teaching linguistic accuracy together with speaking fluency (Sakui 2004:
161). Japan needs to overcome these challenges if it is to develop a sense of
the ubiquity and utility of English beyond academic settings.
In order to address these systemic and cultural constraints, which persist
in nations such as Japan, new ways of implementing CLT are needed.

This article presents one potential approach, together with details about
its implementation in a Japanese university. The approach combines
CLT principles with techniques derived from the exploratory learner-
centred methodology called data-driven learning (DDL). Our term for this
approach is communicative DDL.
What is DDL? Coined and developed by Tim Johns in 1991, DDL is an exploratory
learning methodology that enables students to analyse the lexical and
grammatical patterns of keywords in various authentic contexts, retrieved
from a language corpus, and organized in a series of concordance lines.
DDL is a learner-centred approach that encourages students to work
autonomously, in a mode which Johns calls ‘discovery learning’, in order
‘to see patterning in the target language and to form generalisations to
account for that patterning’ (Johns 1991: 2). In an online corpus, each
f i g u r e  1
Raw concordance lines from
a search of the Corpus of
Contemporary American
English (Davies 2008).
Communicative data-driven learning 357

line features a section of text which typically provides keywords in context
(KWIC) (see examples for ‘get up’ in Figure 1).
DDL activities involve students analysing target expressions in an attempt
to distinguish between different meanings and usages of synonyms, and
to identify grammatical features and common collocations, colligations,
or morphology (Boulton 2009: 84). Typically, the instructor’s role in
DDL classes is to stimulate guided discovery, supporting students’ own
discoveries as they explore the lines, providing suggestions and additional
context.
According to researchers, DDL improves students’ linguistic capabilities
and language awareness through their exploration and discovery of

multiple related patterns from a wide plethora of examples (Chambers
2010: 354). In other words, DDL helps students acquire discourse and
sociolinguistic knowledge through contextual analyses (Curado Fuentes
2004). DDL is also theorized as establishing an independent and active
learning environment requiring minimal assistance from teachers,
whose primary role has less to do with traditional instruction, and more
to do with learning facilitation (Chambers 2010: 345–55). For advanced
students, DDL has been found to promote students’ ‘active participation
in the learning process’ through teachers and students having direct
access to corpora, something Chambers argues pre-prepared learning
materials cannot achieve (Chambers 2010: 345). Recent meta-analyses
have also demonstrated increased L2 vocabulary acquisition (Lee,
Warschauer, and Lee 2018), as well as significant improvements in overall
language learning outcomes (Boulton and Cobb 2017) as a result of DDL’s
implementation.
In spite of a plethora of promising research which now spans nearly three
decades, DDL remains a relatively unknown and underutilized tool in
everyday language learning classrooms. There are three key reasons for
why this may be the case. Firstly, students may be confused by the display
of keywords in incomplete sentences, or by the notion that the same
expressions can carry different meanings in different contexts. Added to
this challenge, frameworks for learner training are conspicuously absent
from the literature (Boulton 2009: 90). Secondly, it should be noted that
DDL has been used so far predominantly as ‘a reference tool in writing,
translating or error-correction [for linguistics-based analysis of vocabulary
and grammar] rather than as a learning tool’ (Boulton 2009: 85). Thirdly,
the contexts of the concordance lines are often difficult to interpret. This
is true for native speakers, but especially true for learners. Teachers,
who may be relatively fluent in the target language, may still find it
challenging to contextualize individual concordance lines appropriately,
which is especially important for assisting novice and intermediate
students in their analyses. These factors taken together render DDL an
exceptionally challenging tool for students and teachers to work with
in ways that promote the rich and immersive speaking environments
which are essential to ‘achieve high levels of general language proficiency
and … [ability to] interact confidently in the L2’ (Ellis 2005: 720).
358 Yoko Hirata and Paul Thompson

Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of DDL are clear: with
increased exposure to authentic examples from a wide plethora of
potential contexts, students’ imaginations and intellectual curiosity are
more likely to be engaged. As a result, they are increasingly likely to grasp
the usage and meaning of new expressions with more ease; and with
the flexibility of discovery learning students will gain increased learning
satisfaction and retention. However, it is also clear that, in order for
students not to be overwhelmed by DDL, they need additional support
from their instructors. Furthermore, to be a true asset in improving
their tangible L2 speaking ability, students must have opportunities to
recontextualize and dramatize what they are learning.

Making DDL The challenges of teaching DDL communicatively, which we
central to term communicative DDL, may be resolved by combining curated
improving L2 concordance line analyses with practical CLT-inspired communicative
communication exercises.
The following sections outline the framework of this approach and review
its pilot implementation in a Japanese tertiary setting.
Preparation— Ensuring that what students learn is as relevant as possible to scenarios

curating they might encounter in daily life is paramount. For this reason, specific
concordance lines scenarios and their associated language components are focused upon.
Additional consideration is also given to ensure that, when studying
expressions whose meanings vary depending on context, these should
appear in distinct groups in order to reduce the danger of confusion for
students (for example, different meanings of ‘turn down’ in ‘turn down
the heater’ and ‘turn down the invitation’). To achieve this, instructors
select concordance lines that meet these requirements, and then present
them in ways that are designed to be supportive to learners. This takes
the form of a manually reorganized shortlist of lines, with keywords
highlighted, and the lines individually truncated to improve consistency,
as shown in Example 1.
This process of curation is key to making DDL appropriate for
communication-oriented language learning. In comparison to traditional
textbooks, which tend to provide idealized scenarios limited to narrowly
defined contexts, concordance lines provide bite-sized chunks of authentic
language rich in variation. Before curation there may be many lines that
are too complicated or otherwise opaque for students to be able to relate
to, and the sheer volume of lines may also be overwhelming. However,
once curated carefully, only those lines with the highest potential for
students to engage with remain. This results in a suitable selection of
content-rich and contextually flexible examples with which students can
engage.
E x a m p l e  1
Set of five concordance
lines for ‘take medicine’
demonstrating the typical
presentation style.

Classroom Before students can begin to analyse concordance lines effectively,
structure and appropriate learner training is needed. In a communicative DDL
teaching classroom, prior to the main activities, students begin with introductory
exercises which use concordance lines prepared in the students’ L1 (if
teaching in a monolingual classroom). In common with all DDL analyses,
students should be taught to study the lines by reading vertically, searching
down the set of lines to identify and compare patterns. Then, as they
have a concise curated list of concordance lines, students should then be
encouraged to read horizontally, in order to absorb each line’s complete
meaning. Lastly, students should be encouraged to apply this combined
knowledge toward creating their own scenarios. These three components
taken together—an approach that characterizes communicative DDL—

activate both bottom-up and top-down learning, bolstering students’
capacities to more readily absorb new language data and improve their
overall language skills (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain 2005: 733).
Working in small groups on L1 concordance lines, with instructors’ help,
serves as a comfortable segue into DDL analyses in English. Following
this introduction, typical lessons might require students to study ten key
expressions, with five to eight concordance lines provided for each. While
there may be multiple patterns surrounding key expressions in each set of
concordance lines, with a few exceptions these are often not too complex for
students to figure out with some guidance from the instructor. They also
create opportunities for exploration for enthusiastic students. After analysing
the lines, students should be given further interactive activities to help them
acquire an understanding of how the words are used and in what contexts.
Example 1 shows concordances for take medicine. The basic form of take
medicine is frequently used in English, but Japanese students tend to find it
difficult to remember because the word ‘take’ has many different meanings.
In addition, due to L1 interference students tend to use the word ‘drink’
(i.e. ‘drink medicine’). By looking at the concordance lines, students were
expected to notice not only the use of ‘take’ with ‘medicine’ but also that
the phrase take medicine is followed by words relating to frequency and
the preposition for + condition (e.g. ‘for diabetes’). They were also expected
to notice that take medicine is used in combination with related medical
expressions such as, ‘the doctor prescribes’, ‘after symptoms have vanished’,
‘when [someone] doesn’t feel well’, or ‘for [this health condition] and [that
health condition]’. Studying these semantically related words and phrases
together helps students learn to implicitly recognize how they fit into
different situations, topics, and notions (Flowerdew 2009: 332). Following
these analyses, students can then be given opportunities to exercise their
imaginations, such as by creating stories and playing with the words. In the
case study reported below, students were asked to make group presentations
on the best ways to deal with having a cold, which they were encouraged to
base on their own experiences.
Putting The following sections briefly describe how the communicative DDL approach
communicative was put into practice in two one-year English communication courses taught
DDL into practice: over a two-year period at a Japanese university, and how it was both developed
a two-year action and evaluated. The goal of both courses was to develop students’ English
research study communication skills with respect to highly frequent daily conversations.

The teaching approach was continuously evaluated according to the
principles of action research. Action research involves a four-step process
of planning, action, observation, and reflection, wherein the instructor
cyclically reflects upon the quality of their own methods and revises them
accordingly (Richards and Farrell 2011: 157). This was chosen because
it provides an efficient framework for conducting independent research
while remaining a full-time instructor.
Throughout the courses, in-class observations of students’ speaking abilities
were made, and students were graded according to accuracy, fluency,
complexity, and speaking confidence. Students’ feedback was also routinely
collected throughout the year via semi-structured interviews. These served the

dual purpose of encouraging students to reflect upon and review what they
had learnt, and in order to help the instructor reflect upon how the teaching
methods and materials might need to change to better suit students’ needs.
Students Classes consisted of about ten to fifteen students of lower-intermediate

proficiency (equivalent to TOEFL scores of 60–65). Approximately fifty
students were taught each year.
Materials Core materials consisted of 1,057 concordance lines selected from COCA
(Davies 2008) with five to eight lines for each key expression. Key
expressions were chosen from textbooks selected according to students’
proficiency levels, comprising various notions (e.g. time and direction) and
language functions (e.g. describing ailments) (Examples 2 and 3).
Classes One ninety-minute lesson was given per course per week for fifteen
weeks. Classes followed the following structure:
• DDL learner training (introductory lesson)
• Analytical DDL followed by various game-based language creation
activities (three or four lesson blocks).
1. Analyse concordance lines vertically and horizontally for language
patterns and co-occurring words related to the target key expressions
(20 minutes).
2. Create original sentences using the results of the analyses whilst
having practice conversations in English (20–30 minutes).
3. Create stories and extended dialogues (30–40 minutes).
4. Complete traditional gap filling exercises for revision (10 minutes).
E x a m p l e  2
A sample selection of
concordance lines for time
and direction.
E x a m p l e  3
A sample selection of
concordance lines for
describing ailments.

Students worked in small groups throughout the lesson using the
concordance lines as their primary reference tool. Students were also
encouraged to use their dictionaries and ask the instructor questions
as needed.
• Engaging students through interactive activities based upon the content
of the previous block (three lessons per semester).
1. After the previous block, students were given instructions to prepare
for their presentations in the next lesson.
2. Students experiment with recontextualizing the concordance lines to
create novel scenarios for their presentations.
3. Presentation activities include:

■ Role-playing presentations;
■ Task-based presentations (e.g. creating an itinerary and presenting
a tour) followed by questions and answers;
■ Improvised conversations in front of the class.
Students were instructed to use as many keywords and surrounding
expressions as possible in their performances.
Interviews Three times throughout the course, students were asked a series of
questions (in Japanese), including but not limited to the following:
• Were you able to make full use of what you learned during DDL
activities in your presentations?
• Which expressions were difficult for you to include and why?
• How fluidly could you engage in conversation?
• Did you make use of many additional co-occurring expressions as
garnered from the lines?
• Are there any changes you would like me to make, in order to help you
improve your English skills?
Research In order to evaluate the efficacy of this research according to the action
observations and research method, records of students’ verbal performances were kept and
reflections reobserved. These included notes about:
• Which key expressions students were able to use;
• Whether students could recontextualize them appropriately;
• How they used them in combination with any additional phrases
discovered from the concordance lines.
Interviews with students were used to complement the observations, and
assess students’ own perspective on their performance, as well as their
beliefs and attitudes toward the course. The findings obtained by these
two methods were reviewed and the results used to inform how the course
might be revised and improved for the following year.
Results Observations of students revealed that by the end of the first semester
in both years, the majority of the students across both courses became
correctly able to identify patterns and contexts without difficulty using the
provided concordance lines. One student gave the following feedback:

The lines clearly show how the key expressions are used in context. In
addition, if I don’t understand the meaning of a keyword, I can guess
it from the surrounding words. Before, I always used to resort to my
dictionary.
These students demonstrated that they could connect their own
experiences to the expressions and use them appropriately to produce
their own unique sentences. By the end of the course, similar majorities
were better able to convey what they wanted to say fluently and reported
that they had gained confidence in their English speaking. By this
time, students could be observed utilizing a significantly wider variety
of expressions, both during presentations, and occasionally in casual

conversations as well.
This success appears to be due both to the quality of the lines that were
carefully chosen to match students’ needs, abilities, and backgrounds,
and the complementary communicative activities that together
constitute communicative DDL. Students’ feedback gave the overall
impression that the activities, such as role-playing and improvisation,
helped them to become linguistically and culturally prepared for
real-life settings. Students recognized that the examples of genuine
English in the concordance lines contained similarities and analogies
to their own experiences, and this bolstered their enjoyment as well
as their overall sense of accomplishment. The following feedback was
especially encouraging:
Although everything in this course was new to me, I was able to learn
various ways to use every expression. With five or six different usages
for each, the contexts were easy to identify.
There are a few patterns that I wasn’t able to include in my
presentation, and that’s a shame. But considering that I didn’t have
such experiences in high school, I’m happy about it. I feel very
accomplished when I finish my performances.
Challenges Creating course materials and a learning structure that would engage
students and relate to their previous experiences proved to be the
greatest challenge. Most likely due to their history with grammar
translation methods, students were accustomed to requesting
Japanese translations of lines regardless of their level of English
proficiency. Providing students with sufficient time and learner
training is essential to help them acclimatize to more involved
approaches such as communicative DDL. This remains an area where
more research is needed, and efforts must continue to find ways to
better include students who are resistant to changing how they learn
English, especially if they had achieved reasonable levels of success
with traditional approaches.
In terms of learner training, introducing DDL in students’ L1
was an effective entry point for learning to analyse concordance
lines. However, it was discovered after the first year that, rather
than covering multiple meaningfully distinct expressions, it was
better to start with a single keyword presented in many contexts.

This enabled students to focus upon the technique, rather than be
distracted or overwhelmed by the number of potentially complex and
nuanced patterns and expressions. Approaching DDL training in
this way proved to be much more effective in developing students’
understanding and enthusiasm for the approach, which in turn was
successfully carried through to their English DDL analyses.
The most significant challenge in preparing the materials for the courses
was to find adequate concordance lines directly related to the target
functions or tasks within contexts not too far removed from students’
own experiences. This remained a limiting factor in both years but was
somewhat remedied by narrowing the focus to fewer lines, rather than

including any that might cause confusion for students. In addition to
these steps, it remains highly recommended for non-native speaking
instructors to seek assistance from native speakers to benefit from their
intuitions.
Cognitive schema When students read concordance lines, they try to understand the
meaning based on what they know. Therefore, when presenting lines
teachers should choose ones that are likely to activate the relevant schemata
in students’ minds. Schemata are mental structures developed and shaped
by readers’ knowledge and experiences. Studies have shown that schemata
are closely connected with how people interpret texts or messages (Hadley
2001: 147–49). The wide variations in contexts inherent to concordance
lines mean students are less limited by predefined contexts such as those
in a typical textbook and have more opportunities to draw upon their own
experiences and intuitions. In addition, if students regularly encounter
these expressions in real-life settings or emulated in audiovisual media
such as movies, it will widen their sociocultural understanding of the
countries where the target language is spoken. Through understanding
the importance of cognitive schema in this way, teachers can better
appreciate that many of the problems students have when learning
languages do not necessarily result from a lack of grammatical or lexical
understanding, but from students own ‘misreading of schema’ (Hadley
2001: 148).
Although the lines in Example 4 are easily parsed by Japanese students,
Japanese parents do not routinely ask children to make their beds.
Without any context, students might accidentally translate this expression
as ‘construct the bed’ rather than the intended ‘tidy up and arrange the bed’.
Examples such as this, and especially lines 3 and 4, illustrate this cultural
difference for students. Students can also observe other peripheral
morning activities which they might more closely relate to, such as
grabbing a bite, taking off (or going out), and freshening linen. Unfortunately,
it can be difficult for non-native speakers—teachers and students alike—
to identify the importance of such expressions in the first instance. As
a result, some choices of concordance lines might inadvertently inhibit
schemata activation. One student stated in her interview right after her
performance:
I’ve gotten used to reading the lines, but there are some expressions
that are difficult for us to use in our daily conversations. For example,

E x a m p l e  4
Raising sociocultural
awareness
book one’s flight. Most of us have never booked our own flights. So, we
weren’t motivated to learn this phrase, and we couldn’t use it in our
performance.
Observations like this show that careful selection of materials that have
schema activating content are important for keeping students engaged
with their learning. DDL in particular makes it easy to provide enough of

this variation from line-to-line or expression-to-expression to help ensure
there is at least something for each student to relate to. Through the
combination of CLT and DDL, communicative DDL fosters ‘conceptually
driven’ and ‘data-driven processing’ in students’ minds simultaneously
(Hadley 2001: 148), emulating more closely how we naturally learn
through everyday experiences in our daily lives.
Conclusion This two-year implementation was the first of its kind, and already it
appears that communicative DDL holds promise as an effective approach
for enhancing students’ accuracy, fluency, complexity, and speaking
confidence in English. However, this study was designed in Japan
for Japanese students and, being action research, did not employ an
experimental design. Therefore, the findings may not be generalizable
to wider populations and some amount of bias is inevitable. It is also too
early to claim that the students’ achievements were primarily attributable
to communicative DDL. However, the successes enjoyed in the study
prompt us to encourage additional implementations of this approach to
further discover its potential, or for teachers to develop their own methods
of combining CLT and DDL.
There remain important considerations when developing DDL
activities. Careful curation of concordance lines and comprehensive
learner training are necessary to make DDL analyses accessible
to students of lower proficiencies. This has already proven to be
achievable through the introduction of DDL using students’ L1, and
by maintaining a strong focus on ensuring the L2 concordance lines
used throughout the course remain consistently useful and relevant to
students’ own lives and experiences.
Success with communicative DDL, and arguably any approach to language
teaching, depends heavily upon the creativity and ingenuity of the teacher,
and a willingness to change in response to constructive feedback. DDL
is a useful tool for learning languages, but like any tool, there are more
or less effective ways of using it. Communicative DDL is one way to help
students and teachers to use DDL techniques to collaborate effectively in
building a language learning environment that may contribute toward
fulfilling this goal.
Final version received May 2021

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Introduction Communicative language teaching (CLT) encompasses a wide variation

356 ELT Journal Volume 76/3 July 2022; https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab066

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