2st INTERNAL ASSIGNMENT

Paper – 401 (Ore Geology and

Mining Geology)

Topic : “Different Stages Of Life In A Mine”

 CONTENT
 Introduction
 Stages in the life of a mine
1. Prospecting
2. Exploration
3. Development
4. Exploitation
5. Reclamation
 Conclusion
 Reference

 INTRODUCTION
Mining may well have been the second of humankind’s earliest endeavors—
granted that agriculture was the first. From prehistoric times to the present,
mining has played an important part in human existence. Here the term
mining is used in its broadest context as encompassing the extraction of any
naturally occurring mineral substances—solid, liquid, and gas from the
earth or other heavenly bodies for utilitarian purposes.
There are many terms and expressions unique to mining that characterize
the field and identify the user of such terms as a ‘‘mining person.’’ Some
common mining terms are as follows:
Mine: an excavation made in the earth to extract minerals.
Mining: the activity, occupation and industry concerned with the extraction
of minerals.
Mining engineering: the practice of applying engineering principles to the
development, planning, operation, closure, and reclamation of mines. Some
terms distinguish various types of mined minerals. Geologically, one can
distinguish the following mineral categories.
Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an
orderly internal structure and a characteristic chemical composition, crystal
form, and physical properties.
Rock: any naturally formed aggregate of one or more types of mineral
particles
Economic differences in the nature of mineral deposits are evident in the
following terms.
Ore: a mineral deposit that has sufficient utility and value to be mined at a
profit.
Gangue: the valueless mineral particles within an ore deposit that must be
discarded.
Waste: the material associated with an ore deposit that must be mined to
get at the ore and must then be discarded. Gangue is a particular type of
waste. A further subdivision of the types of minerals mined by humankind is
also common. These terms are often used in the industry to differentiate
between the fuels, metals, and nonmetallic minerals. The following are the
most common terms used in this differentiation.
Metallic ores: those ores of the ferrous metals (iron, manganese,
molybdenum, and tungsten), the base metals (copper, lead, zinc, and
tin),the precious metals (gold, silver, the platinum group metals),and the
radioactive minerals (uranium, thorium and radium).
Nonmetallic minerals (also known as industrial minerals): the nonfuel
mineral ores that are not associated with the production of metals. These
include phosphate, potash, halite, trona, sand, gravel, limestone, sulfur, and
many others.
Fossil fuels: the organic mineral substances that can be utilized as fuels,
such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, coal bed methane, gilsonite, and tar
sands.
 STAGES IN THE LIFE OF A MINE
The overall sequence of activities in modern mining is often compared with
the five stages in the life of a mine: prospecting, exploration, development,
exploitation, and reclamation. Prospecting and exploration, precursors to
actual mining, are linked and sometimes combined. Geologists and mining
engineers often share responsibility for these two stages—geologists more
involved with the former, mining engineers more with the latter. Likewise,
development and exploitation are closely related stages; they are usually
considered to constitute mining proper and are the main province of the
mining engineer.
Closure and reclamation of the mine site has become a necessary part of
the mine life cycle because of the demands of society for a cleaner
environment and stricter laws regulating the abandonment of a mine. The
overall process of developing a mine with the future uses of the land in
mind is termed sustainable development.
1) Prospecting
Prospecting, the first stage in the utilization of a mineral deposit is the
search for ores or other valuable minerals (coal or non-metallic). Because
mineral deposits may be located either at or below the surface of the earth,
both direct and indirect prospecting techniques are employed.
The direct method of discovery, normally limited to surface deposits,
consists of visual examination of either the exposure (outcrop) of the
deposit or the loose fragments (float) that have weathered away from the
outcrop. Geologic studies of the entire area augment this simple, direct
technique. By means of aerial photography, geologic maps, and structural
assessment of an area, the geologist gathers evidence by direct methods to
locate mineral deposits. Precise mapping and structural analysis plus
microscopic studies of samples also enable the geologist to locate the
hidden as well as surface mineralization.
The most valuable scientific tool employed in the indirect search for hidden
mineral deposits is geophysics, the science of detecting anomalies using
physical measurements of gravitational, seismic, magnetic, electrical,
electromagnetic, and radiometric variables of the earth. The methods are
applied from the air, using aircraft and satellites; on the surface of the
earth; and beneath the earth, using methods that probe below the
topography. Geochemistry, the quantitative analysis of soil, rock, and water
samples, and geo-botany, the analysis of plant growth patterns, can also be
employed as prospecting tools.

2) Exploration
The second stage in the life of a mine, exploration, determines as accurately
as possible the size and value of a mineral deposit, utilizing techniques
similar to but more refined than those used in prospecting. The line of
demarcation between prospecting and exploration is not sharp; in fact, a
distinction may not be possible in some cases. Exploration generally shifts to
surface and subsurface locations, using a variety of measurements to obtain
a more positive picture of the extent and grade of the ore body.
Representative samples may be subjected to chemical, metallurgical, X ray,
spectro-graphic, or radiometric evaluation techniques that are meant to
enhance the investigator’s knowledge of the mineral deposit. Samples are
obtained by chipping outcrops, trenching, tunneling, and drilling; in
addition, borehole logs may be provided to study the geologic and
structural makeup of the deposit. Rotary, percussion, or diamond drills can
be used for exploration purposes. However, diamond drills are favored
because the cores they yield provide knowledge of the geologic structure.
The core is normally split along its axis; one half is analyzed, and the other
half is retained intact for further geologic study.
An evaluation of the samples enables the geologist or mining engineer to
calculate the tonnage and grade, or richness, of the mineral deposit. He or
she estimates the mining costs, evaluates the recovery of the valuable
minerals, determines the environmental costs, and assesses other
foreseeable factors in an effort to reach a conclusion about the profitability
of the mineral deposit. The crux of the analysis is the question of whether
the property is just another mineral deposit or an ore body. For an ore
deposit, the overall process is called reserve estimation, that is, the
examination and valuation of the ore body. At the conclusion of this stage,
the project is developed, traded to another party, or abandoned.

3) Development
In the third stage, development, the work of opening a mineral deposit for
exploitation is performed. With it begins the actual mining of the deposit,
now called the ore. Access to the deposit must be gained either
(1) By stripping the overburden, which is the soil and/or rock covering the
deposit, to expose the near-surface ore for mining or
(2) By excavating openings from the surface to access more deeply buried
deposits to prepare for underground mining.
In either case, certain preliminary development work, such as acquiring
water and mineral rights, buying surface lands, arranging for financing, and
preparing permit applications and an environmental impact statement (EIS),
will generally be required before any development takes place. When these
steps have been achieved, the provision of a number of requirements—
access roads, power sources, mineral transportation systems, mineral
processing facilities, waste disposal areas, offices, and other support
facilities—must precede actual mining in most cases. Stripping of the
overburden will then proceed if the minerals are to be mined at the surface.
Economic considerations determine the stripping ratio, the ratio of waste
removed to ore recovered; it may range from as high as 45 yd_/ton (38
m_/tonne) for coal mines to as low as 1.0 yd_/ton (0.8 m_/tonne) in metal
mines. Some nonmetallic mines have no overburden to remove; the mineral
is simply excavated at the surface.
Development for underground mining is generally more complex and
expensive. It requires careful planning and layout of access openings for
efficient mining, safety and permanence. The principal openings may be
shafts, slopes, or adits, each must be planned to allow passage of workers,
machines, ore, waste, air, water and utilities. Many metal mines are located
along steeply dipping deposits and thus are opened from shafts, while
drifts, winzes and raises serve the production areas. Many coal and
nonmetallic mines are found in nearly horizontal deposits. Their primary
openings may be drifts or entries, which may be distinctly different from
those of metal mines.

4) Exploitation
Exploitation, the fourth stage of mining, is associated with the actual
recovery of minerals from the earth in quantity. Although development may
continue, the emphasis in the production stage is on production. Usually
only enough development is done prior to exploitation to ensure that
production, once started, can continue uninterrupted throughout the life of
the mine.
The mining method selected for exploitation is determined mainly by the
characteristics of the mineral deposit and the limits imposed by safety,
technology, environmental concerns, and economics. Geologic conditions,
such as the dip, shape, and strength of the ore and the surrounding rock,
play a key role in selecting the method. Traditional exploitation methods fall
into two broad categories based on locale: surface or underground. Surface
mining includes mechanical excavation methods such as open pit and open
cast (strip mining), and aqueous methods such as placer and solution
mining. Underground mining is usually classified in three categories of
methods: unsupported, supported, and caving.
Surface Mining: Surface mining is the predominant exploitation procedure
worldwide. It includes open pit method and the aqueous method. In open
pit mining, a mechanical extraction method, a thick deposit is generally
mined in benches or steps, although thin deposits may require only a single
bench or face. Open pit or open cast mining is usually employed to exploit a
near-surface deposit or one that has a low stripping ratio. It often
necessitates a large capital investment but generally results in high
productivity, low operating cost, and good safety conditions.
The aqueous extraction methods depend on water or another liquid (e.g.,
dilute sulfuric acid, weak cyanide solution, or ammonium carbonate) to
extract the mineral. Placer mining is used to exploit loosely consolidated
deposits like common sand and gravel or gravels containing gold, tin,
diamonds, platinum, titanium, or coal. Hydraulicking utilizes a high-pressure
stream of water that is directed against the mineral deposit (normally but
not always a placer), undercutting it, and causing its removal by the erosive
actions of the water. Dredging performed from floating vessels,
accomplishes the extraction of the minerals mechanically or hydraulically.
Solution mining includes both borehole mining, such as the methods used
to extract sodium chloride or sulfur, and leaching, either through drill holes
or in dumps or heaps on the surface. Placer and solution mining are among
the most economical of all mining methods but can only be applied to
limited categories of mineral deposits.
 Fig: Surface Mining

Underground Mining: Underground methods—unsupported, supported,

and caving—are differentiated by the type of wall and roof supports used,
the configuration and size of production openings, and the direction in
which mining operations progress. The unsupported methods of mining are
used to extract mineral deposits that are roughly tabular (plus flat or
steeply dipping) and are generally associated with strong ore and
surrounding rock. These methods are termed unsupported because they do
not use any artificial pillars to assist in the support of the openings.
However, generous amounts of roof bolting and localized support measures
are often used. Room-and-pillar mining is the most common unsupported
method, used primarily for flat-lying seams or bedded deposits like coal,
trona, limestone, and salt. Support of the roof is provided by natural pillars
of the mineral that are left standing in a systematic pattern. Stope-and-pillar
mining (a stope is a production opening in a metal mine) is a similar method
used in non-coal mines where thicker, more irregular ore bodies occur; the
pillars are spaced randomly and located in low-grade ore so that the high-
grade ore can be extracted. These two methods account for almost all of
the underground mining in horizontal deposits in the United States and a
very high proportion of the underground tonnage as well. Two other
methods applied to steeply dipping deposits are also included in the
unsupported category. In shrinkage stoping, mining progresses upward,
with horizontal slices of ore being blasted along the length of the stope. A
portion of the broken ore is allowed to accumulate in the stope to provide a
working platform for the miners and is thereafter withdrawn from the stope
through chutes. Sublevel stoping differs from shrinkage stoping by providing
sublevels from which vertical slices are blasted. In this manner, the stope is
mined horizontally from one end to the other. Shrinkage stoping is more
suitable than sublevel stoping for stronger ore and weaker wall rock.
Supported mining methods are often used in mines with weak rock
structure. Cut-and-fill stoping is the most common of these methods and is
used primarily in steeply dipping metal deposits. The cut-and-fill method is
practiced both in the overhand (upward) and in the underhand (downward)
directions. As each horizontal slice is taken, the voids are filled with a
variety of fill types to support the walls. The fill can be rock waste, tailings,
cemented tailings, or other suitable materials. Cut-and-fill mining is one of
the more popular methods used for vein deposits and has recently grown in
use. Square-set
stoping also involves backfilling mine voids; however, it relies mainly on
timber sets to support the walls during mining. Stull stoping is a supported
mining method using timber or rock bolts in tabular, pitching ore bodies. It
is one of the methods that can be applied to ore bodies that have dips
between 10° and 45°. It often utilizes artificial pillars of waste to support the
roof. Caving methods are varied and versatile and involve caving the ore
and/or the overlying rock. Subsidence of the surface normally occurs
afterward. Long-wall mining is a caving method particularly well adapted to
horizontal seams, usually coal, at some depth. In this method, a face of
considerable length (a long face or wall) is maintained, and as the mining
progresses, the overlying strata are caved, thus promoting the breakage of
the coal itself. A different method, sublevel caving, is employed for a
dipping tabular or massive deposit. As mining progresses downward, each
new level is caved into the mine openings, with the ore materials being
recovered while the rock remains behind. Block caving is a large-scale or
bulk mining method that is highly productive, low in cost, and used
primarily on massive deposits that must be mined underground. It is most
applicable to weak or moderately strong ore bodies that readily break up
when caved. Both block caving and long-wall mining are widely used
because of their high productivity. In addition to these conventional
methods, innovative methods of mining are also evolving. These are
applicable to unusual deposits or may employ unusual techniques or
equipment. Examples include automation, rapid excavation, underground
gasification or liquefaction, and deep-sea mining.

Fig: Underground mining

5) Reclamation:
The final stage in the operation of most mines is reclamation, the process of
closing a mine and recontouring, revegetating, and restoring the water and
land values. The best time to begin the reclamation process of a mine is
before the first excavations are initiated. In other words, mine planning
engineers should plan the mine so that the reclamation process is
considered and the overall cost of mining plus reclamation is minimized, not
just the cost of mining itself. The new philosophy in the mining industry is
sustainability, that is, the meeting of economic and environmental needs of
the present while enhancing the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs (National Mining Association, 1998). In planning for the
reclamation of any given mine, there are many concerns that must be
addressed. The first of these is the safety of the mine site, particularly if the
area is open to the general public. The removal of office
buildings ,processing facilities, transportation equipment, utilities, and
other surface structures must generally be accomplished. The mining
company is then required to seal all mine shafts, adits, and other openings
that may present physical hazards. Any existing high-walls or other geologic
structures may require mitigation to prevent injuries or death due to
geologic failures. The second major issue to be addressed during
reclamation of a mine site is restoration of the land surface, the water
quality, and the waste disposal areas so that long-term water pollution, soil
erosion, dust generation, or vegetation problems do not occur. The
restoration of native plants is often a very important part of this process, as
the plants help build a stable soil structure and naturalize the area. It may
be necessary to carefully place any rock or tailings with acid-producing
properties in locations where rainfall has little effect on the material and
acid production is minimized. The same may be true of certain of the heavy
metals that pollute streams. Planning of the waste dumps, tailings ponds,
and other disturbed areas will help prevent pollution problems, but
remediation work may also be necessary to complete the reclamation stage
of mining and satisfy the regulatory agencies. The final concern of the mine
planning engineer may be the subsequent use of the land after mining is
completed. Old mine sites have been converted to wildlife refuges,
shopping malls, golf courses, airports, lakes, underground storage facilities,
real estate developments, solid waste disposal areas, and other uses that
can benefit society. By planning the mine for a subsequent development,
mine planners can enhance the value of the mined land and help convert it
to a use that the public will consider favorable. The successful completion of
the reclamation of a mine will enhance public opinion of the mining
industry and keep the mining company in the good graces of the regulatory
agencies. The fifth stage of the mine is thus of paramount importance and
should be planned at the earliest possible time in the life of the mine.
 Conclusion
Stage Procedure Time
1. Prospecting Searching for ore 1-3 years
(Mineral
Deposit)
2. Exploration Defining value and extend of ore 2-5 years
(Ore Body)
3. Development Opening up ore deposit for 2-5 years
( Prospect) production
4. Exploitation Large scale production of ore 10-30 years
(Mine)
5. Reclamation Restoration of site 1-10 years
(Real Estate)
 Reference
 www.slideshare.net
 www.scribd.com
 www.cienciaviva.pt
 Wikipedia