ECE 6382

Fall 2022
David R. Jackson

Notes 4
Functions of a Complex
Variable as Mappings

Notes are adapted from D. R. Wilton, Dept. of ECE

1
 A Function of a Complex Variable as a Mapping

 A function of a complex variable, w = f ( z ) , is usually viewed

as a mapping from the complex z plane to the complex w plane.

z w
y w = f ( z) v
w w= u + iv
x= x + iy
z
x u

For example, w = z 3

2
 Simple Mappings: Translations
 Translation :
w= A + z
where A is a complex constant.

y z v w
w= A + z w
z
z
x u
A

• The mapping translates every point in the z plane

by the "vector" A .

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 Simple Mappings: Rotations

 Rotation :
i (α +θ )
=w e=
z iα
e iα
(re=
iθ
) re
where α is a real constant.

y z w
v
w = eiα z
z α z
x u
w

• The mapping rotates every point in

the z plane through an angle α .
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 Simple Mappings: Dilations
 Dilation (stretching) : Note:

= =
w az ( )
a reiθ= (ar )eiθ
= =
u ax, v ay
du = a dx
⇒
where a is a real constant. dv = a dy

y z w v w
w = az

z
x u

• The mapping magnifies the magnitude z of a point z

in the complex plane by a factor a .

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 A General Linear Transformation (Mapping) is a
Combination of Translation, Rotation, and Dilation
 Linear transformation :

rotation 

dilation
i (θ + Arg B )
w= A B ei Arg B reiθ = 
A + Bz =+ A + Br e
translation
where A ,B are complex constants .

y z w v
w= A + Bz
Bz
z Arg B
x u
A
w

Shapes do not change under a linear transformation!

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 Simple Mappings: Inversions
 Inversion :
1 1 1 −iθ The magnitude becomes the reciprocal, and
=
w = iθ
= e the phase angle becomes the negative.
z re r

Im
z = x+ iy
r
1
θ
Re
θ w =1/ z

 Points outside the unit circle get mapped to the inside of the unit circle.
 Points inside the unit circle get mapped to the outside of the unit circle.

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 Simple Mappings: Inversions
 Inversion :
1 1 1 −iθ
=
w = iθ
= e
z re r
Im Im
z
z= x0 + iy

1
1 Re
x0 Re 1z

1z

Inverson : a straight line maps to a circle Inversion : circle - preserving property

Inversions have a “circle preserving” property, i.e., circles always map to circles
(Straight lines are a special case where the radius of the circle is infinity.)

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Circle Property of Inversion Mapping: Proof
1
w= (This maps circles into circles.)
z
1 1 u −v
z= ⇒ x + iy = ⇒ x= , y =
w u + iv u2 + v2 u2 + v2

Consider a circle: ( x − x0 )2 + ( y − y0 )2 =
a2

This is in the form x 2 + y 2 + a1 x + a2 y + a3 =

0

Hence
2 2
 u   −v   u   −v 
 2 2
+  2 2
+ a1 2 2
+ a 2 2 2
+ a3 =
0
u +v  u +v  u +v  u +v 

J. W. Brown and R. V. Churchill, Complex Variables and Applications, 9th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2013.
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Circle Property of Inversion Mapping: Proof (cont.)
2 2
 u   −v   u   −v 
 2 2
+  2 2
+ a1 2 2
+ a 2 2 2
+ a3 =
0
u +v  u +v  u +v  u +v 

Multiply by u2 + v2:

 u2   v2 
 2 +
2  2 2
+ a1 ( u ) + a 2 ( − v ) + a3 u 2
+ v 2
(
=
0 )
u +v  u +v 

or
( )
1 + a1 ( u ) + a2 ( −v ) + a3 u 2 + v 2 =
0

This is in the form of a circle:

( u − u0 )2 + ( v − v0 )2 =
b2

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 Simple Mappings: Inversions (cont.)
1 1 1 −iθ
 Geometrical construction of the inversion : =
w = iθ
= e
z re r

w v

θ u
z
y w v
1 z
z w= w
z
θ 1
x θ
u
w
Shapes are not preserved!

Note the circular boundaries for the region!

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A General Bilinear Transformation (Mapping) Is a Succession
of Translations, Rotations, Dilations, and Inversions
A + Bz
 Bilinear (Fractional or Mobius) transformation : w =
C + Dz
where A ,B,C,D are complex constants.

 Note that if D ≠ 0 ,
A + Bz A − BC D + B D ( C + Dz ) A − BC D
=w = = + B D
C + Dz C + Dz C + Dz

If we let f ( z )= C + Dz, (translation, dilation, rotation)

1
and g (ξ ) = (inversion, dilation, rotation)
ξ
then the Mobius transformation may be written as
A + Bz
w= = B D + ( A − BC D ) g ( f ( z ) )
C + Dz
This is a sequence of : linear transformation; inversion; dilation and rotation; translation.

 Since each transformation preserves circles, bilinear transformations also

have the circle - preserving property : circles in the z plane are mapped into circles in
the w plane (with straight lines thought of as circles of infinite radius).

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Bilinear Transformation Example: The Smith Chart
Z (d )
 Let z =r + jx = where Z (  ) =R ( d ) + jX ( d ) is the impedance at z =- d on a
Z0
transmission line of characteristic impedance Z 0 , and Γ ( d ) is the generalized
reflection coefficient :
Z ( d ) − Z0 z ( d ) −1 z −1
=
Γ (d ) = = or simply Γ
Z ( d ) + Z0 z (d ) +1 z +1

r ≡ R / Z0
x Im Γ
x ≡ X / Z0
z −1 Γ
Γ =
z z +1

r Re Γ

Horizontal and vertical ines (contant reactance and resistance) are mapped into circles.

For an interpretation of Möbius transformations as projections on a sphere, see

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JX3VmDgiFnY.
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 The Squaring Transformation
= f ( z=
w ) z=2 r 2 ei 2θ
( z,− z ) → w
y v
z w
z w
x u
−z θ0

• The transformation maps half the z - plane into the entire w - plane.
• The entire z - plane covers the w - plane twice.
• The transformation is said to be two - to - one.

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 Another Representation of the Squaring
Transformation
= f ( z=
w ) z=2 r 2 ei 2θ
2
y z
180o
270o 3 90o
9
2
4
1
1
360o
x
-360o 1 2 3 0o

-270o -90o
-180o

=
Constant amplitude and phase contours of ( z ) z2
w f=
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 The Square Root Transformation
θ p + 2π k
( z ) z=
i
=
w f= 1/ 2
re 2 ,=
k 0,1
Note: The value of z1/2 on one branch is the
y negative of the value on the other branch. v
z w

Second z
branch w
x u
−π < θ p ≤ π
k =1
w
Principal branch Re ≥ 0
−π < θ p ≤ π
k =0

 We say that there are two “branches” (i.e., values) of the square root function.
 Note that for a given branch (e.g., the principal branch), the square root function is not
continuous on the negative real axis. (There is a “branch cut” there.)

• The transformation is said to be one - to - two

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 The Square Root Transformation (cont.)
θ p + 2π k
( )
i
=
w f=z z=1/ 2
re 2 ,=
k 0,1

y The principal branch is the

choice in MATLAB and most v
z programming languages!
w
z
x
w
u

Principal branch
−π < θ p ≤ π Re ≥ 0
k =0 1 =1
−1 =i
The principal square root is denoted as z 1+ i
i=
2
1− i
Note: Re z ≥ 0 −i =
2
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 The Square Root Transformation (cont.)
θp 
i  2 + kπ 
w= f ( z )= z1 / 2= r1 / 2 e   , k= 0,1, − π < θ ≤ π
y y
45o 225o
67.5o 3 22.5o 247.5o 3 202.5o
3 3
2 2
2 2
1 1
1 1
90o 270o
x x
-90o 1 2 3 0o 90o 1 2 3 180o

-67.5o -45o -22.5o 112.5o 135o 157.5o

Principal branch, k = 0 Other branch, k = 1

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 Constant u and v Contours are Orthogonal
 Consider contours in the z plane on which the real quantities u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y )
are constant.
y v = constant
∇u
z w =u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) = f ( z ) (analytic)
∇v
u = constant
x

 The directions normal to these contours are along the gradient direction :
∂u ∂u
∇u
= xˆ + ˆy
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v
∇v
= xˆ + ˆy
∂x ∂y

 The gradients, and therefore the contours, are orthogonal (perpendicular) by the C. R. conditions :
C.R.
 ∂u ∂u   ∂v ∂v   ∂u
cond's
∂u   ∂u ∂u  ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
∇u ⋅ ∇v =
 ∂x xˆ + ∂y ˆy  ⋅  xˆ + ˆy  = ∂x xˆ + ∂y ˆy  ⋅  − xˆ + ˆy  =
− + =0
   ∂x ∂y     ∂y ∂x  ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x

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Constant u and v Contours are Orthogonal (cont.)

Example: w = z 2

( )
w =( x + iy ) = x 2 − y 2 + i ( 2 xy )
2

u ( x, y=
) x2 − y 2
so
v ( x, y ) = 2 xy
Also, recall that
y
= v =
constant: xy c2
∇2u ( x, y ) =
0
∇2v ( x, y ) =
0
=u constant: =
x 2 − y 2 c1

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 Mappings of Analytic Functions are Conformal
(Angle-Preserving)
 Consider a pair of intersecting paths C 1,C 2 in the z plane mapped
onto the w= u + iv plane.

w = f ( z)
y v
z γ
w
Γ1
∆z2
z0
∆z1 f ′ ( z0 ) ≠ 0 β
∆w1
w0
C1
∆w2 Γ2
γ C2 β
x u

∆w 1 ≈ f ′ ( z0 ) ∆z 1 ( ) ( )
⇒ arg ∆w 1 ≈ arg f ′ ( z0 ) + arg ∆z 1 , ∆z 1 along C1 from z0
∆w 2 ≈ f ′ ( z0 ) ∆z 2 ⇒ arg ( ∆w 2 ) ≈ arg f ′ ( z0 ) + arg ( ∆z 2 ) , ∆z 2 along C2 from z0
⇒ arg ( ∆w 2 ) − arg ( ∆w 1 ) ≈ arg ( ∆z 2 ) − arg ( ∆z 1 )

This assumes that f ′ is

not zero.
Hence β =γ
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 Constant u and v Contours are Orthogonal
(Revisited)
y v = constant v
z w = f ( z) w
u = constant
x u

Since the contours u = constant and v = constant are (obviously)

orthogonal in the w plane, they must remain orthogonal in the z plane.

dz
Assumption : ≠0
dw

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Constant |w| and arg(w) Contours are also Orthogonal

 If w Re i Θ the constant R and Θ contours are (obviously) orthogonal in the w plane.

 If z = f −1 ( w ) is a mapping back to the z plane,

the mapping preserves the orthogonality.

dz
Assumption : ≠0
dw

y Θ =constant
w
v
z
R = constant
x u

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 The Logarithm Function

w = ln ( z )

i (θ p + 2π k )
= eiθ z e
z z=

( )
⇒ ln ( z ) = ln z + i θ p + 2π k , k = 0, ±1, ±2 , 

There are an infinite number of branches (values) for the ln function!

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 Arbitrary Powers of Complex Numbers

w=z a
(a may be complex)

Use
 z z= iθ i (θ p + 2π k ) 
=z eln z =
 e z e 
 

aln z + ai (θ p + 2π k )
=
z a
( )ln z a
e = e= e aln z
= e
aln z iaθ p i 2π ak
e e

This has an infinite number of branches unless ak = integer for some

value of k = q, i.e, a is real and rational:
p
a= ( p,q are integers )
q

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 Arbitrary Powers of Complex Numbers (cont.)
: f ( z ) z=
Example= 2/ 3
( a 2 / 3)
2 
 2
ln z i θ p  i 2π  k 
2
z2 / 3 =  e 3 e 3 e 3 
 
 
2 2
2 ln z i θp
k= 0 k= 0 ⇒ z 2 / 3= e 3 e3
3
2 2 2
2 2 ln z i θ p i ( 2π )
k= 1 k= ⇒ z2 / 3= e 3 e3 e 3
3 3
2 2 4
2 4 ln z i θ p i ( 2π )
k 2 k= ⇒ z2 / 3
= e 3 e3 e 3
3 3
2 2 2 2
2 2/ 3 ln z i θ p i ( 2π ) 2 ln z i θ p starts
k =3 k=
2 =
⇒ z e=3 e 3 e e 3 e 3 ←
3 repeating!

k=4
2 8
k = =+
2
2
⇒  repeats!
3 3 3
 For z p/q the repetition period is k = q (if p and q have
no common factors). For irrational powers, the
repetition period is infinite; i.e., values never repeat!
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