Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LSPU Self-Paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course Basic Electrical Engineering
Sem/AY First Semester/2022-2023
Module No. 9
Lesson Title Inductors and Capacitors
Week
12
Duration
Date November 14-18, 2022
Description This topic discusses the inductors and capacitors, their electrical properties and
of the different connections in a circuit.
Lesson

Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning  Learn the types and properties of inductors and capacitors
Outcomes  Learn the different connection of inductors and capacitors and their application
in AC Circuit.
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives  Familiarize with different types of inductors and capacitors
 Know the concepts and application of capacitor and inductor in AC Circuit

Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a Three-Hour class discussion on Ohm’s
Law, Electrical Power and Electrical Energy. To have access to the
Asynchronous) Online Discussion, refer to this link: ____________________.

(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)

B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What is capacitor and capacitance?
2. What is inductor and inductance?

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Prepared by: NOIME ROBLES GASPAR
 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
3. What are the different connections of capacitor and inductor?

Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.

Offline Activities Lecture Guide

(e-Learning/Self-
Paced) Introduction

As discussed at various points in the previous topics, time is an important

parameter in electrical circuits. On the other hand, in subsequent chapters, we
neglected the time concept in the circuit analysis because
 all sources have been DC sources that deliver fixed voltage and current
values,
 we have considered only resistors, in addition to dependent and
independent sources, but not energy-storage elements.

Basically, there are two fundamental types of energy-storage elements, namely,

capacitors and inductors. Similar to resistance, capacitance and inductance are
natural properties of all structures, while capacitors and inductors appear as
individual components in many circuits. Unlike resistors, the response of a
capacitor and inductor to an applied voltage and current is not instant.
Specifically, for DC circuits involving energy-storage elements (and resistors),
it takes time for these components to store and release energy, leading to a
transient state that does not occur in resistor-only circuits. This chapter is
devoted to the analysis of such transient states. In the next discussions we
focus on AC circuits, where the energy-storage elements add phases between
current and voltage values that are oscillatory.

Capacitor and Capacitance

A capacitor is a charge storage device, capable of storing charge in DC and AC

applications. A charged capacitor stores electrical charge on two electrodes;
one of the two electrodes is negative and the other one is positive. The negative
electrode is called a cathode and the positive electrode is referred to as an
anode. This separation of charge, and the quantity of charge separated,
determine the electrical potential—or voltage—developed across the
electrodes
of the capacitor. The electrical potential difference between the capacitor
plates, or electrodes, signifies the storage of electrical energy in the capacitor.
Therefore, as an energy storage device—with a potential difference—
capacitors
are analogous to air receivers and pneumatic cylinders that store pressure
energy—in form of higher pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure—

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
which can be used to perform mechanical work.

Construction of a simple capacitor is depicted in Figure 1.1. As shown in Figure

1.1, a simple capacitor can be constructed with two parallel square plates, of
equal size, separated by a dielectric substance like glass, mica, etc. The
separation between the two plates (electrodes), “r,” in conjunction with the
area of the plates determines the “capacitance” of the capacitor. Capacitance,
“C,” of a capacitor is defined as the charge storage capacity of the capacitor.

Figure 1.1: A simple parallel plate capacitor

Capacitance can be defined, mathematically below.

Where,
C = Capacitance is quantified or specified in farads;
A = The area of cross-section—or simply area—of the capacitor electrode
plates;
Є = Permittivity of the dielectric medium between the plates; and
Є = Єr . Є0

Where
Єr = Relative permittivity of a specific dielectric medium, and
Є0 = permittivity in vacuum or in air = 8.854 x 10−12 farads per meter
(F·m−1).

One farad is rather large amount of capacitance for most common capacitor
applications. Therefore, many capacitors—especially, at the circuit board
level—are specified or labeled in terms of smaller units, such as, mF (milli-
Farad), μF (micro-Farad), or nF (nano-Farad). The capacitor shown in Figure
1.2 is rated 470μF and designed to operate at a maximum of 35V.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Figure 1.2: A cylindrical 470 Micro-Farad Capacitor

The mathematical relationship stated as equation above stipulates that

capacitance is directly proportional to the area A of the capacitor plates and
inversely proportional to the separation r between the plates. In other words, if
larger capacitance or charge storage capacity is desired, one must increase the
area of the plates and/or decrease the separation between the capacitor plates.

Electrical energy stored in a capacitor can be determined through application

of equation below.

Charge storage characteristic of the capacitor should not be confused with the
charge storage and power source function of a battery. One difference between
capacitors and batteries is that when capacitors are charging or discharging,
charge flows through a “dielectric” medium; while most batteries consist of
electrolytes (i.e. sulfuric acid) that ionize readily and the ions sustain the flow
of current. Capacitors allow the charge to move between electrode plates
through a dielectric medium.

The dynamics of how a capacitor stores and dissipates charge are somewhat
different between the DC and AC realms. Unlike resistive circuits, current and
voltage associated with capacitors vary in a non-linear fashion. A common,
series, RC circuit is shown in Figure 1.3, consisting of a capacitor, resistor and
a switch that can be used to control the charging and discharging of the
capacitor. The graphs in Figure 1.4 through 1.6 below compare voltage and
current responses in circuits that are purely resistive versus a series RC circuit,
the type illustrated in Figure 1.3. This “non-linear” charging and discharging of
capacitors is referred to as transient behavior of RC circuits.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Prepared by: NOIME ROBLES GASPAR
 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
Figure 1.3: A series RC circuit

The straight line graph in Figure 1.4 illustrates and validates the Ohms law.
This graph shows that voltage and current are directly proportional, with the
“constant” resistor serving as the constant of proportionality. In a purely
resistive circuit, the current would respond, instantaneously and linearly, to
the application of voltage across a resistor.

Figure 1.4: Linear, voltage vs. current, response in a purely resistive circuit.

Voltage vs. Time, transient response in series RC circuit: Contrary to linear

and instantaneous response in a purely resistive circuit, the current and
voltage response in a common RC circuit is non-linear and non-instantaneous.

The voltage response—or voltage variation—of a capacitor can be predicted

through the equation below.

Where,
R = Resistance in series with the capacitance
C = Capacitance
vc(0) = Voltage across the capacitor, at time t = 0
vc(t) = Voltage across the capacitor, at a given time t
V = Voltage of the power source
RC = τ = Time constant of an RC circuit

If the voltage variation or response of a capacitor were graphed, with respect to

time, it would be resembled the vc versus t graph shown in Figure 1.5.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Figure 1.5: Non-linear, transient, voltage response in a circuit consisting of

capacitance and resistance

Current vs. Time, transient, response in series RC circuit: The current

response—or current variation—in a capacitor-resistor circuit can be
predicted through the equation below.

Where,
R = Resistance in series with the capacitance
C = Capacitance, in farads
vc(0) = Voltage across the capacitor, at time t = 0
ic(t) = Current through the capacitor-resistor circuit, at a given time t
V = Voltage of the power source

If the current response of a capacitor were graphed, with respect to time, it

would resemble the ic versus t graph shown in Figure 1.6. Note that the
capacitor current versus time curve in Figure 1.6 validates the previous
equation. For instance, the graph shows that at t = ∞, or when steady state is
achieved, current ic(t) through the RC circuit diminishes to zero; and if you
substitute t = ∞ in the equation above, ic(t) becomes zero. In other words, at
steady state, the capacitor transforms into an open circuit and the current
ceases to flow.

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Figure 1.6: Non-linear, transient, current response in a circuit consisting of

capacitance and resistance

The presence of resistance R in capacitive circuits results in what is referred to

as a time constant “τ.” The relationship between τ, R and C is stipulated by the
equation below. The physical significance of time constant τ is that it
represents the time it takes to charge a capacitor to 63.2% of the full value, or
63.2% of the full voltage of the source. Time constant τ also represents the time
it takes to discharge a given capacitor to 36.8% of the full voltage, or the
voltage of the source.
τ = RC

Example

Consider the RC circuit shown in the diagram below. The source voltage is 12V.
The capacitor is in a discharged state before the switch is closed. The switch is
closed at t = 0. What would the capacitor voltage be at t = 2τ?

Solution:

In this case,
R = 1 kΩ = 1,000 Ω
C = 5μF = 5x10-6 F

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
vc(0) = 0V = Voltage across the capacitor at t = 0
vc(t) = Voltage across the capacitor, at a given time t = ?
V = Voltage of the power source = 12V
RC = τ = RC circuit time constant
t = 2τ = 2RC

Substitution of the given values, stated above,

Capacitors in Series
When a number of capacitors are connected in a “daisy- chained,” or
concatenated fashion, as shown in Figure 1.7, they are said to be connected
in series. In Figure 1.7, “n” number of capacitors, C1 through Cn, are shown
connected in series.

Figure 1.7: Capacitors in series

When electrical circuits, AC or DC, consist of multiple capacitors, circuit

analyses require simplification—or combination—of such network of
capacitors into one, equivalent, capacitor or capacitance, Ceq. This equivalent,
capacitance can also be referred to as a “total” capacitance.

Unlike series combination of resistors, when capacitors are connected in series,

they can be combined in an “addition of inverses” format, as stipulated in the
equation below, for “n” number of capacitors.

When multiple capacitors are combined into an equivalent capacitor, with

capacitance value CEQ, the simplified version of the original series circuit can
be drawn as shown in Figure 1.8.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Figure 1.8: Equivalent capacitance for capacitors in series.

As a special case, suppose that the series capacitor network shown in Fig 1.7
consists of “n” series capacitors, with equal capacitance. Because the capacitors
are assumed to be equal, calculation of CEQ, or CEQ-n, and application of the
previous equation can be simplified to the equation below.

Example
Determine the equivalent capacitance for the DC circuit shown in the figure
below if C1 = 5μF, and C2 = C3= 10μF.

Solution:

CEQ = 2.5μF

Capacitors in Parallel

When electrical circuits consist of capacitors connected in parallel, as shown in

Figure 1.9, circuit analyses—as with a network of series connected capacitors
—would require simplification of the parallel network of capacitors
into one, equivalent capacitor CEQ. Figure 1.9 shows “n” number of capacitors
connected such the “heads” of all capacitors are (electrically) “bonded” or
are connected together, with an electrical connection to the anode (or positive
terminal) of the DC power supply, and the “tails” of all capacitors are connected
together to the cathode (or negative terminal) of the power source.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Figure 1.9: Equivalent capacitance for capacitors in series.

Simplification of a network of capacitors is parallel is similar to the approach

utilized in the combination of resistors in series. When multiple parallel
capacitors are combined into an equivalent capacitor, CEQ, the simplified or
condensed equivalent of the original parallel circuit could also be represented
by the equivalent circuit diagram in Figure 1.8.

For a parallel capacitor circuit consisting of “n” number of parallel capacitors,

equivalent capacitance can be calculated by applying the equation below.

Example
Determine the equivalent capacitance for the DC circuit shown below if
C1 = C2 =5μF, and C3= 10F.

Solution:

Example:
Determine the equivalent capacitance in series and parallel combination
circuit shown below. The capacitance values are: C1 = C2 = 5μF, C3 = C4 =
10μF.

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Solution:
The capacitors in this circuit that lend themselves to linear combination are C 3
and C4. Therefore, the combined capacitance, C34, would be:

C34 = C3 + C4 =10μF +10μF = 20μF

Then,

CEQ = 2.22μF

Capacitive Reactance

When a capacitor is incorporated into an AC circuit, its impact in that circuit is

quantified through an entity referred to as the capacitive reactance. The
symbol for capacitive reactance is Xc. Capacitive reactance can be defined,
mathematically, as:

Where,
f = Frequency of the AC power source, i.e., 60 Hz in the US and 50 Hz in
some other parts of the world.
ω = Rotational speed, in radians per second
C = Capacitance in farads

Capacitive reactance is measured in ohms, or Ω’s. It is important to note that X c

is often misrepresented as Zc. To the contrary, as explained in the impedance
section, Zc is the impedance contribution by the capacitor, and is represented
as:
Zc = – jXc,
∴ Zc ≠ Xc

Example
Assume that the circuit in previous example is powered by a 60 Hz, AC source
instead of the DC source. Determine the total capacitive reactance, X c, seen by
the AC source.

Solution:

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
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If the DC source is replaced by an AC source, the circuit would appear as
follows:

As computed in previous example, the combined or net capacitance

contributed to the circuit by the parallel and series network of capacitors is C EQ
= 2.22μF. Then,

Inductor and Inductance

Similar to capacitor, an inductor can be viewed as an energy storage device,

which can be applied in DC or AC applications. Unlike a capacitor—where
energy is stored in form of separation of charges, resulting in a potential
difference—in an inductor, the energy is stored in the magnetic field that is
produced through the flow of electric current. This phenomenon was first
discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. The magnetic field—which can be
referred to as magnetic flux—is not established instantaneously upon flow of
current through an inductor. Instead, much like a “time constant, τ” based
charge builds up in a capacitor, the current change and magnetic field build up
in an inductor ramps up, or down, at a non-linear rate. This non-linear rate is a
function of the inductor’s time constant, τ.

Since the energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor is due to the flow of
current—and, ultimately, due to the movement of electrons—we could view an
inductor as being analogous to a rotating “flywheel,” in the mechanical realm—
where the energy is stored in a rotating mass. As with a flywheel— where any
attempt to stop the rotation of the flywheel is opposed by momentum and
kinetic energy in the rotating mass of the flywheel—any attempt to change the
flow of current in an inductor is opposed by the “inductance” of the inductor. It
is due to the inductance of an inductor that if you, for instance, have 10 amps
flowing in an electrical circuit, and you try to “break” the circuit by opening a
switch, current flow is maintained briefly through an electric arc, where
permitted, across the opening switch. Where the electric arc—which is, in
essence, plasma or ionized air—serves as a temporary “channel” for the flow of
current. Conversely, when a switch—in a de-energized inductive circuit— is
closed to connect a power source to an inductive device, no current flows
through the circuit, initially, as inductance of the inductor in the electrical

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
circuit opposes the change in the flow of current from “zero” to some
measurable “non-zero” level. Therefore, inductance is defined as the capacity
or tendency of an inductor to resist the change in flow of current.

In addition, it is worth noting that just like the kinetic energy stored in a
rotating flywheel can be “tapped” to perform mechanical work, the energy
stored in the magnetic field of a “charged” inductor can be released to push
a ferromagnetic cylindrical core, in one direction or another, to open or close
a valve, or to open or close an electrical switch. The former application is an
example of a solenoid operated valve, while the later represents the operation
of a contactor or a relay.

The principle of inductance and physical aspects of inductors (or coils) are
illustrated in Figure 1.10 (a) and (b). Basically, if you take a straight piece of
wire, as shown in Figure 1.10 (a), and wind it around a cylindrical core, the
final product would be a coil or an inductor. As shown in the Figure 1.10 (a),
current flowing through a straight wire produces a “weak” magnetic field.
While, current flowing through a “coiled” conductor produces a stronger and
denser magnetic field, capable for conducting “work,” such as, pushing of a
“plunger” against the restraint of a spring’ to open or close a valve or to open
or close an electrical circuit in a relay or a contactor.

Figure 1.10: (a) Straight current carrying conductor (b) “Coiled” current
carrying conductor.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
Figure 1.10 (b) represents a conceptual view of a solenoid or a coil, illustrating
the fundamental principle of electromagnetism. On the other hand, physical
construction of a simple solenoid or inductor is depicted in Figure 1.11, in a
diametrical cross-sectional view. When the coil of the solenoid is energized, the
plunger—or core—responds to the magnetic flux by moving to the left. As the
plunger moves to the left—against the spring—with a force that is proportional
to the magnetic flux, the “pin” attached to the tip of the plunger pushes
mechanical devices such as relay contacts or valves, etc., to change their state
from open to closed, or vice and versa.

Figure 1.11: Construction of a solenoid.

Inductance is denoted by “L,” and it can be defined, mathematically, through

the equation below.

Where,
μ = Permeability of the medium, in H/m
N = Number of turns of coil (unit-less)
A = Cross-sectional area of the core (in m2)
l = Mean length through the core (in m)
Unit for Inductance: H (henry)

The mathematical relationship stated as the equation stipulates that

inductance is directly proportional to the area of cross-section “A” of the core.
This equation also states that the inductance is directly proportional to “N 2,”
the “square” of the number of turns in the coil, and is inversely proportional to
the mean length “l” of the core. In other words, if larger inductance or energy
storage capacity is desired, one must increase the area of cross-section of the
core, increase the number of turns, or reduce the mean length of the core and
the coil. Of course, the values of these variables can be increased or decreased,
simultaneously, to achieve the desired results. In addition to serving as a

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
“constant of proportionality” for the equation, permeability “μ” injects the
physical characteristics of the core into the computation of inductance. So, if a
material with higher relative permeability, μr, is chosen, the inductance of a coil
would be greater. The permeability μ of a specific medium can be defined,
mathematically as follows:
μ = μr . μo
Where,
μr = Relative permeability of the core material. Relative permeability of steel is
100 and that of an insulating materials like wood and Teflon is 1.0; which is the
same as free space, vacuum or air.
μo = Permeability of free space or vacuum = 4π×10 −7 = 1.257 x 10-6 H/m

Electrical energy stored in an inductor can be determined through the equation

below:
1
E stored = L I 2
2
Where, the energy is measured in joules (or N-m), L in H (henry) and I in amps.

Most inductive electrical systems—that is electrical circuits with inductance—

and inductive devices like motors and transformers, contain inductance L, as
well as resistance, R. In order to understand the current and voltage response
in inductive circuits—or to understand current and voltage variation in
inductive systems—we will examine a simple series RL circuit diagram in
Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12: Series RL circuit

In a typical inductive-resistive circuit, as the one shown in Figure 1.12, the

voltage and current relationships, as a function of time, are governed by
Equations a, b and c.

Eq. a

Eq. b

Eq. c
Equations b and c hold greater practical significance, in that, they can be used

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
to predict the changes in voltage and current—with respect to time—for given
values of source voltage, V, series resistance R and series inductance L. The
relationship between resistance R and inductance L, or the relative size of R
and L, determine the charging and discharging rate of the inductor via the time
constant “τ .” The time constant τ can be defined, mathematically, in terms of R
and L, in form of the equation below.
L
τ=
R

Voltage vs. Time, transient, response in Series RL Circuit: Examination of

Equation b and Figures 1.12 and 1.13 reveals the following facts:

Figure 1.13: Non-linear voltage response in a circuit consisting of inductance

and resistance.

a) At time, t = 0, which is when the switch in the circuit is closed, i(0) = 0;

so the first segment of Eq. b becomes zero and drops out. Also, at t = 0,
the exponent of “e” becomes zero, which makes e-Rt/L = 1. This results in
vL(t) = V, (i.e., the source voltage) at t = 0. In other words: vL(t) = V at the
instant the switch is closed in the series RL circuit.
b) On the other end of the time spectrum, where t = ∞, or when steady
state condition has been achieved:

The analyses above support the following basic tenets of series RL inductive
circuits:
i. The voltage across the inductor, at the instant the switch in a series RL
circuit is closed, is the same as the source voltage, implying that no current
flows through the inductor.
ii. The voltage across the inductor, after a large amount of time has elapsed,

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
diminishes to zero. And, with voltage drop across the inductor zero, the
inductor acts as a short in a series RL circuit under steady state conditions—
with steady state current, V/R, flowing through it.

Figure 1.14: Non-linear current response in a circuit consisting of inductance

and resistance

Current vs. Time, transient, response in series RL circuit: Examination of

Eq. c and Figures 1.12 and 1.14 reveals the following facts associated with
current versus time response in a series RL circuit:

a) At time, t = 0, which is when the switch in the circuit is closed, i(0) = 0;

so the first segment of Eq. 1.31 becomes zero and drops out. Also, at t =
0, the exponent of “e” becomes zero, which makes e-Rt/L = 1. This results
in iL(t) = 0 + V/R(1-e0) = 0, this means that at t = 0, or at the instant the
switch is closed, the inductance of the inductor resists the initiation of
current flow, hence, no current flows through the inductor at t = 0.
b) On the other end of the time spectrum, when t = ∞, or when steady state
condition has been achieved:

The analyses stated above support the following basic characteristics of

inductive circuits:
i. No current flows through the inductor and resistor combination at the
instant the switch is closed, or at t = 0, which is congruent with one of the
fundamental characteristics of an inductor described earlier. In other words,

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
at the outset, the inductance of the inductor, successfully, resists the rise of
the current to a non-zero value.
ii. Current through the inductor and resistor combination develops to the
maximum level after a long span of time. The maximum level of current in
the inductor and resistor combination is equal to V/R. This also implies that
the inductor acts as a “short” when steady state condition is achieved or
after 10τ amount of time.

Example
Consider the series RL circuit shown in the diagram below. The source voltage
is 12V and R = 10Ω. The switch is closed at t = 0. What would be magnitude of
current flowing through this circuit at t = τ?

Solution:
In most series RL cases, the current value at a certain time “t” can be
predicted through Eq. c.

Note: In this case, the value of L is not given, but the elapsed time is given as
a function of time constant as, “1τ.”

Since τ = L/R, Eq. c can be rewritten, in τ form as:

Then, by substituting t = τ, and given the fact that i(0) = 0, the iL(t) equations
simplifies into the following form:

Example

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Consider the series RL circuit given in previous example, in discharge mode,
with voltage source removed. Inductor L = 10mH. The switch has been closed
for long period of time, such that the current has developed to the maximum or
steady state level 1.2 A. How much time would need to elapse for the current to
drop to 0.8A after the switch is opened.

Solution:

Series Inductor Combination

When analyzing DC circuits with inductors connected in series, derivation of

equivalent inductance, Leq, can accomplished by, simply, adding the inductance
values linearly as represented by the equation below. Figure 1.15 depicts “n”
inductors, L1 through Ln, connected in series.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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Figure 1.15: Series combination of “n” inductors

Derivation of the combined equivalent inductance LEQ, permits us to represent

Figure 1.15 in form of a condensed version depicted in Figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16: LEQ, equivalent inductance representing series combination of

“n” inductors.

Example
Determine the equivalent inductance for three inductors connected in a series
combination circuit shown below. The inductance values of the three inductors
are: L1 = 5mH, L2 = 5mH, and L3 = 10mH.

Solution:

Parallel Combination of Inductors

The circuit depicted in Figure 1.17 shows “n” number of inductors connected
in parallel. The formula for determining the equivalent inductance L eq for this
circuit is represented by the equation below.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Figure 1.17: Parallel combination of “n” inductors

Example
Determine the equivalent inductance LEQ for three parallel inductor DC
circuit shown in figure below if L1 = 1H, and L2 = 5H and L3= 10H.

Solution:

Example
Calculate the net or total inductance as seen from the 24V source vantage point
in the circuit shown below.

Solution:
We need to focus on the parallel combination of L 2, L3, and L4 first.

This reduces the circuit as shown below:

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

Inductors L1 and L234, in this reduced circuit, lend themselves to a linear

combination. Therefore, the equivalent inductance LEQ for the entire parallel
and series inductor hybrid circuit would be:

LEQ = L1 + L234 = 5mH +5.45mH = 10.45mH

Inductive Reactance

When an inductor is incorporated into an AC circuit, its impact in that circuit is

quantified through an entity referred to as the inductive reactance. The symbol
for inductive reactance is XL. Inductive reactance can be defined,
mathematically, as:
XL = ωL = 2pfL

Where,
f = Frequency of the AC power source, i.e., 60 Hz in the US and 50 Hz in
some other parts of the world.
ω = Rotational speed, in radians per second
L = Inductance in henry, or H.

Inductive reactance is measured in ohms, or Ω’s. It is important to note that, X L

is often misconstrued as ZL. To the contrary, as explained in the impedance
section, ZL is the impedance contribution by the inductor, and is represented as:
ZL = jXL,
∴ ZL ≠ XL

Example
Assume that the circuit in the previous example is powered by a 60 Hz AC
source. Calculate the inductive reactance, XL, as seen by the AC voltage source.

Solution:
If the DC source is replaced by an AC source, the circuit would appear as
follows:

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

LEQ, as seen by the AC voltage source, is shown in the simplified equivalent

circuit below:

As computed in previous example, the combined or net inductance contributed

to the circuit by the parallel and series network of inductors is LEQ =10.45mH.

Then, by applying the equation, the inductive reactance, XL-EQ as seen by the AC
voltage source VAC, would be:

XL-EQ = ω.L = (2πf).LEQ = 2(3.14)(60Hz)(10.45mH) = 3.94 Ω

Performance Tasks

PT 9
Answer the following question. Write your answer in a letter size paper. Submit it in a pdf
format.
1. Consider the RC circuit shown in the diagram below. The source voltage is 12V. The capacitor
before the switch is closed is 2V. The switch is closed at t = 0. What would the capacitor voltage
be at t = 5 sec?

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

2. Determine the equivalent capacitance for the DC circuit shown below if this circuit consists of
twenty 100μF capacitors in series.
3. Calculate the capacitance additional value of capacitor to be connected in parallel with the
three series capacitors having capacitance of C 1 = 15μF, C2 = 10μF, and C3 = 20μF if the
equivalent capacitance is 10μF.
4. Determine the equivalent capacitance in series and parallel combination circuit shown below.
The capacitance values are: C1 = 10μF, C2 = 10μF, C3 = 20μF, C4 = 20μF.

5. Assume that the circuit in problem 1 is powered by a 60 Hz AC source instead of the DC source.
Determine the total capacitive reactance, Xc, seen by the AC source.
6. Consider the series RL circuit shown in the diagram below. The source voltage is 12V, R = 10Ω
and L = 10mH. The switch is closed at t = 0. What would be magnitude of current flowing
through this circuit at t = 2ms?

7. Determine the equivalent inductance L EQ for three parallel inductor DC circuit if the values of
inductance are L1 = 2mH, and L2 = 5mH and L3= 20mH.
8. Calculate the inductance of the additional inductor to be connected in parallel with the three
series inductors having inductance of L 1 = 2mH, and L2 = 5mH and L3= 8mH if the equivalent
inductance is 2.5 mH.
9. Calculate the net or total inductance as seen from the 24V source vantage point in the circuit
shown below.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited

10. Assume that the circuit in Problem 7 is powered by a 60 Hz AC source. Calculate the inductive
reactance, XL, as seen by the AC voltage source.

Learning Resources
References
Boylestad, R. (2015). Introductory Circuit Analysis, 13th Edition. Pearson.
Romeo A. Rojas, J. (n.d.). 1001 Solved Problems in Electrical Engineering.
S. Bobby Rauf, Electrical Engineering for Non-Electrical Engineers, Second Edition, 2017
J. David Irwin, R. Mark Nelms, Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis, 11th Edition, 2015
Bakshi, U. A. (2020). Basic electrical engineering. Technical Publications.
Chakrabarti, A., & Debnath, S. (2018). Basic Electrical Engineering. McGraw-Hill Education.

Disclaimer:
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