ESS Revision Session 1 - Topics 1-4 & Concepts

ESS Revision: Topics 1-4
jv#0180
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Topic 1
Foundations of ESS
1.1 Environmental Value Systems
● History of the Environmental Movement
○ Disasters, literature, the media, int’l agreements
○ Eg. Chernobyl (1986) & Fukushima (2011)
○ Eg. Gaia (1979, James Lovelock)
■ The earth is a living organism, w/ humans upsetting balance
○ Eg. An Inconvenient Truth (2006) & stewardship
○ Eg. Stockholm Declaration (1972), Rio Summit (1992),
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
■ Our Common Future Report (1987) seeking sustainable development through int’l
collaboration & adoption of Agenda 21
■ Indirect ecosystem values, changed perceptions on economic growth
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Example 1 - Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill
● Deepwater Horizon oil rig operated by offshore company
Transocean
● Largest marine oil spill in history
● Explosion on Apr 20, capped on July 15
● Revisions to offshore drilling regulations
● Public outcry
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Example 2 - Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring
● Published 1962 by conservationist, marine biologist and
author Rachel Carson
● Documentation of harmful effects of pesticides along food
chains
● Widespread concern about pollutants in the environment
● Reversal in national pesticide policy
● Ban on DDT
● Inspired the environmental movement
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Example 3 - Earth Day
● April 22 (began 1970) by Gaylord Nelson
● Channelling anti-war protests
● Global encouragement of environmental campaigns
● Movement of environmental issues onto the national
political agenda
● Now celebrated by more than 1 billion people a year
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1. 1 Environmental Value Systems
● A worldview that shapes the way a group perceives and
evaluates environmental issues
● Can be seen as a system
○ Inputs: education, SEEP factors, the media
○ Outputs: perspectives, decisions, action
○ Flows: process or transformation of information
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EVSs
Ecocentric Anthropocentric Technocentric
> the belief that ecology > the belief that humans > the belief that
is central to humanity should sustainably technological
> emphasises a less manage the global advancements can
materialistic way of life system provide solutions to
> through taxes, environmental problems
> sees nature as having
intrinsic value for regulation & legislation, > optimistic, research
humanity debate encouraged to
> exploitation can understand systems
> focuses on biorights
continue given > faith in humanity’s
adjustments ability to overcome
> importance of difficulties
education & politics
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1. 2 Systems & Models
● System: a collection of parts and the relationships between
them, coming together as a whole
● Reductionist vs. systems approach
○ Dividing & studying separately
○ Holistic, visualising complex interactions
● All systems have: inputs, outputs, storages, flows (+
boundaries)
○ Boxes and arrows
● Transfers or transformations
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Types of Systems
Open Closed Isolated
> both energy & matter > energy is exchanged; > neither matter nor
exchanged matter is not energy is exchanged
> feedback & adjustment > uncommon > not naturally occuring
> organic > Earth > universe?
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1. 2 Systems & Models
● Model: a simplified version of reality
● Allow simplification of complex systems, can be used to
predict, easier to understand
● Hard to take all variables into account, oversimplification =
less accuracy, data input unreliable
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1. 3 Energy & Equilibria
● Energy exists in a variety of forms
● Thermodynamics
○ 1st law: energy cannot be created or destroyed - only
transformed
■ The total energy in a system is constant
○ 2nd law: the amount of entropy in a system increases
over time
■ The availability of energy to do work decreases as
the transformation is not 100% efficient
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● Natural systems must always have an input of energy
● Sunlight is the main input
○ Solar > chemical > heat
● ~10% of all available energy passed to the next trophic
level
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● Equilibrium - the balance / average condition among
components of a system over time
○ Allows systems to return to an original state following
disturbance
● Steady-state equilibrium
○ Short term oscillations around a fixed level
○ Highly stable
● Static equilibrium
● Unstable equilibrium
○ A new equilibrium is formed
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● Positive Feedback (destabilising)
○ Amplifies or increases change
○ Alters original equilibrium
● Negative Feedback (stabilising)
○ Counteracts / neutralises change
○ Control mechanism & stability
● Tipping points
○ A threshold where small changes have a dramatic &
disproportionate impact on the system
○ New equilibrium or state reached
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● Resilience - the ability of a system to avoid tipping points
and maintain stability through steady state equilibrium
● Large storages & higher diversity = more resilient
● Complex interactions promote stability
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1. 4 Sustainability
“ Sustainability
“the use and management of
resources that allows full
natural replacement of the
resources exploited and full
recovery of the ecosystems
affected by their extraction and
use”
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1. 4 Sustainability
● Full regeneration and full recovery
● Ensuring availability of resource for future generations
● Minimising damage to current environment
● Natural capital - natural resources (goods/services)
● Natural income - the yield obtained from resources
● Harvest & pollution should not exceed rate of capital
renewal
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1. 4 Sustainability
● Sustainable development - meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
● Three pillars: social, economic and environmental
● Long term sustainability?
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1. 4 Sustainability
● Natural capital often seen from an anthropocentric POV
● Goods: marketable commodities
● Services: flood protection, climate stabilisation etc
● Renewable: Self producing and maintaining
● Replenishable: dependent on solar energy and time
● Non-renewable: cannot be replenished/renewed
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1. 4 Sustainability
● Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2001)
● Scientific appraisal of trends & conditions within the world’s
ecosystems
● Main findings:
○ Rapid changes by humans over the past 50 years have
caused a substantial and irreversible loss to life
○ Changes have contributed to human gain, but at the
expense of exploited ecosystems
○ Natural capital depleted faster than it can be restored
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1. 4 Sustainability
● Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)
● Baseline studies conducted before a project in undertaken
to assess the environmental impacts
● Baseline variables: habitat type, species diversity, land use,
hydrology, human population, soil
● Can influence policy making
● Lack of inclusion of indirect impacts or system boundaries
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1. 5 Humans and Pollution
● Pollution - the addition of a substance to an environment
by human activity at a rate greater than which it can be
rendered harmless, with an effect on organisms
● Various forms of pollution
● Costs are widespread & difficult to quantify
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● Point source vs. non-point source
○ Tracked & localised / dispersed sources
● Primary vs. secondary
○ Active on emission / pollutants that have undergone change
● Acute vs. chronic
○ Short, intense exposure / low level, long term exposure
● Persistent vs. biodegradable
○ Cannot be broken down by biological processes / not stored in
biological matter
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● Biomagnification - concentration of a chemical increases
at each trophic level
● Bioaccumulation - build-up of chemicals in one organism
● DDT - a synthetic pesticide used in WWII, farming and
disease eradication
● Banned in 1972 following the Stockholm Convention
● Hydrophobic - not soluble in water, very soluble in lipids
● Increase in cancer, risk factor of infertility
● Highly successful in combating malaria (IRS)
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1.5 Humans and Pollution
Altering Human Activity Controlling Release Restoration
> campaigns, education > limiting the release > failure of the previous
> govt legislation, through standards of two
economic incentives emission > extracting & removing
> developing tech for pollutant
extracting pollutants > restocking lost or
from emissions depleted populations
● Need for integration of all three

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Topic 2
Ecosystems & Ecology
2.1 Species and Populations
● Ecosystem - a community of interdependent organisms
and their interactions with the physical environment they
inhabit (biotic & abiotic)
● Species - a group of organisms sharing common
characteristics that can interbreed and produce offspring
that also produce young
○ Extinct populations? Asexual reproduction?
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● Habitat - the environment in which a species lives
● Niche - the biotic and abiotic conditions and resources an
organism or population responds to.
○ Fundamental niche: the full range of conditions an
organism can survive and reproduce in
○ Realised niche: the actual conditions a species exists in
due to biotic interactions
● Note need for named examples
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● Abiotic factors - the non-living, physical factors influencing
the ecosystem
● Temperature, sunlight, pH, precipitation, soil, topography
● Upper & lower limits beyond which a population cannot
survive
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● Population Interactions - a biotic factor
● Predation - one animal hunts and eats another organism
● Herbivory - an animal feeding on a plant
● Parasitism - one organism benefits at the expense of
another (symbiotic relationship)
● Mutualism - both organisms benefit (symbiotic)
● Disease - a reduction in the carrying capacity of an
organism (bacteria, fungus, virus etc)
● Competition - demand by individuals for limited resources
(intraspecific or interspecific)
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● Population - a group of organisms of the same species
living in the same area at the same time, capable of
interbreeding
● S curve (sigmoid curve) or J curve growth
● S curve: Initial rapid growth and gradual slowing as
carrying capacity is reached
○ Divided into lag, exponential growth, transitional and
stationary phase
● J curve: exponential growth & sudden population crash
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● Limiting factors
○ Density dependent (lower births/raise deaths as population grows)
○ Density independent (abiotic)
○ Light, nutrients, food, mates, water etc
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2.2 Communities and Ecosystems
● Community - all populations living and interacting with
each other in a common habitat at a specific time
● Ecosystem - community + physical environment
○ Terrestrial, marine & fresh water
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● Photosynthesis - the process by which a plant converts
light energy from the Sun into useable chemical energy
stored in organic matter
Carbon dioxide + water = glucose + oxygen
● Produces the raw material for biomass
● Inputs: insolation as energy, carbon dioxide, water
● Outputs: glucose, oxygen as waste product
● Transformations: light > chemical energy stored in biomass
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● Photosynthesis - the process by which a plant converts
light energy from the Sun into useable chemical energy
stored in organic matter
Carbon dioxide + water = glucose + oxygen
● Produces the raw material for biomass
● Inputs: insolation as energy, carbon dioxide, water
● Outputs: glucose, oxygen as waste product
● Transformations: light > chemical energy stored in biomass
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● Respiration - the aerobic conversion of organic matter to
carbon dioxide and water in all living organisms, releasing
energy for life processes
Glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water
● “Wasted” energy is lost as heat, increasing entropy in an
ecosystem
● Inputs: organic matter (glucose) and oxygen
● Outputs: release of energy to counteract entropy, heat
● Transformations: chemical energy > kinetic energy & heat
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● Producers - autotrophs; organisms that convert abiotic
components into living matter
○ Support the entire ecosystem through new biomass
● Consumers - heterotrophs; organisms that eat other
organisms to obtain energy and matter
○ Pass energy through trophic levels
● Decomposers - obtain energy from the breakdown of dead
organic matter
○ Essential for cycling matter in ecosystems
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● Trophic level - the position an organism occupies in a food
chain
○ Varies depending on the food chain
○ Decomposers feed at every level
○ Always begin with producers > primary consumers >
secondary consumers > tertiary consumers
● Efficiency of energy transfers - trophic efficiency is 10%
○ Energy is lost at each level (mostly as heat)
○ Each trophic level has a smaller energy pool
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● Ecological pyramids - numbers, biomass and productivity
● Show the feeding relationships in a community, measured
for a given area and time
● Pyramid of numbers - the number of individuals at each
trophic level
○ Numbers decrease along food chain due to 2nd law of
thermodynamics
○ Can be inverted based on size of individuals at low trophic
levels
○ Good for comparing changes but doesn’t represent energy
flow 40
● Pyramid of biomass - the standing stock or storage of each
trophic level at any given time
○ Measured in grams per m2 or joules per m2
○ Tend to narrow, like pyramid of numbers
○ Can be inverted due to seasonal variations
○ ‘Snap-shot’ of ecosystem, but gives no indication of
productivity of a system
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● Pyramid of productivity - represents the flow of energy
through trophic levels, indicating the rate at which biomass
is being generated
○ Measured in grams per m2 per year
○ Shows amount of energy available for next trophic level
and measures changes in ecosystem over time
○ Allows different ecosystems to be compared, shows the
rate of productivity of a system
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● ***Biomagnification does
not occur due to higher
trophic levels eating more
● Top carnivores ultimate
accumulators, most
vulnerable to disruption
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2.3 Flows of Energy and Matter
● Solar radiation enters the atmosphere
● Some energy becomes unavailable (reflected/absorbed)
○ Clouds, scatter etc - 51% does not reach producers
○ 49% absorbed by ground > 0.06% captured
● Ecological efficiency - the percentage of energy
transferred from one trophic level to the next
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● All energy enters from the sun
● Light > chemical energy (photosynthesis)
● Flows of chemical energy through trophic levels
● Overall conversion of light > heat energy
● Re-radiation of heat energy to the atmosphere
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● Productivity - the production of biomass per unit area per
unit time
● Primary Productivity (PP) - the total gain by producers in
energy or biomass per unit area per unit time
○ Dependent on sunlight, ability of producers to create
organic molecules - optimal growth conditions
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● Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) - the mass of glucose
created by photosynthesis per area per time
● Net Primary Productivity (NPP) - the gain by producers
after accounting for respiration
○ Represents the energy available for next trophic level
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● Gross Secondary Productivity (GSP) - total biomass
assimilated by consumers
● Net Secondary Productivity (NSP) - the gain by

consumers after accounting for respiration
○ Represents the energy available for next trophic level
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● Maximum sustainable yield - the amount of natural capital
that can be exploited without depleting the original stock
○ Equivalent to the net productivity (NP) of a system
(amount of energy stored as new biomass)
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● Energy flows - matter cycles
● Nutrients can be stored in inorganic or organic matter
● Soil erosion, runoff, precipitation, decomposition, plant
density etc. all affect cycling
● Can be sedimentary (rock) based or atmospheric
● Key macronutrients
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Carbon Cycle
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Nitrogen Cycle
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● Human activity & energy flows
○ Combustion of fossil fuels - new access to energy
sources
● Human activity & matter cycling
○ timber harvesting, agriculture, transportation of
harvested crops etc interferes with nutrient cycling
○ Changing storages of carbon and nitrogen
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2.4 Biomes, Zonation and Succession
● Biome - a collection of ecosystems
that share distinctive abiotic factors,
species and climatic conditions
● Climate by rainfall, insolation and
temperature
● 5 main classes:
○ Terrestrial (forest, desert,
grassland, tundra)
○ Aquatic (marine and freshwater)
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● Tricellular model of
atmospheric
circulation
○ Explains
differences in
pressure, temp
and precipitation
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● STD BIPP - explaining biomes
○ Structure, temperature, distribution, biodiversity,
insolation, precipitation, productivity
● Tropical Rainforest
○ Band around equator
○ High temps, precipitation and insolation
○ High photosynthesis and NPP
○ High biodiversity
○ Stratified tree canopy, many niches
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● Temperate Rainforest
○ 40°-60°N of equator
○ Cold winters, warm summers, 500-1500mm rain
○ Insolation varies (limited growing season)
○ Lower NPP and biodiversity compared to rainforests
○ Less dense canopy, reduced species diversity
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● Temperate Rainforest
○ 40°-60°N of equator
○ Cold winters, warm summers, 500-1500mm rain
○ Insolation varies (limited growing season)
○ Lower NPP and biodiversity compared to rainforests
○ Less dense canopy, reduced species diversity
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● Climate change alters biome distribution
○ Changes in temperature & pattern
● Communities as a whole change along environmental
gradients and over time
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● Zonation - the arrangement of communities in bands in
response to a change in environmental factors over
distance
○ Latitude, altitude, distance from shore
○ Eg. zonation of seaweed along upper shore wrack vs
near low water mark
○ Biome distribution is zonation on a global scale
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● Succession - the change over time in an ecosystem
involving pioneer, intermediate and climax communities
○ Seral stages - distinct communities
● Ecosystems developing from a bare substrate over time
● Pioneer communities - the first stage of ecological
succession, difficult conditions
● Climax communities - the final stage of succession, stable
and in equilibrium
○ Complex, favourable conditions
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● Primary Succession - occurs on a previously uncolonised
substrate
● Species change the habitat to make it more suitable for
new species
1. Bare, inorganic surface
2. Colonisation by pioneer species
3. Weathering & soil formation
4. Growth of small herbaceous plants
5. Larger plants grow in nutrient rich soil
6. Climax community dominated by shrubs and trees
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● Secondary Succession - occurs where a previous
community has been destroyed (soil & seed bank)
Case Study: Yellowstone National Park (1988)
● Fireweed as pioneer species
● Serotinous lodgepole pines
● Charr depth minimal, root systems unharmed
● Rapid plant growth allowed rebounding of k-strategies
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● Changes throughout succession:
● GPP
○ Pioneer = low, climax = high
● NPP
○ Pioneer = high, climax = approaches zero
● Production/Respiration Ratio
○ Pioneer = greater than 1, climax = 1
● Diversity & cycling
○ Pioneer = low/open, climax = complex/closed
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r-strategists K-strategists
Fast rates ( r ) of increase, rapidly Limited by carrying capacity (K),

changing environments (pioneer) stable environments (climax)
● Colonisers, highly adaptable ● Dominant species, specialist

● Short lifespans ● Long lifespans
● Many offspring, high ● Few offspring, delayed
reproduction reproduction
● Type III survivorship ● Type I or II survivorship
● J-population curve ● S-population curve
● r and K- selection theory

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● Survivorship Curves
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● Human changes to succession: plagioclimax
○ An alternate stable state other than a climax
community (eg. footpath erosion)
○ Fire, grazing, agriculture, deforestation etc
○ Permanency depends on resilience
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2.5 Investigating Ecosystems
● Identifying organisms
○ Can use a dichotomous key
■ Keys only examine physical rather than
behavioural characteristics
■ Features are difficult to identify in the wild
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● Abiotic Measurements
● Marine - salinity, pH, DO, wave action, temperature
● Freshwater - turbidity, pH, DO, flow velocity, temperature
● Terrestrial - light intensity, slope, wind speed, temperature,
mineral content, drainage, soil moisture
● Measurements must be repeated for reliability
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● Measuring…
○ Light
○ Temperature
○ pH
○ turbidity
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● Measuring biotic components
○ Trapping methods for motile organisms
■ Pitfall traps, nets, light interception
○ Non-motile organisms = quadrats/point frames
● Abundance - the relative representation of a species in an
ecosystem
○ (directly counting non-motile organisms, indirectly
estimating motile organisms using Lincoln index/
counting)
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● Lincoln index
○ Capture, mark, release, recapture
○ indirect measure of abundance
● Limitations
○ animals may move out of sample
area
○ Density of population may vary with
habitat
○ Seasonal variations
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● Quadrats
○ Measuring non-motile organisms, square frame
○ Random sampling
○ stratified random sampling
○ Systematic sampling (gradient & transect)
○ Population density - number of individuals per unit area
● Limitations
○ Subjective, difficult to measure plant colonies
■ Percentage cover
■ Percentage frequency
■ Abundance scales 74
● Biomass - a measurement of dry mass (mass - water
content), indicating total energy within a living organism
● Biological material dried to constant weight (oven - 80°C),
reweighed until a similar mass obtained on two subsequent
weighings
● Measured in grams per metre squared
● Mass of the average * total number of organisms
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● Species Richness & Diversity - Simpson’s Diversity Index
○ Richness: number of species in a community
○ Diversity: species’ relative abundance in a given area
● The higher the value of D, the greater the diversity
● Not absolute
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● All previous techniques can be used to measure changes in
ecosystems along gradients or due to human activities
○ Frame quadrats
○ Grid quadrats
○ Point quadrats
○ Line transect
○ Belt transect (continuous, uninterrupted)
● Human impacts (landfills, eutrophication, spills)
○ Can use diversity index, abiotic variables, soil erosion,
Lincoln index
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Topic 3
Biodiversity & Conservation
3.1 Introduction to Biodiversity
● Biodiversity - the variety of life on earth, encompassing
species diversity, habitat diversity and genetic diversity
● Species diversity - the variety of species per unit area,
measuring the richness and evenness of a species
■ Richness - # species
■ Evenness - relative abundance
○ Can be measured using Simpson’s Diversity Index
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● Habitat diversity - the range of different habitats in an
ecosystem or biome, associated with the variety of niches
● Genetic diversity - the range of genetic material present in a
population of a species
○ Gene pool - types of gene found within a species
○ Larger gene pool = higher genetic diversity
● Habitat conservation leading to increases in other types of
diversity
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● Conservation aims to protect habitats and ecosystems from
human-made disturbances
● Human disturbances impact biodiversity
● Necessity of quantifying and measuring biodiversity
● Endemic species
● The relativity of diversity indices
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3.2 Origins of Biodiversity
● Evolution - the cumulative, gradual change in the genetic
composition of a species over many successive generations,
giving rise to a species different from the common ancestor
● Darwin & natural selection
● Variations & mutations as a result of genetic diversity
○ Beneficial or detrimental
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● Natural selection
1. Species over-reproduce
2. Genetic variation occurs
3. Variations makes some individuals fitter than others
4. Selection occurs
5. Offspring of fitter individuals inherit the gene
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● Speciation - the formation of new species when a population
of a species become isolated and evolve differently
● Reproductive isolation - where genetic material cannot be
exchanged between populations
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● Geographic isolation - a
physical barrier causing a
population to become
separated
● Environmental changes
(sea levels, mountain
formation), ecological
isolation
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● Plate tectonics - divergent, convergent, transformative
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● Plate tectonics
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● Mass extinctions - where at least 75% of the total number of
species on Earth were wiped out at the same time
● Past extinctions: tectonic movements, volcanic eruptions,
climatic changes, meteor impacts
● Adaptive radiation
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● Ordovician-Silurian extinction (86% of all species)
○ 439 million years ago, sea level rise / fall
● Late Devonian extinction (75% of all species)
○ 364 million years ago, global cooling / warming & the
diversification of plants
● Permian-Triassic extinction (96% of all species)
○ 251 million years ago, largest extinction
○ flood volcanism or tectonic movements creating Pangaea
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● End Triassic extinction (80% of all species)
○ 199 million years ago, flood volcanism in the Atlantic
● Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction (75% of all species)
○ 65 million years ago, asteroid impact, basalt lava,
re-arrangement of landmasses
● Sixth extinction?
○ Phase 1: 100,000 years ago - human dispersal
○ Phase 2: 10,000 years ago - agriculture
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3.3 Threats to Biodiversity
● Estimates of the total number of species vary
● Lack of exploration makes consensus difficult
● Currently ~9 million species
● Most described species belong to groups studied extensively
● Rates of species loss are unprecedented due to
anthropogenic causes
○ Natural causes: hazards
○ Human causes: habitat destruction, invasive species,
pollution, overharvesting, hunting
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● Threats to tropical biomes
○ Highly biodiverse
○ 5.9% of the Earth’s land surface
○ Vital ecosystem functions
● Human disturbance: both direct and indirect
○ Deforestation, hunting, palm oil plantations
● Conflicts between exploitation in LICs and HICs
○ The possibility of sustainable development in LICs
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● Threats to tropical biomes
○ Highly biodiverse
○ 5.9% of the Earth’s land surface
○ Vital ecosystem functions
● Human disturbance: both direct and indirect
○ Deforestation, hunting, palm oil plantations
● Conflicts between exploitation in LICs and HICs
○ The possibility of sustainable development in LICs
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● The IUCN (International Union of Conservation of Nature) Red
List
● Factors determining conservation status:
○ Population size, trophic level, reductions in population,
geographic range, degree of specialisation, distribution,
reproductive potential, habitat fragmentation, probability
of extinction
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● Threats to an area of biological significance - the Great
Barrier Reef
○ Tourism, overfishing, land use, deforestation, global
warming
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3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity
● Aesthetic, ecological, economic, ethical and social arguments
● Conservation organisations
○ International, governmental and NGOs
NGOs eg. Greenpeace, WWF IGOs eg. United Nations Environment Programme
Use of media → gain coverage through protests & campaigns Use of media → cooperates with media to effectively
(charismatic species), putting pressure on governments communicate policies and decisions to the public
Speed of response → fast, members already at consensus
regarding course of action Speed of response → slow (bureaucratic), decisions directed by
Agenda → using public pressure and lobbying to influence governments & require consensus
government policies and legislation Agenda → provides guidelines and implementing international
Funding → from private donations conservation treaties
Political pressures → environment focused, working towards Funding → budget from national economies
idealistic conservation strategies Political pressures → can be politically/economically driven
rather than environmental
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● IUCN - International Union For Conservation of Nature
● Conservation types
○ habitat conservation, species based conservation, mixed
approach
● In-Situ Conservation - the conservation of species in their
natural habitat
● Ex-Situ Conservation - the preservation of species outside
their natural habitat
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● Habitat conservation & design: BAESC
○ Buffer zones
○ Area
○ Edge effects
○ Shape
○ Corridors
● Strengths: protects whole ecosystems
● Limitations: requires considerable funding and continuous
protection
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● Species conservation
○ CITES
○ captive breeding
○ flagship species
○ keystone species
● Mixed approach - combining both in-situ and ex-situ
conservation (protected areas & zoos)
○ Case study necessary
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Topic 4
Water & Aquatic Food Production
4.1 Introduction to Water
● Only 2.5% of the
Earth’s water is
available to humans
● Hydrological cycle
● Inputs, outputs,
storages, flows
● Human influences:
agriculture,
deforestation,
urbanisation
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103
4.1 Introduction to Water
● Ocean
circulation and
currents
● Salinity,
temperature
and density
● Ocean
conveyor belt
-thermohaline
circulation
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4.2 Access to Fresh Water
● Uneven distribution of freshwater
● Unsustainable demands due to population, irrigation and
industrialisation, increasing demands over time
● Management of water resources
○ Increasing water supply
○ Water harvesting
○ Water storage
○ Urban use of water
○ Increasing agricultural productivity
● Conflict due to water resources (case study needed)
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4.3 Aquatic Food Production Systems
● World fisheries - important source of protein, steadily
increasing production
○ Importance of photosynthesis and phytoplankton
● Sustainable yield - the rate of increase in natural capital
that can be exploited without depleting the original stock
or its potential for replenishment
● Overfishing & the development of fishing technology
● Management of fisheries
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4.3 Aquatic Food Production Systems
● Aquaculture - the commercial raising of fish, typically for
food
○ Global aquaculture production growth
● Strengths: fish are not removed from wild stocks
● Weaknesses: loss of habitats, increased rates of pollution,
spread of diseases
● Contrasting views on whaling
○ The inuit vs. the Japanese
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4.4 Water Pollution
● Sources: rivers, pipelines, oil spills, ship discharge,
aquaculture
● Run off, sewage, industrial discharge, solid domestic
waste, tourism, energy waste
● Inland pollution vs. marine pollution
● Assessing water quality - pH, temperature, dissolved
oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, turbidity, nitrates,
phosphates, metals
● Biochemical oxygen demand - the amount of DO
required to break down organic material in a given volume
of water 108
4.4 Water Pollution
● Biological monitoring and indicator species can be used to
determine levels of pollution
● Strengths: stationary, sensitive and representative
● Weaknesses: identification
● Trent biotic index - measures pollution by analysing the
impact on species according to tolerance, diversity and
abundance
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4.4 Water Pollution
● Eutrophication - the
nutrient enrichment
of water caused by
an excess of nitrogen
of phosphorus in the
water, resulting in an
excess growth of
plants and the
eventual decline of
aquatic biodiversity
110
4.4 Water Pollution
● Management strategies for eutrophication
○ Altering human activity
○ Limiting release
○ Clean up and restoration
● Metals & plastics

● Oil
● Marine dead zones
111
Questions?
Resources & recordings can be found
at https://www.aceitnotes.com/ess
112

ESS Revision Session 1 - Topics 1-4 & Concepts

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ESS Revision: Topics 1-4

● Need for integration of all three

● Net Secondary Productivity (NSP) - the gain by

Fast rates ( r ) of increase, rapidly Limited by carrying capacity (K),

● Colonisers, highly adaptable ● Dominant species, specialist

● r and K- selection theory

● Metals & plastics

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