UNIT 4 i

Electrical drive system

Unit 4

TEL 202/05
Power Electronics and Drives

Electrical Drive
System
ii WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

COURSE TEAM
Course Team Coordinator: Dr. Magdalene Goh Wan Ching
Content Writer: Associate Professor Lim Soo King
Instructional Designer: Ms. Jeanne Chow
Academic Member: Mr. Tan Yee Chyan

COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Magdalene Goh Wan Ching

EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Associate Professor Cheong Kuan Yew, Universiti Sains Malaysia

PRODUCTION
In-house Editor: Ms. Jeanne Chow
Graphic Designer: Ms. Valerie Ooi

Wawasan Open University is Malaysia’s first private not-for-profit tertiary institution dedicated to
adult learners. It is funded by the Wawasan Education Foundation, a tax-exempt entity established
by the Malaysian People’s Movement Party (Gerakan) and supported by the Yeap Chor Ee Charitable
and Endowment Trusts, other charities, corporations, members of the public and occasional grants
from the Government of Malaysia.

The course material development of the university is funded by Yeap Chor Ee Charitable and
Endowment Trusts.

© 2014 Wawasan Open University

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior written permission from WOU.

Wawasan Open University [DU013(P)]

Wholly owned by Wawasan Open University Sdn. Bhd. (700364-W)
54, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, 10050 Penang.
Tel: (604) 2180333 Fax: (604) 2279214
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.wou.edu.my
 UNIT 4 iii
Electrical drive system

Contents
Unit 4 Electrical Drive System
Unit overview 1

Unit objectives 1

4.1 Introduction to motor drives 3

Objectives 3

Introduction 3

Criteria for selecting drive components 5

Matching the motor and the load 5
Thermal consideration for motor 8
Matching the motor with the power electronic 11
converter
Switching frequency and motor inductance 12
Selection of speed and position 12
Servo drive control and current limiting 13
Current limiting in adjustable speed drives 13

Suggested answers to activities 15

4.2 dc motor drives 17

Objectives 17

Introduction 17

Equivalent circuit of dc motor 17

Permanent-magnet dc motor 19

dc motor with a separately excited field winding 21

Effect of armature current 23

Form factor 23

Torque pulsation 24

Servo drives 25

Suggested answers to activities 29

iv WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

4.3 ac motor drives 31

Objectives 31

Introduction 31

Induction motor drives 31

Synchronous motor drives 39

Suggested answers to activities 44

Summary of Unit 4 45

Suggested answers to self-tests 47

References 51

Glossary 53
 UNIT 4 1
Electrical drive system

Unit Overview

I n this Unit 4 on Electrical drive system, you will learn three main topics, which
are introduction to motor drives, dc motor drives, and ac motor drives. In each
topic, you will study and achieve what have been specified in the learning objectives
via tutorials, activities and self-tests.

In section one on dc motor drives, you will learn and achieve the ability and
confidence to explain the general control of motor drives; explain the concept of
designing servo motor drives; explain the design concept of variable speed motor
drives; and select the components and electric motor for motor drives.

In section two on dc motor drives, you will learn and achieve the ability and
confidence to examine the equivalent circuit of a dc motor; analyse the characteristics
of permanent magnetic dc motor; apply the concept on how to increase the power
of a dc motor by designing with excited wind stator; interpret the effect of armature
current on the performance of dc motor; and discriminate the difference between
a normal dc motor and a dc servo motor.

In section three on ac motor drives, you will learn and achieve the ability and
confidence to describe the basic principles of an inductor motor; describe per
phase representation of the induction motor; describe the equivalent circuit of the
inductor motor; design ac synchronous motor drives, describe and analyse per phase
representation of the synchronous motor; and describe and analyse the equivalent
circuit of the synchronous motor.

Unit Objectives
By the end of Unit 4, you should be able to:

1. Select the components including electric motor for motor drives.

2. Distinguish between a dc motor and an ac motor.

3. Design and implement drive circuit for a dc motor.

4. Design and implement drive circuit for an ac motor.

5. Distinguish between an induction ac motor and a synchronous ac motor.

2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives
 UNIT 4 3
Electrical drive system

4.1 Introduction to Motor Drives

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of general control of motor drives.

2. Explain the concept of designing servo motor drives.

3. Explain the design concept of variable speed motor drives.

4. Select the components and electric motor for motor drives.

Introduction
Converting power from one form to another form and using it to control the motion
of a motor are the two majoring applications of power electronics. The operation
must be as efficient as possible because large amount of power is being controlled
and if there is a small percentage loss, it would mean that the circuit may overheat
and fail. Accurate control of power is required to assure that the load is properly
serviced and the source is not overloaded. Rapid switching of large current and
voltage generates considerable amount of electromagnetic interference that may
shorten the life span of the electronic drive circuit or even damage it permanently.
Thus, careful design of drive circuit and implementation are required to avoid this
noise interference affecting this circuit.

A general block diagram for the control of motor drives is shown in Figure 4.1.
The system basically consists of an electric motor, a power electronic converter, and
a process requirement and feedback to the process control computer. The process
control computer which is based on feedback, determines the requirements of the
parameters of motor such as time of response, accuracy etc., which are controlled
within the operating requirements to the motor drives. Take for example; a servo-
drive for servo motor drive is needed for accurately control the robot and adjustable
speed drive is needed for air conditioner, which is based on requirements like coldness
of the room, outside temperature etc. As you have learnt earlier, power electronic
converter converts the required power needed for driving the motor.
4 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Power source

Power
Controller Electronic Motor Process
Converter

Process
Control
Computer

Figure 4.1 Block diagram showing control of motor drives

In servo applications of motor drives, the response time and accuracy with which
the motor follows the speed and position commands are extremely important. Thus,
the servo motor drives require speed or position feedback for a precise control like
the one shown in Figure 4.2. The speed and/or position sensor is part of the drive
system because the sensor will feedback signal to the controller telling the speed
and position of the motor.

Input power

Input
command Power Speed and/
Controller Electronics Motor Load or Position
Converter Sensor

Figure 4.2 Block diagram of servo motor drives

For large number of applications, the accuracy and response time of the motor to
follow the speed command is not important. Thus, one can see that a feedback loop
to control the process is outside the motor drive. Unlike the servo motor drives, the
sensor is mounted in the motor to detect the position and motion of the motor shaft.
An example of such motor drives is shown in Figure 4.3. The figure basically shows
the block diagram for an adjustable speed drive for an air conditioner. The speed of
the drive is depending on the desired temperature, measured outside temperature
and humidity, and indoor temperature and humidity.
 UNIT 4 5
Electrical drive system

Adjustable Input Temperature

speed drives power and humidity

Desired
temperature System Power Building
Air
Electronics Motor Cooling
Controller Conditioner
Converter Load
Measured
outdoor Indoor
temperature temperature
and humidity and humidity Indoor
Sensors

Figure 4.3 An adjustable speed drive for an air conditioner

Criteria for selecting drive components

For a motor drive system to perform to optimum condition, the matching of
mechanical load and drive components are important. We shall discuss five criteria
for selecting components for motor drives. They are matching the motor and the
load; thermal consideration for motor; matching the motor and the power electronic
converter; switching frequency and the motor inductance; selection of speed and
position sensors; and servo drive; and current limiting in adjustable speed drives.

Matching the motor and the load

Before selecting the drive components, the load parameters and requirements such
as the load inertia, maximum speed, speed range and direction must be known. The
motion profile like the speed (wL) and position (θL) are a function of time such as
what has been shown in Figure 4.4 (a) and Figure 4.4 (b), which are important and
needed to be specified.
6 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Speed wL

0 t

(a) Speed profile

Position
θL

0 t

(b) Position profile

Load torque
TL

0 t

(c) Load-torque profile

Figure 4.4 Load profile

By means of mechanical modelling, one can obtain a load-torque profile. If the

primarily inertial load with negligible damping is known, the load-torque (TL) profile
corresponding to the speed (wL) profile as shown in Figure 4.4 (a) can be known and
is shown in Figure 4.4 (c). From the profile, the peak torque and maximum speed
requirement for the motor are established.

One way to drive a rotating load is to couple it directly to the motor. In such a
direct coupling, the problem and losses associated with a gearing can be avoided.
Another way is using gear mechanism like what is shown in Figure 4.5. Assuming
the energy efficiency of the gear to be 100%, then the torque on two sides of the
gear are related as
 UNIT 4 7
Electrical drive system

Tm w θ η
= L = L = M = a (4.1)
TL wM θM ηL

dθ
where w = is the angular frequency and η is the number of teeth, and a is the
dt
coupling ratio. The subscript M and L denote motor and load respectively.

nm

Motor

Jm Bm L TL
m Tm

Load

J L, B L, X L
T WL
nL

Figure 4.5 Coupling mechanism using gear

In the feed-screw driven mechanism as shown in Figure 4.6, the torque and force
are related with equation (4.2).

Tm V x S
= L = L = = a (4.2)
TL wM θM 2p

dXL
where the linear velocity is VL = , S is the pitch of the feed screw in m/turn,
dt
XL is the displacement of the load, and a is the coupling ratio.

The electromagnetic torque (Tem) required for the gear couple motor as shown in
Figure 4.6 can be calculated on the basis of energy consideration in terms of the
inertias, required load acceleration, coupling ratio (a), and working torque (TWL)
dw L
or force (FWL) and is the load acceleration. Therefore,
dt

1 dw L w
Tem = · [ JM + a2 JL] + aTWL + L (BM + a2BL) (4.3)
a dt a

where BM and BL are respectively the damping factors for motor and load. The
equivalent total inertia is Jeq = Jm + a2JL. Similarly, the equivalent total damping Beq
= Bm + a2BL, and the equivalent work torque of the load is TWeq = aTWL. Thus, the
electromagnetic torque (Tem) can be written in terms of all these equivalences and
is equal to
8 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

dw M
Tem = Jeq + BeqwM + TWeq (4.4)
dt

Similarly for feed-screw coupling type motor as shown in Figure 4.6 , the
electromagnetic torque (Tem) is defined by equation (4.5).
1 dVL
Tem = · [ Jeq + Js + a2(MT + MW) + aFWL (4.5)
a dt

dVL
where is the linear acceleration of the load.
dt

Milling good

Work piece
MT
MW
Table FWL
F L, x L

Motor

m, Tm Jm = Motor inertia

Pitch s (m/turn)
JS = Feed-screw inertia

Figure 4.6 Coupling mechanism using feed-screw

Activity 4.1

State the criteria for selecting motor drive component.

Thermal consideration for motor

Besides the parameter criteria selection mentioned in the previous subsection such
as the load-torque, electromagnetic torque (Tem) produced by the motor, a function
of time for the motor, which is proportional to motor current can be known. It is
true provided that the flux in the air gap of the motor is kept constant. The typical
illustration of electromagnetic torque (Tem) of motor and its corresponding motor
current are shown in Figure 4.7.
 UNIT 4 9
Electrical drive system

Tem T4
T2
T3
T1
T6
0 t
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
T5

t period

(a) Electromagnetic torque

Motor
Current
I4
I2
I3
I1
I6
0 t

I5

(b) Motor current

Figure 4.7

The motor current as shown in Figure 4.7 (b) is the dc current during various time
interval for a dc motor. For an ac motor, the motor current shown is the approximated
rms ac current drawn at various time interval.

The power loss (PR) in the winding resistance (RM) of the motor due to the motor
current is a large part of the total motor losses, which is eventually converted into heat
that will heat up the motor. The resistive loss is proportional to the current square
(Irms) and hence it is also proportional to electromagnetic torque (Tem) square. For a
repetitive motor current waveform like the one shown in Figure 4.7 (b) with period
(tperiod) comparable with motor thermal time constant, the heating and maximum
temperature rise of the motor can be calculated based on the resistive power loss
(PR) averaged over the time period (tperiod). Thus, the power loss (PR) is defined as

PR = RMI2rms (4.6)

where the square of rms current (I2rms) is defined as

m 2
Σ I kt k
k=1
I2rms = (4.7)

t period

where I2k is the instantaneous rms current square for a specific time interval tk.
10 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Thus, the average power loss (PR) due to resistive winding (RM) of the motor is
m 2
Σ I kt k
k=1
PR = RM (4.8)

t period

m is equal to 6 for the example shown in Figure 4.7 (b).

Since the motor current is proportional to the motor torque (Tem), the rms motor
torque square (T2em, rms) over a period (tperiod) is defined as
m 2
Σ I kt k
k=1
T2em, rms = k1 (4.9)

t period

Comparing equations (4.7) and (4.9), it yields that rms motor torque square (T2em,
rms) is equal to equation (4.10).

T2em, rms = k1I2rms (4.10)

where k1 is the constant.

From equations (4.6) and (4.10), it yields that the average power loss (PR) is equal
to expression (4.11).

PR = k2T2em, rms (4.11)

RM
where k2 is constant, which is k2 = .
k1

In addition to power loss (PR) due to winding of the motor, there are other power
losses, which are friction and windage (PFW), PEH due to eddy current and hysteresis
within the motor lamination, and Ps due to switching frequency ripple in motor
current, and stray power loss (Pstay) etc. To sum the total power loss (Ploss), equation
(4.12) accounts for them.

Ploss = PR + PFW + PEH + Ps + Pstray (4.12)

Under steady state condition, the motor temperature rise (∆Θ) is in degree centigrade
and it is equal to be

∆Θ = PlossRTH (4.13)

where RTH is the thermal resistance of the motor in centigrade per watt. In general,
the power loss like (PR) is lower with the increase speed of motor with constant
thermal resistance (RTH). If the motor is installed with self-cool fan, then the thermal
resistance (RTH) of the motor would be reduced, pushing the motor to operate far
 UNIT 4 11
Electrical drive system

in the safe operation area preventing it from heat damage. From the torque profile,
the motor should be chosen such that its rms electromagnetic torque (Tem) of the
motor falls in the safe operating area (SOA) of the power-temperature graph.

Activity 4.2

The current profile of a motor is shown below. Find the rms current
and the power loss if the resistance of the motor winding is 5Ω.

Motor
current
(A)
I4
2.5
I2
2.0
I3
1.5
I1
1.0
6s
0 t
1s 2s 4s 5s

−2.5 I5

Matching the motor with the power electronic converter

Power electronic design and its control depend on the type of motor to be driven.
In general, power electronic converter provides a controlled voltage to the motor in
order to control the current flowed in the motor, hence the electromagnetic torque
produced by the motor. We shall discuss a few aspects to be considered for motor
in power electronic.

The power electronic needs to be able to supply sufficiently enough current for the
motor since large amount of peak current is required. A large current shall mean
large junction temperature of the electronic device. This would result in power
loss within the semiconductor device. Large current shall also mean that the heat
generated can be large, affecting the temperature of the motor. If the duration of
the peak current is small as compared with the thermal time constant of the motor,
then it is considered safe for the motor.

Motor irrespective of dc or ac type, it produces back electro motive force emf (e) that
opposes the voltage (V) applied to it. The back emf can be viewed from a simplified
circuit of a motor drive as in Figure 4.8.
12 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

L
i

+
50Hz Power +
Input Electronic V Motor e
Converter −
−

Figure 4.8 A simplified circuit to motor drive showing back emf

Hence, the control of torque shall be the rate of current ( )

di
dt
, which is defined as

di V−e
= (4.14)
dt L

From equation (4.14), one can see that the ability to control the motor current is
to ensure that the output voltage (V) is greater than the back emf (e).

Switching frequency and motor inductance

In servo motor drive, the motor current should be able to respond quickly to the load
requirement. Thus, it requires low inductance value as you can see from equation
(4.14). In the steady state, the ripple current should be small so that it can prevent
power loss (Ps) due to switching. But in order to achieve this, it requires large
inductance value. Thus, there is a contradiction whereby a compromised inductance
should be selected for motor and switching frequency.

Selection of speed and position

In selection of speed and position sensors, direct or indirect coupling, sensor inertia,
possibility and avoidance of torsional resonance, and maximum sensor speed are to be
considered. To control the instantaneous speed within a specified range, the ripple in
the speed sensor should be small. This is needed to prevent error in the incremental
position encoder, which is often used to measure the speed and position. If such
sensor is used at low speed, the number of pulse output per revolution should be
large to provide instantaneous speed measurement with sufficient accuracy. Similarly,
accurate position information will require an incremental position encoder with
large number of pulse output per revolution.
 UNIT 4 13
Electrical drive system

Servo drive control and current limiting

In most practical applications of servo drive control, a very fast response to a sudden
change in position or speed is needed, in which it requires a large peak current and
torque. This may be prohibitive in terms of cost of converter. Therefore, converter
current is limited by the controller. The design usually contains inner current loop
whereby the actual current is measured and compared with reference current. The
error between them is then used to control the converter output current by using a
current-regulated modulation. A block diagram illustrating such control is shown
in Figure 4.9.

A tachometer registers the speed of the motor and feedbacks to the proportional
integrated (PI) amplifier. If the actual speed is higher than the reference speed, then
the PI amplifier will adjust the speed and send the torque reference to the torque-
to-computer so that a command can be issued to slow down the motor. Likewise,
if the speed is too low, the torque-to-computer will issue command to increase the
speed of the motor.

Figure 4.9 Block diagram of control of servo drives with inner current loop

Current limiting in adjustable speed drives

In adjustable speed drives, the current is kept from exceeding its limit by means
of limiting the rate of change of control voltage with time. A block diagram of the
motor drives illustrating the ramping limiter to limit the motor current is shown
in Figure 4.10. It mainly consist of a ramp limiter that has the function to control
the voltage supply to power electronic converter.
14 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Adjustable-speed drive

Control
Reference voltage Power
System Ramp
Σ Electronics Motor Process
+ Regulator Limiter
− Converter

Actual

Figure 4.10 A block of motor drives showing the ramping limiter

Summary

In this section, you have achieved the learning objectives as specified

in the objective section. You learnt the general knowledge of how
to control the motor drive, explain the designing concept of servo
motor drives and variable speed motor drives, and the selection
criteria for choosing the components and motors for motor drives.

Self-test 4.1
ηL
The load speed profile is shown below. The gear ratio is 2. The
ηM
load inertia is JL = 10 kgm2 and motor inertia is JM = 2.5 kgm2.
Ignoring the damping factor, draw the torque profile of the motor.

Speed wL
1000

0 t
1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s

Self-test 4.2

Based on the parameters stated in Self-test 4.1 and using the result
of the angular speed (wM) of the motor obtained from Self-test
4.1, plot the electromagnetic torque (Tem) profile of the motor for
a cycle of operation.
 UNIT 4 15
Electrical drive system

Suggested answers to activities

Feedback

Activity 4.1

The parameter criteria are the load inertia, maximum speed, speed
range, and direction of motion.

Activity 4.2

The rms current square is equal to

m 2
Σ I kt k
k=1 1.02 × 1 + 22 × 1 + 1.52 × 2 + 2.52 × 1 + (−2.5)2
I2rms = =
6

t period

22
= = 3.67A. Thus, the rms current is 1.91A.
6

The power loss is equal to

m 2
Σ I kt k
k=1
PR = RM = 3.67 × 5 = 18.3W

t period
16 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives
 UNIT 4 17
Electrical drive system

4.2 dc Motor Drives

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Examine the equivalent circuit of a dc motor.

2. Analyse the characteristics of permanent magnetic dc motor.

3. Apply the design concept to increase the power of a dc motor with excited
wind stator.

4. Interpret the effect of armature current on the performance of a dc motor.

5. Discriminate between a normal dc motor and a dc servo motor.

Introduction
Traditionally, dc motor drives have been used for speed and position control
applications. Nowadays, the use of ac servo drives application is increasing. In spite
of that, in application where an extremely low maintenance is required, dc drives
continue to be used because of their low initial cost and excellent drive performance.

Equivalent circuit of dc motor

In a dc motor, the magnetic flux (φf) is established by the stator either by means
of permanent magnet like what is shown in Figure 4.11 (a), whereby the magnetic
flux stays constant or by means of field winding as shown in Figure 4.11 (b). If the
magnetic saturation in the flux path can be neglected, then the magnetic field (φf)
can be expressed in terms of field current (If) by equation (4.15).

φf = k f If (4.15)

where k f is the constant of proportionality.

18 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

N S φf = kf I f
SN SN φf = constant

If
Permanent
magnets

(a) Permanent magnet motor (b) dc motor with field winding

Figure 4.11 A dc motor

The rotor located in the centre slot of the motor is called armature winding. It
handles the electric power. This is in contrast to most ac motor, where the power in
handling winding is on the stator for the ease of handling large amount of power.

The electromagnetic torque of a dc motor is produced by the interaction of the field

(φf) and the armature current (ia), which follows equation (4.16).

Tem = kt φf ia (4.16)

where kt is the torque constant of the motor. In the armature circuit, a back emf (ea)
is produced by the rotation or armature conductor at speed (wM) in the presence
of a field flux (φf ). Thus,

ea = keφf wM (4.17)

where ke is the voltage constant of the motor.

The electrical power (Pe) is equation to eaia, which is

Pe = eaia = keφf wMia (4.18)

and the mechanical power (Pm) is equal to

Pm = wMTem = ktφf wMia (4.19)

In practice, a controllable voltage (Vt) is applied to the armature terminals to

establish the current ia. Therefore, the armature current (ia) in the armature circuit
is determined by the source voltage (Vt) and the back emf (ea), the resistance (Ra) of
the armature winding and inductance (La) of the armature. Thus, the supply voltage
(Vt) can expressed as
di a
Vt = ea + Raia + L (4.20)
dt
 UNIT 4 19
Electrical drive system

The equivalent circuit illustrating equation (4.18) is shown in Figure 4.12. The
interaction of electromagnetic torque (Tem) with the load torque (TL) as shown in
equation (4.3), determines how the angular speed (wM) of the motor is being built
up as shown in equation (4.21).
dw M
Tem = J + BwM + TWL(t) (4.21)
dt

where J and B are the total equivalent inertia and damping respectively of the motor
load system and TWL is the equivalent work torque of the load.

ia

Ra

La
Vt

+
φf
ea

−
−
Tem

wM JL
T WL
BL

Figure 4.12 A dc motor equivalent circuit

Permanent-magnet dc motor
A dc motor with permanent magnet stator as shown in Figure 4.11 (a) produces a
constant field flux (φf ). In steady state, the equations pertaining its electromagnetic
torque (Tem), armature voltage (Ea), and supply voltage (Vt) can be established based
on the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4.13. They are

Tem = kTIa (4.22)

Ea = kEwM (4.23)

Vt = Ea + RaIa (4.24)

where kT = ktφf and kE = keφf .

20 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Vt − Ea
Ia =
Ra

Ra

Vt
+

Ea = k E w M

− wM
−
Tem = kT Ia

Figure 4.13 Equivalent circuit of a permanent magnet dc motor

From the above equations, the steady state angular speed (wM) of the motor as
the function of electromagnetic torque (Tem) can be established for a given supply
voltage (Vt) and finds to be

wM =
1
kE( R
Vt − a Tem
kT ) (4.25)

The plot of equation (4.25) as shown in Figure 4.14 shows that the torques are
increased, the torque-angular speed characteristics for a given supply voltage (Vt) is
essentially vertical except for a droop due to voltage drop across (IaRa) the winding
of the armature.

Tem

Rated

Vt1 Vt2 Vt3 Vt4 Vt5

0 wM
Rated
Noted: Vt1 < Vt2< Vt3< Vt4< Vt5

Figure 4.14 Torque-angular speed characteristic of a permanent magnetic dc motor

for various supply voltages
 UNIT 4 21
Electrical drive system

In a continuous steady state, the current of the armature (Ia) should not be exceeding
its rate value and therefore the torque should not exceed the rated torque as shown
in Figure 4.14. This is the illustration of the limitation of a permanent magnet
dc motor, whereby the maximum angular speed of the motor is limit by the rated
angular speed of the motor. Figure 4.15 shows the steady state operating limits of
the torque and current, and it also shows the terminal voltage required as a function
of speed and the corresponding voltage across the armature (Ea).

Per unit
quantities

Tem, Ia
1.0

Vt

Ea

wM
0 1.0 (per unit)

Figure 4.15 Continuous torque-angular speed capability of a permanent magnetic

dc motor

Activity 4.3

Using the graph shown in Figure 4.14, derive the gradient of the
graph and shows that it is large for a small armature resistance.

dc motor with a separately excited field winding

Permanent magnetic dc motor has limitation in terms of power delivery and angular
speed. The limitations can be overcome if the field (φf ) is produced by field wind of
stator, whereby the stator is supplied with a dc current (If) as shown in Figure 4.11
(b). This way offers the most flexible in controlling the dc motor, whereby the field
winding is excited by a separately controlled dc voltage (Vf) as shown in Figure 4.16.
22 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

ia

+
Lf
Ra
−
Rf
Vt
La
Vf

−
ea
− ( )
if I f =
Vf
Rf
+

Figure 4.16 The equivalent circuit of separate excited dc motor

The equation of angular frequency of the motor shown in equation (4.25) can be
written to include the magnetic field generated by the dc voltage. Thus,

wM =
1
keφf (R
Vt − a Tem
k tφf ) (4.26)

where kT = ktφf and kE = keφf . kf and ke are torque constant and voltage constant
respectively. Equation (4.26) shows that both field flux (φf ) and supply voltage (Vt)
can be controlled to yield the desired torque and angular speed. With field flux (φf )
at its rated value, equations (4.22) to (4.24) for electromagnetic torque (Tem), voltage
across the armature (Ea), and supply voltage (Vt) are equally applicable for this type
of dc motor. This is also true for its torque-angular speed characteristic following
the torque-speed characteristic of a permanent magnetic dc motor for various supply
voltages as shown in Figure 4.14.

With field (φf ) keeping constant and equals to its rated value, the motor’s torque-
angular speed capability is shown in the left portion of the graph shown in Figure
4.17. The region of constant field is also called constant torque region.
 UNIT 4 23
Electrical drive system

Per unit
quantities

Tem , Ia , φf , If V t, I a
1.0
Ea

Tem , φf , If
Vt

Ea

wM
0 1.0 (per unit)

Field weakening or
Constant torque region
constant power region
(φf = rated)
(φf is decreased)

Figure 4.17 Continuous torque-angular speed capability of a separate excited dc motor

At constant magnetic field (φf ), the angular speed (wM) of motor increases linearly
with the supply voltage (Vt). At the right hand side of the graph, it shows at constant
power region, the magnetic field is decreasing. This is the region whereby the angular
speed is kept increasingly operating beyond its maximum rating. The magnetic field
(φf ) has to be decreased while keeping input supply voltage (Vt) constant to maintain
a constant voltage (Ea) across the armature. It is in the constant power region because
not only the supply voltage (Vt) is kept constant, the armature current is (Ia) also
kept constant. Note that in the magnetic field weak region, the angular speed of the
motor may exceed 50 – 100% of its rated speed.

Effect of armature current

In sc motor drives, the output voltage of the power electronic converter contains
an ac ripple voltage superimposed on the dc voltage. Ripple voltage in the terminal
voltage can lead to ripple in armature current (Ia) with the listed effects here. They
are form factor and torque pulsation.

Form factor

The form factor of the dc motor armature current is defined as:

Ia(rms)
Form factor = (4.27)
Ia(average)
24 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Based on equation (4.27), the form factor will be unity provided the ripple current
ripple (ia) is purely dc. The more ripple armature current (ia) derivates from pure dc,
the higher will be the form factor. The higher the form factor will result in higher
power loss because power depends on the rms square of the ripple current and the
resistance of armature winding. The end result is higher power loss, which shall
mean high heating causing loss in motor efficiency.

If the form factor is much higher than one, this implies that the peak armature
current is much larger than its average armature current, which can cause excessive
arcing in the commutator and brushes. To avoid this serious damage to the motor
that is caused by peak armature current, the motor has to derate. This shall mean
that the maximum power or torque has to keep below the rating in order to keep
the temperature below its specified limit and also to protect the commentator and
brushes.

Activity 4.4

If the rms current of the armature is 2.0 A and the average current
is 1.9 A, calculate the form factor of the armature current of the
dc motor.

Torque pulsation
Since the instantaneous electromagnetic torque (Tem) developed by the motor is
proportional to the instantaneous armature current (Ia), a ripple current (ia) results
in a ripple in the torque and also the angular speed if the inertia is not large. A high
frequency torque ripple will generally have lesser angular speed fluctuation than
the low frequency ripple. This is because the filter circuit at the output of power
electronic is a low pass filter, whereby high frequency ripple voltage will be attenuated.

Activity 4.5

If the ripple current of armature is too high, what will be the effect
on the angular frequency of the motor? Being an engineer, what is
your suggestion to solve this problem?
 UNIT 4 25
Electrical drive system

Servo drives
As mentioned earlier, in servo applications, the speed and accuracy of response
are important. In spite of the increasing popularity of ac servo motor, dc servo
drives are still widely used today. If it is not because of the disadvantages of having
commutator and brushes, the dc motor would be ideal for servo application. This
is because the instantaneous electromagnetic torque (Tem) can be linearly controlled
by the armature current (Ia).

Figure 4.18 shows a servo dc motor operating in a closed-loop to deliver controlled

speed and position. The position and speed transducer is used to measure the
position and speed of the load. The information is used to feedback to the position
and speed controller. It is then compared with the position and speed reference for
taking appropriate action. This circuit also contains the armature current monitoring
measurement that is used to feedback to the current controller for ensuring that the
motor is not operating beyond its rated value.

Controller Control
voltage

Position/ i *a Power υt Position/

Current Motor Load
Speed Σ Electronics Speed
+ Controller
Controller Converter Transducer
−
ia

Position/speed
reference Speed

Position

Figure 4.18 A closed-loop position and speed controlled servo dc motor

For analysing small signal performance of the motor-load system around a steady
state operating point, the following sets of equations are applicable.
d
∆Vt = ∆ea + Ra∆ia + La (∆ia) (4.28)
dt
∆ea = ke∆wM (4.29)

∆Tem = kT∆ia (4.30)

d(∆ w M)
∆Tem = ∆TWL + B∆wM + J (4.31)
dt

If one takes Laplace transform of these equations, where the Laplace variables
represent only the small signal ∆ values, then equations (4.28) to (4.31) will be

Vt(s) = Ea(s) + (Ra + sLa)Ia(s) (4.32)

Ea(s) + kEwa(s) (4.33)

26 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Tem(s) = kTIa(s) (4.34)

Tem(s) = TWL(s) + (B + sJ )wM(s) (4.35)

wm(s) = s θM(s) (4.36)

These equations from (4.32) to (4.36) which are meant for motor-load system
can be represented by the transfer function block as shown in Figure 4.19. The
inputs to the motor-load system are the armature terminal voltage Vt(s) and the
load torque [TWL(s)]. Applying superposition principle by applying one input at a
time by setting the other input to be zero, it yields equation (4.37) - the angular
frequency of the motor.
kT Ra + s La
wM(s) = Vt(s) − TWL (4.37)
(R a + s La)(s J + B ) + kTkE (R a + s La)(s J + B ) + kTkE

T WL(s)

V t(s ) I a(s ) T em(s) −

1 1 wM(s) 1 θm(s)
Σ kT Σ
+ Ra + sLa + B + sj s
−

E a(s)
kE

Figure 4.19 Block diagram representing the motor-load system without feedback

Equation (4.37) results in two closed-loop transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s), which
are

G1(s) =
w M(s )
Vt(s ) | T
WL
(s) = 0
=
kT
(R a + s La)(s J + B ) + kT kE
(4.38)

For TWL(s) = 0 and

and

G1(s) =
w M(s )
| =
Ra + s La
TWL(s ) Vt(s) = 0 (R a + s La)(s J + B ) + kT kE


(4.39)

for Vt(s) = 0.
 UNIT 4 27
Electrical drive system

From equation (4.38), for a system with small damping and without load, then the
equation is equal to

1
kT
G1(s)|V (s) = 0 = = (4.40)

( )
t s J m(R a + s La) + kT kE

L a Jm R a Jm
2
kE s +s +1

k Tk E k Tk E

Ra J m L
where tm = and te = a are defined as mechanical time constant and electrical
k Tk E Ra
time constant respective. Thus, equation (4.40) becomes
1
G1(s)|V (s) = 0 = (4.41)
t kE(s tmte + s tm + 1)
2

In general, the mechanical time constant is much larger than electrical time constant.
Thus, equation (4.41) is approximately equal to equation (4.42) after replacing stm
by s(tm+te).
1
G1(s)|V (s) = (4.42)
t kE(s tm + 1)(s te + 1)

The electrical time constant (te) determines how quickly the armature current is
built up as shown in Figure 4.20 in response to a step change in input voltage (∆Vt)
in the terminal voltage where the rotor speed is assumed to be constant. The graph
indicates that the change of armature current (∆ia) of the motor is exponential
ramping up, which is proportional to (1 − e–t/te).

Figure 4.20 Electrical time constant with angular speed of motor is assumed constant
28 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

The mechanical time constant determines how quickly the speed of the motor is built
up in response to the change in input voltage (∆Vt) in the terminal voltage provided
the electrical time constant (te) is assumed to negligible. Neglecting electrical time
constant (te), the change in speed from a steady state condition can be obtained
from equation (4.43).

tm
Vt(s) ∆ Vt ∆ Vt
wM(s) = = = ·

( )
kE(s te + 1) kE s (s tm + 1) kE
s +1
s

tm

∆ Vt
Notice that from equation (4.43), vt(s) = , then from equation (4.43), it yields
s
equation (4.44).
∆ Vt
∆wM(t) = (1 − e−t/tm) (4.44)
kE

The plot of equation (4.44) is illustrated in Figure 4.21.

Figure 4.21 Mechanical time constant with load torque assumed to be constant
 UNIT 4 29
Electrical drive system

Summary

In this section, you have learnt and understood how to examine

the equivalent circuit of a dc motor; analysed the characteristics of
permanent magnetic dc motor on how to apply the design concept
to increase the power of a dc motor with excited wind stator; how
to interpret the effect of armature current on the performance of dc
motor; and discriminate the difference between a normal dc motor
and a dc servo motor.

Self-test 4.3

A permanent magnetic dc servo motor has the following given

0.5 Nm 53 V
parameters; kT = , kE = , Ra = 0.4 Ω, and
A 1000rpm
tm = 12.0 ms.

1. Calculate the terminal voltage (Vt) of the motor if it is required

to deliver torque (Tem) of 5.0 Nm with angular speed (wM) of
1,500 rpm.

2. Calculate the change of angular speed of the motor at time =

2.0 min if the change of terminal voltage (∆Vt) is 20 V.

Suggested answers to activities

Feedback

Activity 4.3
1 R
Use equation wM = (Vt − a Tem) and re-arrange it, it yields
kE kT
k Ek t k k
Tem = − wM − Vt. Thus, the gradient of the graph is − E T .
Ra Ra

The armature resistance (Ra) is in denominator of the equation of

gradient. Thus, for a small Ra, it yields a large gradient.
30 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Activity 4.4

The form factor of the armature current follows equation (4.27),

Ia(rms) 2.0
which is Form factor = = = 1.05.
Ia(average) 1.9

Activity 4.5

If the ripple current armature is too high, it will torque pulsation

since the torque is dependent on armature current, which is
dw M
Tem = kTIa. Torque of motor is also equal to Tem = J with
dt
assumption of no damping. This will cause variation in angular
frequency (wM) of the motor.

As an engineer, a method to overcome this problem is to design

low-pass LC filter circuit at the output of power electronic voltage
converter to have higher critical frequency than what it has presently
in the circuit.
 UNIT 4 31
Electrical drive system

4.3 ac Motor Drives

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Describe the basic principle of an inductor motor.

2. Describe per phase representation of an induction motor.

3. Describe the equivalent circuit of an inductor motor.

4. Design ac synchronous motor drives.

5. Describe and analyse per phase representation of a synchronous motor.

6. Describe and analyse the equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor.

Introduction
In this section, you will learn two types of ac motor drives, which are inductor motor
drive and synchronous motor drives.

ac induction motor, which is an asynchronous motor, is the workhorse of industry

because of its low cost and rugged construction. When operated directly with 50 Hz
ac utility input power, it can operate at a nearly constant angular speed. However,
by means of power electronic converter, it is possible to vary the angular speed of
the motor. The inductor motor drives can be classified into two broad categories
depending on their applications, which are adjustable speed drives and servo drives.

ac synchronous motor is used as servo drives in the applications such as computer

peripheral equipment, robotic, and adjustable speed drives in a variety of applications
such as load proportional capacity-modulated heat pump, large fan, and compressor.

Induction motor drives

Let’s begin the study of inductor motor drives by understanding the behaviour of
this motor type and how it is used to control its angular speed (wM). Two simple
examples of an inductor motor driving a centrifugal pump are shown in Figure
4.22. Showing in the figures are the constant speed drive type and adjustable-speed
drive type.
32 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

(a) Constant speed drive type

(b) Adjustable-speed drive type

Figure 4.22 Centrifugal pump

For the constant speed pump shown in Figure 4.22 (a), it would cause energy
loss across the throttling valve if the flow rate is to be reduced by partially closing
the throttling valve. However, for the adjustable-speed design type shown in
Figure 4.22 (b), the desired flow rate can be controlled by eliminating the energy loss
across the throttling valve by adjusting the motor speed. For this motor-load system
type, the input power decreased significantly as the angular speed is also decreased
to reduce the flow rate. The decrease in power can be calculated by looking at the
torque of centrifugal pump, where the torque is

Torque ≅ k1(speed)2 (4.45)

Thus, the power requirement by the pump from the motor is defined by

Power ≅ k2(speed)2 (4.46)

where k1 and k2 are constant of proportionality.

Majority applications of induction motor involve three-phase operation. Thus,

the stator of an induction motor is designed to consist of three phase windings
distributed in the stator slots. These windings are displaced by 120° in space with
respect to each other. If a balanced set of three phase sinusoidal signals of frequency
( f ) are applied to the stator, it results in balanced sets of current, which establishes
a flux density distribution (Bag) in the air gap with a constant amplitude and ratotes
with a constant angular speed in which it is called synchronous angular speed (ws)
radian per second. The synchronous angular speed (ws) in a p-pole motor supplied
by frequency ( f ) can be obtained from equation (4.47).
 UNIT 4 33
Electrical drive system

2p /(p /2) 2 2
ws = = (2pf ) = w (4.47)
1/f p p

The synchronous angular frequency (ws) should be synchronised with the supplied
frequency ( f ) of the applied voltage and current to the windings of stator. In terms
of revolution per minute (rpm), the synchronous speed (ns) should be
60w s 120
ns = = f (4.48)
2p p

The air gap flux (φag) caused by the flux density distribution (Bag) rotates at a
synchronous speed relative to the stationary stator winding. As the result, counter
emf called air gap voltage (Eag) is induced in each of the stator phase frequency ( f ).
This can be illustrated by means of the equivalent circuit for per-phase voltage shown
in Figure 4.23. Vs is per phase voltage, which is line voltage divided by √3, Eag is
the air gap voltage, Rs is the resistance of the stator winding, and Lls is the leakage
inductance of the stator winding. The magnetised current component (Im) of the
stator current (Is) establishes the air gap flux. From the magnetic circuit analysis,
it can be seen that

Nsφag = Lmim (4.49)

where Ns is the equivalent number of turn per phase of stator winding and Lm is the
magnetised inductance as shown in Figure 4.23.

From Faraday’s law, the air gap voltage (eag), which is the counter emf, is equal to
dφ ag
eag = Ns (4.50)
dt

With the air gap flux (φag) links to the stator phase winding, the air gap flux is
φag(t) = φag sinwt and the air gap voltage (eag) is equal to

eag = Nswφag coswt (4.51)

dφ ag
after differentiating φag(t) = φas sinwt to get and then substituting it into
dt
equation (4.50).

In terms of rms value, the air gap voltage (eag) has an rms value of

Eag = k3 f φag (4.52)

where k3 is a constant depending on the number of turns of the stator winding and
Eag denotes the rms value of air gap voltage.
34 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Figure 4.23 The equivalent circuit per-phase representation of an induction motor

If the motor is rotating at the synchronous speed (ws), then there will not be any
relative motion between the air gap flux and the rotor. Thus, there will not have
any induced rotor voltage, rotor current, and rotor torque. At any other angular
speed (wr) of the rotor in the same direction of the air gap flux rotation, the motor
is “slipping” with respect to the air gap at a relative speed called the slip angular
speed (wsl). A relationship between the synchronous angular speed (ws) and between
other angular speed and slip angular speed is given by

wsl = ws − wr (4.53)

If the slip angular speed (wsl) is normalised with synchronous speed is called “slip”
(s), it is defined as
Slip angular speed w − wr
Slip (s) per unit = = s (4.54)
Synchronous speed ws

Therefore, from equations (4.53) and (4.54), the slip angular speed (wsl) of air gap
flux with respect to the motor is calculated from equation (4.55).

Slip angular speed (wsl) = ws − wr = sws (4.55)

From Faraday’s law, the induced voltage in the rotor circuit is at the slip frequency
( fsl) and it is proportional to the slip speed (wsl). Thus,
w sl
fsl = f = sf (4.56)
ws

The induced emf (Er) obtained in the rotor conductor can be obtained by replacing
f in equation (4.52) by the slip frequency ( fsl). If one assumes that squirrel-cage
motor is replaced by a three-phase short-circuited winding with the same equivalent
number of turns (Ns) per phase, one gets

Er = k3 fslφag (4.57)
 UNIT 4 35
Electrical drive system

Since the rotor squirrel-cage winding is short circuited by the end rings, the induced
voltages at the slip frequency result in a rotor current (Ir) at the slip frequency ( fsl),
which is equal to

Er = Rs Ir + j2pfslLlsIr (4.58)

where Rr and Llr are the resistance and the leakage inductance of the per-phase
equivalent rotor winding. Since wsl + wr = ws, the slip frequency rotor current
produces a field that rotates at the slip speed with respect to the rotor, and at
the synchronous speed with respect to the stator. The interaction of φag and field
produced by the rotor current results in an electromagnetic torque. Losses in the
rotor winding resistance are

Pr = 3R rI2r (4.59)

f
Take equation (4.58) and multiply it by and using equation (4.52) and equation
f sl
(4.57), it yields equation (4.60).
f R
Eag = Er = f r Ir + j2pf LlrIr (4.60)
f sl f sl

f Rr
As it has been indicated in Figure 4.23, represents the sum of Rr and
f sl

R r(f − f sl)
. From equation (4.60), all rotor quantities are referred to Ns, which is
f sl
the stator number of turns. By multiplying both sides of equation (4.60) by I*r and
taking the real part Re[ErI*r], the power crossing the air gap, which is air gap power
(Pag) is
f
Pag = 3 RrI2r (4.61)
f sl

From equation (4.61) and equation (4.59), the electromechanical power (Pem) is
equal to
f − f sl 2
Pem = Pag = 3Rr I r (4.62)
f sl
and the electromagnetic torque is equal to
Pem
Tem = (4.63)
wr
36 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

This equation is also equal to equation (4.64) from equations (4.53), (4.62) and
(4.63).
Pag
Tem = (4.64)
ws

Thus, as it is shown in Figure 4.23, the equivalent circuit of per-phase representation

of an induction motor, the loss in rotor resistance and the per-phase electromechanical

power are shown by splitting the resistance f

( )
Rr
f sl
in equation (4.60) into Rf and

Rr( )f − f sl
f sl
.

The total current (Is) drawn by the stator is the sum of the magnetising current (Im)
and the equivalent rotor current (Ir), which is

Is = Im + Ir (4.65)

The phasor diagram for the stator current and voltage is shown in Figure 4.24,
whereby the magnetising current (Im) is produced by air gap field (φag), which lags
the air gap voltage (Eag) by 90°. The rotor current (Ir) which is responsible to produce
the electromagnetic torque (Tem) lags the air gap voltage (Eag) by the power factor
angle (θr) of the rotor circuit, whereby the power factor angle is defined as

2pf L lr
2p f slLlr
θr = tan −1
= tan−1 (4.66)
Rr

Rr f

f ls

Figure 4.24 The phase diagram of per-phase representation of an equivalent circuit

for an induction motor

From electromagnetic theory, the torque (Tem) produced is

Tem = k4φagIrsin δ (4.67)

 UNIT 4 37
Electrical drive system

where δ = 90° + θr and k4 is emf constant or torque constant that has unit
Vs(wb rad)−1. It is the angle between the magnetising current (Im), which produces
air gap flux (φag) and rotor current (Ir), which represents the rotor field.

The applied per-phase stator voltage (Vs) is given by

Vs = Eag + (Rs + j2pf L ls)Is (4.68)

For an induction motor of normal design, the following condition stated in equation
(4.69) is true in the rotor circuit at low value of fsl corresponding to normal operation.

2pfslL lr << Rr (4.69)

For the case where the power factor angle (θr) is approximately equal to zero, then
equation (4.67), which is the electromagnetic torque (Tem) is equal to

Tem ≅ k4φagIr (4.70)

Using equation (4.69), then the rotor current (Ir) is equal to

Ir ≅ k5φag fsl (4.71)

Combining equations (4.70) and (4.71), the electromagnetic torque (Tem) is equal to

Tem ≅ k4k5φ2ag fsl (4.72)

The total current (Is) can also be approximated to be equal to

Is = √I2m + I2r (4.73)

For normal motor parameters, except at low operation frequency ( f ), the applied
per-phase stator voltage (Vs) is equal to air gap voltage, which is

Vs ≅ Eag (4.74)

The applied per-phase stator voltage (Vs) is also equal to

Vs ≅ k3φag f (4.75)
38 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

The ratio of power loss (Pr) in the rotor and the electromechanical output power
(Pem) is defined as
Pr f
Pr % = = sl (4.76)
Pem f − f sl

After going through so much theory and mathematical equation governing the basic
principle for operating induction motor, let’s summarise the important equation for
a frequency controlled induction motor in Figure 4.25.

Synchronous angular frequency w s = k 7f

Slip ws − wr
s=
ws

Slip frequency fsl = sf

Ratio of power loss in the rotor and the electromechanical Pr fsl
Pr% = =
output power Pem f − fsl

Applied per-phase stator voltage Vs ≅ k3φagf

Total current (Is) Is = √I2m + I2r
Electromagnetic torque Tem ≅ k4k5φ2agfsl
Rotor current Ir ≅ k5φagfsl

Figure 4.25 Important equations for a frequency controlled induction motor

Activity 4.6

A four-pole, three-phase induction motor has per-phase equivalent

circuit shown below. Determine its synchronous speed (ws) per
second, and rotor speed (wr) for 200 V per phase 50 Hz input and
having slip of 2.0%.
 UNIT 4 39
Electrical drive system

Synchronous motor drives

The structure of a synchronous motor is shown in Figure 4.26. Figure 4.26 (a)
shows a two-pole permanent magnetic rotor type, while Figure 4.26 (b) shows the
two-pole salient-pole wound rotor type.

(a) A two pole type permanent- (b) A two pole type salient-pole
magnet rotor wound rotor

Figure 4.26 Structure of synchronous motor

The field winding on the motor produces flux (φf ) in the air gap. The flux rotates
at a synchronous angular speed ws rad/s, which is the same as the rotor speed. The
flux (φfa) linking one of the stator phase windings with an example phase a varies
sinusoidally with time.

φfa(t) = φf sinwt (4.77)

where
p
w = 2pf = ws (4.78)
2
p is the number of poles in the motor. If one assumes that Ns is an equivalent number
of turns in each stator phase winding, the induced emf in phase a is equal to
dφ fa
efa(t) = Ns = wNsφf coswt (4.79)
dt
40 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

The induced voltage in stator winding is called excitation voltage whereby its rms
value is equal to
w Ns kN
Efa = φf = E s (4.80)
√2 √2
where kE is ratio of the peak phase voltage and speed.

In the normal convention, the amplitudes of voltage and current phasor are
represented by their rms value; the amplitudes of flux phasors are represented by their
peak values. Being sinusoidal with time, efa and φfa can be represented as phasor at
wt = 0, where Efa = Efa is reference phasor in Figure 4.27 and from equation (4.77),

φfa = −jφfa (4.81)

From equations (4.79) to (4.81) and Figure 4.27, voltage across the phase a is
w Ns
Efa = j φfa = Efa
√2

Ia

Eag, a
θp
φsa Esa = jwLaIa
(δ − 90)°
90° Reference
Efa
δ

φag, a
φfa

Figure 4.27 Phasor diagram of per phase representation of synchronous motor

In synchronous motor drives, the stator is supplied with a set of balanced three-phase
current, whose frequency is controlled to be f, which is equation (4.78).
p
f= ws (4.82)
4

The fundamental frequency components of these stator motor currents produce a

constant amplitude flux (φs) in the air gap, which rotates at synchronous speed (ws).
The amplitude of φs is proportional to the amplitudes of the fundamental frequency
components in the stator.
 UNIT 4 41
Electrical drive system

In three-phase motor, the flux links with phase a due to φs produced by all these
stator currents is φsa(t). φsa(t) is proportional to the phase a current ia(t) i.e.,
Lai a(t)
φsa(t) = (4.83)
Ns

where the armature inductance (La) is 3/2 times the self-inductance of phase a.
Therefore, from equation (4.83), the synchronous back emf of the armature (esa)
is equal to
dφ sa di
esa(t) = Ns = La a (4.84)
dt dt

Assuming the fundamental component at the supplied current to the stator phase
a to be

ia(t) = √2Ia sin(wt + δ) (4.85)

Differentiation of ia(t) in equation (4.85) with respect to time (t) and rewrite equation
(4.84), it yields equation (4.86)

esa(t) = √2IaLawcos(wt + δ) (4.86)

where δ is the torque angle. Here ia and eas can be represented as phasor, which is
when the angular frequency is equal to zero i.e.,

Ia = Iae j(δ − p)/2 (4.87)

As shown in Figure 4.27, phasor for stator phase voltage is

Esa = jwLaIa = wLaIae jδ (4.88)

The resultant air gap flux [φag, a(t)] linking the stator phase a is the sum of φfa(t) and
φsa(t), which is defined by equation (4.89).

φag, a = φfa(t) + φsa(t) (4.89)

In which, it can be represented by phasor i.e.,

φag, a = φfa + φsa (4.90)

42 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

The air gap voltage eag, a(t) due to resultant air gap flux (φag) linking phase a is
dφ ag, a
φag, a(t) = Ns = efa(t) + esa(t) (4.91)
dt

Using equations (4.89), (4.79) and (4.84), equations (4.81) and (4.88) combined
with equation (4.91) would yield

Eag, a = Efa + Esa = Efa + jwLaIa (4.92)

Based on equation (4.92) and phasor diagram, a per phase equivalent circuit of a
synchronous motor is shown in Figure 4.28, where Rs and Lls are the stator winding
resistance and leakage inductance respectively. If one includes the voltage drop across
Rs and Lls, then the per phase terminal voltage in phase a is

Va = Eag, a = Efa + (Ra + jwLs)Ia (4.93)

Synchronous inductance Ls

Ia Rs Lls La

+ + + −
Esa
+
Eag, a
Va Efa
−

− −

Figure 4.28 Per phase equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor

The phasor representation of equation (4.93) is shown in Figure 4.29, where θa is

the angle between the current and terminal voltage phasor.

Ia

Va
(Rs + jwLls)Ia
θa
θp
Eag, a

Reference

Figure 4.29 Phasor representation of the terminal voltage for per phase of a
synchronous motor
 UNIT 4 43
Electrical drive system

From the phasor diagrams shown in Figure 4.27 and Figure 4.29, the electromagnetic
torque (Tem) can be obtained from the electrical power that has been converted into
mechanical power (Pem). The mechanical power (Pem) is
1
Pem = 3EfaIacos(δ − p) (4.94)
2

and the electromagnetic torque (Tem) is equal to

Pem
Tem = (4.95)
ws

From equations (4.94), (4.95) and (4.80), the electromagnetic torque is equal to

Tem = ktφf Iasinδ (4.96)

Activity 4.7

State two of the conditions for an ac motor to be claimed as

synchronous motor.

Summary

In this section on ac motor drives, you have learnt and understood

the basic working principle of an inductor motor including
equivalent circuit and per phase phasor diagram of the voltage
and current of the induction motor, and the working principle
and design of an ac synchronous motor, which also includes the
equivalent circuit of the motor and the per-phase phasor diagram
of the motor.

Self-test 4.4

For the same induction motor shown in Activity 4.6, determine

the Ir current and torque for 100 V 25 Hz per phase input if the
slip is 1%.
44 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Self-test 4.5

A four pole 460 V 10 ph motor is supplying its rated power to a

centrifugal load at 50 Hz and it has rated speed equal to 1500 rpm.
Calculate its speed, rated slip, and rated slip frequency at 50 Hz.

Self-test 4.6

A permanent magnet synchronous motor has the ratio of the peak

phase voltage induced to the rotational speed equal to 25V/1000rpm
at p = 2, and n =10. Calculate the terminal frequency, per phase
voltage, and per phase resistance if the load draws 10 A rms per
phase from the motor.

Suggested answers to activities

Feedback

Activity 4.6
60w s 120
The synchronous speed per minute is equal to ns = = f,
2p p

2
which is equal to f revolution per second. This gives rise to
p

2
× 50 = 25 rev/s.
4

ws − wr
The rotor speed (wr) can be calculated from s = . This
ws
implies that wr = 25(1 − s) rev/s = 25(1 − 0.02) = 24.5 Rev/s, which
is 154 rad/s.

Activity 4.7

Two of the conditions are; the angular frequency of the motor is

equal to the supplied line frequency and a balanced set of three
phase sinusoidal signals of frequency ( f ) are applied to the stator
that results in balanced sets of current.
 UNIT 4 45
Electrical drive system

Summary of Unit 4

Summary

In this Unit 4 on Electrical drives system, you have learnt three main
topics, which are introduction to motor drives, dc motor drives,
and ac motor drives. In each topic, you have studied and achieved
what have been specified in the learning objectives via tutorials,
learning activities, and self-tests.

In section one on dc motor drives, you have learnt and achieved

the ability and confidence to explain the general control of motor
drives; explain the concept of designing servo motor drives; explain
the design concept of variable speed motor drives; and select the
components and electric motor for motor drives.

In section two on dc motor drives, you have learnt and achieved

the ability and confidence to examine the equivalent circuit of a dc
motor; analyse the characteristics of permanent magnetic dc motor;
apply the concept on how to increase the power of a dc motor by
designing with excited wind stator; interpret the effect of armature
current on the performance of dc motor; and discriminate the
difference between a normal dc motor and a dc servo motor.

In section three on ac motor drives, you have learnt and achieved

the ability and confidence to describe the basic principle of an
inductor motor; describe per phase representation of the induction
motor; describe the equivalent circuit of the inductor motor;
design ac synchronous motor drives, describe and analyse per phase
representation of the synchronous motor; and describe and analyse
the equivalent circuit of the synchronous motor.
46 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives
 UNIT 4 47
Electrical drive system

Suggested Answers to Self-tests

Feedback

Self-test 4.1
ηL 1
Since = 2 then the coupling ratio (a) is equal to . Thus, the
ηm 2

wL 1
ratio of wL and wM is = . This implies that the angular speed
wm 2
of motor is twice the angular speed of load, in which its profile is
shown below.

Between 0 and 1s, the torque of the motor is 2000 rad/s2 × 2.5kgm2
= 5000Nm.

Between 1s to 3s, the torque of the motor is 0 × 2.5kgm2 = 0Nm.

Between 3s to 4s, the torque of the motor is −2000 × 2.5 kgm2 =

−5000Nm.

Between 4s to 5s, the torgque of the motor is 0 rad/s2 × 2.5 kgm2

= 0Nm.

The torque profile of the motor is shown as follows.

48 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Self-test 4.2
dw M
The electromagetic torque (Tem) is equal Tem = Jeq since the
dt
damping can be ignored.

The equivalent inertia (Jeq) is equal to Jeq = JM + a2JL = 2.5 + 0.52 ×

10 = 5.0 kgm2.
dw M
Thus, the electromagnetic torque (Tem) is Tem = 5 ·
dt

From the result of Self-test 4.1, the angular speed (wM) of the motor
is as follows:

For time t = 0 to 1s, the electromagnetic torque (Tem) is Tem =

5 × 2000 = 10,000Nm.

For time t = 1s to 3s, the electromagnetic torque (Tem) is Tem =

5 × 0 = 0Nm.

For time t = 3s to 4s, the electromagnetic torque (Tem) is Tem = 5 ×

(−2000) = −10,000Nm

For time t = 4s to 5s, the electromagnetic torque (Tem) is Tem = 5

× 0 = 0Nm.

The electromagnetic torque (Tem) profile is shown as follows:

 UNIT 4 49
Electrical drive system

Self-test 4.3

1. The terminal voltage can be calculated using equation

Tem
Vt = kEwM − Ra .
kT
5.0
Thus, Vt = 53 × 1.5 + 0.4 × = 99.5V.
0.5

2. The change angular speed (∆Vt) of motor at time = 2.0 min for
∆Vt 3.0
∆Vt of 3.0V is ∆wM(t) = (1 − e−t/tm) = (1 − e−2/12)
kE 53/1000
8.69rpm.

Self-test 4.4
60ws 120
The synchronous speed per minute is equal to ns = = f,
2p p

2
which is equal to f revolution per second. This gives rise to
p
2
× 25 = 12.5 rev/s.
4

ws − wr
The rotor speed (wr) can be calculated from s = . This
ws

implies that wr = 12.5(1 − s) rev/s = 12.0 Rev/s, which is 75.39 rad/s.

The Ir current can be found from the analysis of the equivalent circuit

using current divider rule, which is

50 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

100s
Ir = A.
0.075s + 0.0146 + j (0.272s − 0.0012)

After substituting s = 0.01, the rotor current is equal to

1 1
Ir = = = 65.0A.
0.0153 + j (0.00152) 0.0153

The torque per phase is equal to

I2r × 0.04/s I2 × 0.04

Tem = = r = 215.2Nm.
2 × 12.5p 25ps

Since it is a three-phase motor, the total torque is equal to 215.2

× 3 = 645.5Nm

Self-test 4.5
120 120
At 50Hz, the ns = f= × 50 = 1,500 rev/min.
p 4

ns − nr 1500 − 1455
The rated slip is s = = = 0.03
ns 1500

The rated slip frequency is equal to fsl = sf = 0.03 × 50 = 1.8 rev/s

Self-test 4.6
60w s 120
The frequency of stator is ns = = f . ns is equal to
2p p

10,000rpm and the number phase p = 2. This frequency ( f ) of the

2
supply f = × 10,000 = 166.67Hz.
120

KE is given to be 24V/1000rpm. Thus, per phase a, the rms voltage

kENs 25 × 10
is Efa = = = 176.7V.
√2 √2

The per phase resistance is 176.7V/10A = 17.67Ω.

 UNIT 4 51
Electrical drive system

References
Bose, B (2006) Power Electronics and Motor Drives, New York: Academic Press.

Jacob, J M (2002) Power Electronics: Principles & Application, New York: Delmar
Thomson Learning.

Mohan, N and Undeland, T M and Robbins, W P (2003) Power electronics: converters,

applications, and design, New York: John Wiley.
52 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives
 UNIT 4 53
Electrical drive system

Glossary
a Coupling ratio

Beq Equivalent damping factor

BL Damping factor of load

BM Damping factor of motor

eag Air gap back emf

efa Induced emf from phase a

esa Back emf of stator per phase a

FWL Working force

ia Armature ac current

Ia Armature current

If Field current

Im Magnetising current

Ir Rotor current

JL Inertia of load

JM Inertia of motor

ke Voltage constant of motor

kT Current constant of motor

La Armature inductance

Lls Slip leakage inductance

p Pole

Pag Air gap power

Pe Electrical power

Pem Electromechanical power

54 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives

Pm Mechanical power

Ra Armature resistance

Tem Electromagnetic torque of motor

TL Torque of load

Tm Torque of motor

TWL Working torque

θs Motor position

θL Load position

φag Air gap flux

φag,a(t) Air gap flux per phase a

φf Field flux

φfa Field flux from phase a

φsa(t) Stator current

wsl Slip frequency

ws Synchronous frequency

wM Angular speed of motor