University of Technology

Building & Construction Department / Remote Sensing & GIS lecture

9. Global Positing System (GPS)

9.1 Introduction to GPS
9.2 System Overview
9.2.1 Space Segment
9.2.2 Control Segment
9.2.3 User Segment
9.3 Basic GPS Concept
9.3.1 Intersection of Two Circles
9.4 GPS Observables
9.4.1 Measurement Of Pseudorange
9.4.2 Carrier-phase measurements
9.5 GPS Positioning Modes
9.5.1 Autonomous Positioning (Point Positioning)
9.5.2 Differential Positioning
9.5.3 Kinematic Positioning
9.5.4 Static Positioning
9.6 GPS Method
9.7 GPS Applications
9.8 Accuracy and Precision in GPS
9.9 Accuracy and Precision affects in GPS

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Building & Construction Department / Remote Sensing & GIS lecture

9.1 Introduction to GPS

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system
that was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in the early
1970s. Initially, GPS was developed as a military system to fulfill U.S. military
needs. However, it was later made available to civilians, and is now a dual-use
system that can be accessed by both military and civilian users. GPS provides
continuous positioning and timing information, anywhere in the world under
any weather conditions. Because it serves an unlimited number of users as well
as being used for security reasons, GPS is a one-way-ranging (passive) system.
That is, users can only receive the satellite signals.
9.2 System Overview
The Global Positioning System (GPS) comprises three segments as shown in
figure. (9-1):
- The space segment (all functional satellites).
- The control segment (all ground stations involved in the monitoring of
the system: master control station, monitor stations, and ground control
stations).
- The user segment (all civil and military GPS users).

Fig. (9-1) The Three GPS Segments

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Building & Construction Department / Remote Sensing & GIS lecture

9.2.1 Space Segment

The GPS Space Segment consists of 24 satellites in semi-synchronous
(approximately 12- hour) orbits. The satellites are arranged in six orbital planes
with four satellites in each plane. The orbital planes have an inclination angle
of 55 degrees relative to the earth's equator. The satellites have an average orbit
altitude of 20,200 km above the surface of the earth as shown in figure (9-2).
The satellites complete one orbit in approximately 11 hours and 58 minutes.
Since the earth is rotating under the satellites, the satellites trace a track over
the earth surface which repeats every 23 hours and 56 minutes. A user at a
fixed location on the ground will observe the same satellite each day passing
through the same track in the sky, but the satellite will rise and set four minutes
earlier each day, due to the 4 minute difference between the rotational period of
the earth and two orbital periods of a satellite. The satellites are positioned in
the orbital planes so that four or more satellites, with a good geometric
relationship for positioning, will normally be observable at every location on
earth.
The satellites transmit ranging signals on two band frequencies: Link 1 (L1)
Link 2 (L2). The satellite signals are transmitted using spread-spectrum
techniques, employing two different ranging codes as spreading fictions, a
1.023 MHz coarse/acquisition code (C/A-code) on L1 and a 10.23 MHz
precision code (P-code) on both L1 and L2. Either the C/A-code or the P-code
can be used to determine the range between the satellite and the user, however,
the P-code is normally encrypted and available only to authorized users. When
encrypted, the P-code is known as the Y-code. A navigation message is
superimposed on both the P(Y) -code and the C/A-code. The navigation
message includes:
1. Satellite clock-bias data,
2. Satellite ephemeris (precise orbital) data for the transmitting satellite,
3. Ionospheric signal-propagation correction data, and
4. Satellite almanac (coarse orbital) data for the entire constellation.

(a) GPS Satellite Constellation (b) GPS Constellation Planar Projection

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Fig. (9-2) GPS Satellite Constellation and Planar Projection
University of Technology
Building & Construction Department / Remote Sensing & GIS lecture

9.2.2 Control Segment

The Control Segment primarily consists of a Master Control Station (MCS),
at Falcon Air Force Base (AFB) in Colorado Springs, USA, plus monitor
stations (MS) and ground antennas (GA) at various locations around the world.
The monitor stations are located at Falcon AFB, Hawaii, Kwajalein, Diego
Garcia, and Ascension. All monitor stations except Hawaii and Falcon AFB are
also equipped with ground antennas as shown in figures (9-3) & (9-4). The
Control Segment includes a Prelaunch Compatibility Station (PCS) located at
Cape Canaveral, USA, and a back-up MCS capability.

Fig. (9-3) GPS Control Segment Locations

Fig. (9-4) Monitor Station and Ground Antenna

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Building & Construction Department / Remote Sensing & GIS lecture

9.2.3 User Segment

The User Segment consists of receivers specifically designed to receive,
decode, and process the GPS satellite signals. Receivers can be stand-alone,
integrated with or embedded into other systems. GPS receivers can vary
significantly in design and function, depending on their application for
navigation, accurate positioning, time transfer, surveying and attitude
reference.
9.3 Basic GPS Concept
The position of a certain point in space can be found from distances
measured from this point to some known positions in space. In figure (9-5),
the user position is on the x-axis; this is a one dimensional case (1D). If the
satellite position S1 and the distance to the satellite x1 are both known, the user
position can be at two places, either to the left or right of S1. In order to
determine the user position, the distance to another satellite with known
position must be measured. In this figure, the positions of S2 and x2 uniquely
determine the user position U.

Fig. (9-5) One-dimensional user position.

Figure (9-6) shows a two-dimensional case (2D). In order to determine the user
position, three satellites and three distances are required. The trace of a point
with constant distance to a fixed point is a circle in the two-dimensional case.
Two satellites and two distances give two possible solutions because two
circles intersect at two points. A third circle is needed to uniquely determine
the user position.
For similar reasons one might decide that in a three-dimensional case (3D) four
satellites and four distances are needed. The equal-distance trace to a fixed
point is a sphere in a three-dimensional case. Two spheres intersect to make a
circle. This circle intersects another sphere to produce two points. In order to
determine which point is the user position, one more satellite is needed.

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Building & Construction Department / Remote Sensing & GIS lecture

Fig. (9-6) Two-dimensional user position.

9.3.1 Intersection of Two Circles

In figure (9-7), the intersection of two circles is illustrated. Note that the
circles are obtained by simply radiating two distances (their radius values RA
and RB) about their radius points A and B.As shown, this geometry again
results in two intersection points, P1 and P2 As with the two previous cases,
these intersection points can again be located by solving for the parts of oblique
triangle ABP. In this situation, two sides of the triangle are the known radii, and
thus the problem is often called the distance-distance problem. The third side
of the triangle, AB, can be computed from known coordinates of A and B, or the
distance can be observed.
The first step in solving this problem is to compute the length and azimuth of
line AB. Then angle A can be determined using the law of cosines. As shown in
Figure (9-7), the two solutions for P at either or are derived by either adding or
subtracting angle A from the azimuth of line AB to obtain the direction of AP.
Angle A is

Fig. (9-7) Intersection of two circles.

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University of Technology
Building & Construction Department / Remote Sensing & GIS lecture

(𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨)𝟐𝟐 + (𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨)𝟐𝟐 − (𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩)𝟐𝟐

≺ 𝑨𝑨 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 −𝟏𝟏 � �
𝟐𝟐 × 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 × 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨
Thus, the azimuth of line AP is either
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 +≺ 𝑨𝑨
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 −≺ 𝑨𝑨
The possible coordinates of P are
𝑿𝑿𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝑿𝑿𝑨𝑨 + 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 ) , 𝒀𝒀𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝒀𝒀𝑨𝑨 + 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 )
𝑿𝑿𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝑿𝑿𝑨𝑨 + 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 ) , 𝒀𝒀𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝒀𝒀𝑨𝑨 + 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 )
Example:
In Figure (9-7), assume the following data (in meters) are available:
𝑿𝑿𝑨𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒀𝒀𝑨𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑹𝑹𝑨𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑿𝑿𝑩𝑩 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝒀𝒀𝑨𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑹𝑹𝑨𝑨 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Compute the X and Y coordinates of point P.
Solution:
The length and azimuth of AB are
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒐𝒐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏′ 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔"
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = �(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐)𝟐𝟐 + (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒)𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝒎𝒎
And A is
(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗)𝟐𝟐 + (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝟐𝟐 − (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑨 = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 −𝟏𝟏 � � = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑′ 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟔"
𝟐𝟐 × 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 × 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
The possible solutions for P are
𝑿𝑿𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬�𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒐𝒐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏′ 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔" + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑′ 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟔" � = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝒎
𝒀𝒀𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜�𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒐𝒐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏′ 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔" + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑′ 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟔" � = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
Or
𝑿𝑿𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬�𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒐𝒐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏′ 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔" − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑′ 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟔" � = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝒀𝒀𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜�𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒐𝒐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏′ 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔" − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑′ 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟔" � = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎
Example:
Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of sides AC and BC
given the information shown.

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Building & Construction Department / Remote Sensing & GIS lecture

Solution:
𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 − 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = = 𝑵𝑵𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝒐𝒐 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎′ 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒" 𝑬𝑬
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = �(𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 − 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒)𝟐𝟐 + (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝒎
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 + 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 − 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟐𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟐
𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝑨𝑨 = =
𝟐𝟐 × 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 × 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
𝒐𝒐 ′ "
𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑨𝑨 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒐𝒐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐′ 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒" 𝑬𝑬
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄. 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑪𝑪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐′ 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒" = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄. 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑪𝑪 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒐𝒐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐′ 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒" = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
9.4 GPS Observables
The basic GPS observables are code Pseudoranges and carrier phases
9.4.1 Measurement of Pseudorange
Every satellite sends a signal at a certain time tsi. The receiver will receive
the signal at a later time tu. The distance between the user and the satellite i is
𝝆𝝆𝒊𝒊 𝑻𝑻 = 𝒄𝒄(𝒕𝒕𝒖𝒖 − 𝒕𝒕𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 )
Where:
C= 299,792,458 m/s is the speed of light,
𝝆𝝆𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = is often referred to as the true value of Pseudorange from user to satellite
i,
𝒕𝒕𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = is referred to as the true time of transmission from satellite i,
𝒕𝒕𝒖𝒖 = is the true time of reception.
Example:
Find the distance between the satellite and the receiver if the true time of
transmission from satellite is (0.00s) and the time of reception is
(0.0673799).
Solution:
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡𝑢𝑢 − 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )
=299,792,458 × (0.0673799)
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 =20199985.840 m
9.4.2 Carrier-phase measurements
Another way of measuring the ranges to the satellites can be obtained
through the carrier phases. The range would simply be the sum of the total
number of full carrier cycles plus fractional cycles at the receiver and the
satellite, multiplied by the carrier wavelength.
The ranges determined with the carriers are far more accurate than those
obtained with the codes (i.e., the Pseudorange). This is due to the fact that the

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wavelength (or resolution) of the carrier phase, 19 cm in the case of L1

frequency, is much smaller than those of the codes.
Signals from GPS satellites are continuously transmitted on two carrier
frequencies, 1575.42 MHz and 1227.60 MHz, and are referred to as L1 and L2
respectively. Since radio waves propagate through space at the speed of light,
the wavelengths of the GPS carrier signals are computed as :
𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐�𝑓𝑓
Where:
𝜆𝜆 = is the wavelength (i.e. the length of one cycle) in meters,
c =is the speed of light and
𝑓𝑓 = is the carrier frequency in Hz (i.e. cycles per second). A snapshot of one
section of carrier transmission which illustrates the definition of wavelength
and cycles is shown in Figure (9-8)

Fig. (9-8) carrier phases measurement

The frequency and wavelength of the L1 and L2 carriers are given in Table (9-
1).
Table 9.1 Carrier Frequencies and Wavelengths
Carrier Frequency (𝑓𝑓 ) Wavelength (l)
L1 1575.42 MHz 19 cm
L2 1227.60 MHz 24 cm
GPS receivers which record carrier phase, measure the fraction of one
wavelength (i.e. fraction of 19 cm for the L1 carrier) when the receiver first
locks onto a satellite and continuously measure the carrier phase from that
time. The number of cycles between the satellite and receiver at initial start up
(referred to as the Ambiguity) and the measured carrier phase together
represent the satellite-receiver range (i.e. the distance between a satellite and a
receiver). In other words,
Measured carrier phase = difference in phase + (ambiguity × wavelength)
Φ = ∆Φ + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

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Where:
Φ = is the measured carrier phase in meters,
∆Φ = is the difference in phase,
𝑁𝑁 = is the ambiguity (i.e. number of cycles) and
𝜆𝜆 =is the carrier wavelength in meters.
9.5 GPS Positioning Modes
Positioning with GPS receiver can be performed by either of two ways in
order of precision: Point positioning (Autonomous) or Relative positioning
(Differential, Kinematic, and Static).
GPS point positioning employs one GPS receiver that measures the code
Pseudoranges to determine the user’s position instantaneously, as long as four
or more satellites are visible at the receiver.
GPS relative positioning, however, employs two GPS receivers
simultaneously tracking the same satellites
9.5.1 Autonomous Positioning
Autonomous positioning is a mode of operation of a GPS receiver where the
receiver calculates position in real-time from satellite data alone without
reference to data supplied from another receiver that is located at a fixed,
known, location (i.e., base station). This is the least precise mode of operation.
Point coordinate accuracy of ±100 m RMS is obtainable when selective
availability is in effect and ±10 m when it is not.

Fig. (9-9) Principle of GPS point positioning.

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9.5.2 Differential Positioning

Differential positioning is a mode of GPS surveying that uses two or more
receivers with one receiver acting as a base station that is located at a known,
fixed location and the other receiver roving to unknown points. The base
station computes corrections based on the differences between its known
location and its location as computed from the satellite C/A code. These
corrections are applied to positions collected by the roving unit. This correction
can be done in real-time via a radio link or during post processing back in the
office. Point coordinate accuracy of ±30 m RMS is obtainable when selective
availability is in effect and ±1 m when it is not.

Fig. (9-10) Principle of GPS relative positioning

9.5.3 Kinematic Positioning

Kinematic positioning is a mode of GPS surveying that uses two or more
receivers with one receiver acting as a base station that is located at a known,
fixed location and the other receiver roving to unknown points. The receivers
use the L1/L2 carrier-phase observation (including both the C/A code and P-
code) and requires short (1 second to 10 minute) occupation times at the
locations being visited by the roving GPS receiver. This method uses baselines
to calculate position and has the potential to obtain greater accuracy than is
possible with differential positioning methods. Point coordinate accuracy of ±1
m RMS is obtainable when selective availability is in effect and ±0.02 m when
it is not.

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Fig. (9-11) Kinematic Positioning surveying

9.5.4 Static Positioning

Static positioning (geodetic survey) is a mode of GPS surveying that uses
two or more receivers. The receivers monitor the L1/L2 carrier-phase
observations (including both the C/A code and P-code) and use long
occupation times (> 20 minutes). This method uses baselines to calculate
position and has the potential to obtain greater accuracy than is possible with
differential and kinematic positioning methods. Location is determination when
the receiver's antenna is stationary on the earth. Point coordinate accuracy of
±0.05 m RMS is obtainable when selective availability is in effect and better
than ±0.01 m when it is not. At least three of the points visited during the
survey should have known horizontal and vertical position. These known
points are held fixed when calculating the baselines and insure that the newly
surveyed points are tied into the local geodetic control network.

Fig. (9-12) Static GPS surveying.

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9.6 GPS Method

The three methods used by GPS receivers to obtain position information are
Autonomous, Post processed, and Real-Time.
1) The autonomous method occurs when the GPS receiver is used as a
stand-alone data collector and no further processing of the data will be
done on return to the office. The location information collected is
transcribed onto paper in the field or stored in the GPS unit for later
transfer in the office to a database for mapping purposes. This method is
the simplest and the least accurate of the three methods.
2) The real-time method occurs when the GPS receiver is used as a data
collector and the positions obtained are corrected on-the-fly based on
information received via radio signal received from a base station
(located at a known, fixed, position). Based on the types of receivers and
antennas used during the survey either the differential or kinematic
mode may be used.
3) The Post Processing method is used when the GPS receiver is used as a
data collector and further processing of the position data will be
completed after down loading the data at the office. This method
assumes that a base station receiver (located at a known, fixed, position)
was collecting data simultaneously with the roving unit. Based on the
types of receivers and antennas used during the survey and the
positioning data collected either the differential, kinematic, or static
processing mode may be used.
There are, however, some advantages in the post processing mode as
well.
1. The first of these is that more accurate results are generally obtained
with the post processing mode.
2. One reason for this is more flexibility in editing and cleaning of the
collected GPS data.
3. As well, there is no accuracy degradation due to data latency.
4. The communication link problems, such as the relatively
unobstructed line-of-sight requirement, are avoided.
5. In some cases, the input parameters, such as the base station
coordinates or the antenna height, may contain some errors, which
lead to errors in the computed rover coordinates. These errors can be
corrected in the post processing mode, while they cannot be
completely corrected in the real-time mode.

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Table(9-2): Summary of Carrier-Phase GPS Positioning Methods

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9.7 GPS Applications

GPS has been available for civil and military use for more than two decades.
That period of time has witnessed the creation of numerous new GPS
applications. Because it provides high-accuracy positioning in a cost effective
manner
1) GPS for the utilities industry
Accurate and up-to-date maps of utilities are essential for utility companies.
The availability of such maps helps electric, gas, and water utility companies to
plan, build, and maintain their assets.
2) GPS for forestry and natural resources
GPS has been applied successfully in many areas of the forest industry.
Typical applications include fire prevention and control, harvesting operations,
insect infestation, boundary determination, and aerial spraying.
3) GPS for precision farming
The ability of DGPS to provide real-time sub-meter or even decimeter level
accuracy has revolutionized the agricultural industry GPS applications in
precision farming include soil sample collection, chemical applications control,
and harvest yield monitors.
4) GPS for monitoring structural deformations
Since its early development, GPS has been used successfully in monitoring
the stability of structures, an application that requires the highest possible
accuracy.
5) GPS for civil engineering application
In road construction and Earth moving, GPS, combined with wireless
communication and computer systems, is installed onboard the Earthmoving
machine.
6) GPS for open-pit mining
Until recently, conventional surveying was the only method available for
staking drill patterns and other mining surveying. As a result of the harsh
mining environment, however, stakes were often buried or displaced. In
addition, drill operators had no precise way of determining the actual bit depth.

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7) GPS for airborne mapping

GPS alone has been successfully used for topographic mapping of small size
areas. Using either conventional GPS kinematic surveying or GPS RTK, a user
takes positions of the points on the ground where the topography changes,
which can be used at a later, time to produce the topographic map of that area.
Even in rough areas, GPS can be mounted on all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) to
precisely map those areas.
8) GPS for vehicle navigation
When traveling through unfamiliar areas, vehicle drivers often use paper
road maps for route guidance. However, besides being inefficient, searching for
a destination using a paper map is unsafe, especially in busy areas.
9.8 Accuracy and Precision in GPS
Accuracy: The nearness of a measurement to the standard or true value.
Precision: The degree to which several measurements provide answers very
close to each other.
i.e., a highly accurate measuring device will provide measurements very close
to the standard, true or known values. Example: in target shooting a high score
indicates the nearness to the bull's eye and is a measure of the shooter's
accuracy. Figure (9-13)
It is an indicator of the scatter in the data. The lesser the scatter, higher the
precision. The pictures given below clearly describe Accuracy and Precision.
Precision is not the same as accuracy. Accuracy is a measure of departure from
the true value of a quantity. Precision, on the other hand, is a measure of the
"repeatability" of the data. The difference between accuracy and precision is
known as "bias" or "systematic error". Taking large amounts of data will
improve the precision of a sample mean, but will not remove systematic error.
Accuracy is a very desirable measure. However, it is generally quite difficult to
obtain. It requires strict control over sources of systematic error.

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b. Accuracy with precision a. precision without Accuracy

c. Accuracy without precision

d. No Accuracy& no precision

Fig. (9-13) Accuracy & Precision

9.9 Accuracy and precision affects in GPS

Precision depends on good satellite geometry, open sky view, and no user
induced errors.

9.9.1 Selective Availability (SA)

(SA) is the intentional degradation of the signals by a time varying bias.
SA is controlled to limit accuracy for non-U.S. military and government
users. The SA bias on each satellite signal is different, and so the resulting
position solution is a function of the combined SA bias from each Space
Vehicle (SV) used in the navigation solution. SA therefore affects the
precision of all measurements, code and carrier phase.

– Intentional degradation of GPS accuracy

– 100m in horizontal and 160m in vertical
– Accounted for most error in standard GPS
– Turned off May 2, 2000
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9.9.2 Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)

Describes sensitivity of receiver to changes in the geometric positioning of
the SVs. The higher the DOP value, the poorer the measurement as shown
in the Table (9-3), figures (9-14).

Fig. (9.14): Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)

Table (9-3): Quality of DOP values

QUALITY DOP
Very Good 1-3
Good 4-5
Fair 6
Suspect >6

Example:
At the offset location, you acquired the GPS reading of N 38.8760 and W
94.7990. You took the reading 77 meters north of the Study Site.
1) 77meters / (11m/.0001degrees) = .0007 degrees
2) Your corrected latitude is N 38.8760 - .0007 = N 38.8753 degrees
3) Your GPS measurement of the Study Site would then be recorded as N
38.8753 and W 94.7990.
(Remember to reverse the addition or subtraction if you are in the southern
hemisphere.)
At this point give the participants the field guides and data collection
sheets, go outside, and let them practice the measurements.
If your receiver records to five decimal places, please record the degrees to the
nearest 0.00001.

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